APES Unit 7
Drinking Water Quality
• To be safe for consumption, water must be relatively free of toxic substances and
disease-causing organisms.
• In the US, the EPA sets drinking water quality standards for community water resources under
the Safe Drinking Water Act.
Trends
• In 2022, 73% of the global population used safely managed water services
• In 2021, over 2 billion people lived in water-stressed countries, which is expected to be
exacerbated in some regions as a result of climate change and population growth.
• In 2022, globally, at least 1.7 billion people use a drinking water source contaminated with
feces.
• Approximately 505,000 deaths each year are associated with waterborne illnesses including
cholera, dysentery, and typhoid.
Wastewater
● Wastewater: water produced by livestock operations and human activities, including human
sewage from toilets and gray water from bathing, washing clothes & dishes
Environmental scientists are concerned about wastewater for three major reasons.
1. Wastewater dumped into bodies of water leads to high BOD
2. Nutrients in wastewater can lead to eutrophication
3. Wastewater can carry a wide variety of disease-causing organisms
Sewage Treatment
Septic Systems
1. Wastewater from the house runs to an
underground tank
2. Solids and oils are separated out of the
water
3. Water runs downhill to a drain field of
pipes laid horizontally through gravel-filled
trenches
4. The water drains from the pipes and waste is
decomposed as it percolates downward
5. Microbes decompose solids that remain in the
tank
Municipal System
● In a municipal system, sewers carry wastewater to a
treatment facility
1. Primary treatment – physical removal of large,
macroscopic solid contaminants in tanks
a. Removes about 60% of solids
b. Clarification – debris in wastewater settling
out by density
2. After the sludge settles out, it can be sent to another
tank to be digested by bacteria or it can be scraped
out and used as a fertilizer (can be used for fertilizer
such as golf course but not food)
3. Secondary treatment – Removal of small, microscopic dissolved particles that were not
removed in primary treatment.
a. Removes about 90% of suspended solids
b. A “floccing” chemical like alum (AlSO4) is added to wastewater to make solids stick
together with remaining suspended and dissolved particles.
c. The wastewater is also stirred and aerated to help decomposition
4. The water is then treated with chlorine and/or ultraviolet light to kill bacteria. (Disinfection)
5. The water is filtered using charcoal, gravel, and sand to remove more particles, odors, and
discoloration.
6. Buffers (like lime) are added to adjust pH.
7. Sometimes fluorine is added for dental health.
Municipal Summary
• Primary treatment uses physical processes, relying on barriers like screens, skimmers, and the force
of gravity to remove debris.
• Secondary treatment uses mainly chemical & biological processes.
Effluent
● Effluent (the treated wastewater) is usually piped to an ocean or river to allow further filtration.
Not all effluent from sewage treatment heads straight to natural systems
• Can be irrigation of non-edible crops (golf courses, public lawns) or coolants in power plants.
• Solid material that is removed from wastewater is called sludge. This can be burned as a fuel or used
as a fertilizer
• Methane is also released during decomposition and it can be collected and burned for energy.
Wastewater from Animal Agriculture
● Manure Lagoon: Human-made pond lined with rubber built to handle large quantities of manure
produced by livestock--- (common with CAFOs)
○ Concerns Include:
■ Torn liners could lead to contaminated groundwater
■ Heavy rains could wash manure into local waterways leading to disease
outbreaks in humans and wildlife
Sewage Treatment- Municipal Systems
● Sewage treatment plants are critical to human health
● Treatment plants can only handle a certain volume of water at once.
● Instances of heavy rain can sometimes overload sewage systems resulting in wastewater being
discharged into waterways before being treated.
Water Pollutant Notes
Water Pollutants Guided Notes 23-24
Waste Management Notes
Copy of Waste Management Guided Notes (2024)
Incinerators
● Incineration: The process of burning waste materials to reduce volume and mass, sometimes to
generate electricity or heat.
○ Typically MSW is sorted and certain recyclables are diverted to recycling centers.
○ The remaining waste is delivered by a conveyor belt to a furnace.
● Particulates (ash) are the material that has not combusted
○ about 1/4th of the original volume of waste
○ Ash with low levels of toxins goes to regular landfills or it can be used as an ingredient in
cement.
○ More toxic ash must go to a toxic waste landfill.
● Exhaust gases created through incineration move through a series of collectors/filters (baghouses)
that reduce the amount released into the atmosphere
○ Not all emissions will be removed
● Waste-to-Energy: a system in which heat generated by incineration is used as an energy source
rather than released into the surrounding environment
○ also sometimes called “resource recovery centers”.
● these facilities are difficult to operate and the energy generated does little more than offset use of
the facility
● “Not-In-My-Back-Yard” = “NIMBY”
● Overall, incinerators don’t have a very good environmental record or public perception
● They are also expensive and sometimes dangerous to run.
Hazardous Waste
● Hazardous waste is liquid, solid, gaseous, or sludge waste material that is harmful to humans,
ecosystems, or materials.
○ The EPA identifies four characteristics of hazardous waste: ignitability, corrosivity,
reactability, and toxicity.
● US produced 38 million tons of hazardous waste each year. Only about 4% of that waste is
recycled.
● The majority of hazardous waste comes as by-products from industrial processes
● There are no good options for disposing of hazardous waste. Hazardous waste landfills are even
more expensive to construct than sanitary landfills and must be monitored for at least 30 years
after they are closed.
● The best choice is to reduce our use by swapping out hazardous materials with less hazardous
items
Air Pollution
Atmosphere
● Atmosphere – a thin layer of gases that surround Earth
● Composition: 78% N2, 21% O2, 1% Ar, 0.038% CO2, 0-4% H2O
Layers are defined by temperature shifts.
Lapse rate – the change of temperature in the atmosphere with increasing altitude.
❏ + lapse rate when temperature decreases with increasing altitude
❏ 0 lapse rate if there is no change in temperature
❏ - lapse rate when temperature increases with altitude
Air Pollution: The introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or microorganisms into the atmosphere
at concentrations high enough to harm
● Primary Pollutants- A pollutant that is emitted into the troposphere and will cause direct harm or
will react to form harmful substances (Ex: CO and soot)
● Secondary pollutants- A pollutant that is not directly emitted into the troposphere, but is formed
from a reaction by a primary pollutant (Ex: O3, H2SO4)
Criteria Pollutants
1) Carbon monoxide (CO) – colorless, odorless gas produced by incomplete combustion of fuel.
– Vehicles account for 78% of emissions
– Leads to ozone formation
– Binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells, preventing oxygen from binding
2) Sulfur Dioxide (SO2 ) – colorless, pungent odor gas produced by combustion of coal.
– Leads to H2SO4 in atmosphere (acid deposition)
3) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) – foul-smelling gas released as atmospheric nitrogen (N2) reacts with O2 at
the high temperatures created by combustion engines.
– Produces photochemical smog and acid deposition
4) Tropospheric ozone – colorless, odorific gas produced by photochemical reaction involving NOx.
– Secondary pollutant
– Ozone in stratosphere is desirable for UV protection
– Ozone in troposphere produces smog.
– Ozone is the pollutant that most often exceeds EPA standards
5) Particulate matter – anything that can be suspended in the atmosphere (dust, soot, nitrates).
– Most particulate matter is windblown dust
– Blocks light thus reducing photosynthesis
– Can cause damage to lung tissue
– Can lead to industrial smog
6) Lead (Pb) – a heavy metal that enters the atmosphere as a particulate.
– Source in developed nations is metal smelting
– Source in developing nations is emission from leaded gasoline
– Bioaccumulates and causes central nervous system malfunctions
Other Pollutants
VOCs: are released through the evaporation of fuels and improper combustion of fuels such as gasoline.
They are a precursor to tropospheric ozone formation.
● They can also be emitted from household substances like paint, furniture, and cleaners.
Mercury: is released from coal, oil, and gold mining. It impairs the central nervous system and
bioaccumulates in the tissues of organisms and biomagnifies upwards through the food chain.
Fires, dust storms, and volcanic eruptions can play major role in particulate matter pollution.
Addressing Pollution
Clean Air Act- First enacted in 1970. Identified six criteria pollutants, set standards for air quality,
limits on emissions, funded pollution control.
-CO2 not originally included in the Clean Air Act
Industrial Smog
Industrial smog is the black-brown colored haze that is in the air that can be seen over some cities. It is
mostly visible in the summer.
– Composed of sulfur dioxide, small amounts of sulfuric acid, and suspended particles from
the burning of coal and oil.
• Burning large amounts of coal and oil can lead to industrial smog
– Burning coal releases CO, CO2, SO2 and soot
• No longer an issue in developed countries as emissions are controlled with scrubbers.
• Still a problem in developing countries.
Acid Deposition
● Precipitation is naturally acidic because CO2 and H2O react in the atmosphere to form carbonic
acid (pH of 5.6)
● pH may be lower with the addition of certain pollutants (SO2 and NOx) which form sulfuric
acid and nitric acid.
○ Acidic compounds stay in the atmosphere 2-14 days
● Dry deposition (heavier particles settle out) occurs in 2-3 days and usually settles near the
emission source.
● Wet deposition (snow, fog, rain) occurs usually 4-14 days after emission and takes place in more
distant downwind areas
Effects of Acid Deposition
• contribute to bronchitis and asthma
• Damages statues, buildings, metals, and car finishes.
– Limestone and marble (both contain Ca) are easily dissolved in weak acidic solutions
• Lower productivity in fisheries, forests, and farms.
• For plants, at first, acid deposition will trigger growth by adding nitrogen and sulfur to soil
• Over time, production will be reduced
– Drains essential nutrients from soil
– Releases aluminum ions which reduce uptake of nutrients and water
– Dissolves & releases toxic heavy metals
– Weakens plants making them more susceptible to disease and pests
• Of land-based ecosystems, mountaintop forests are most susceptible to acid deposition
• As pH of water nears 5, certain fish populations begin to disappear
– Below a pH of 5, many populations have disappeared
– Below a pH of 4.5, the water is essentially devoid of fish.
• Acid deposition will dissolve aluminum and cover the gills of fish, causing asphyxiation.
• Mercury can also be released bioaccumulated and biomagnified through food chains.
• Of land-based ecosystems, mountaintop forests are most susceptible to acid deposition
Smokestacks emit pollutants into the air above inversion layers. This allows for mixing and dispersal by
winds
● Reduces local air pollution but increases regional air pollution
● Acid deposition on the east coast largely due to industries in the Ohio Valley
Addressing Acid Deposition
● Prevention→ Prevention is the best option
○ Scrubbers on smokestacks
○ Improve efficiency (to reduce energy demands)
○ Switch to emissions-free renewable resources
○ Institute taxes and fines for certain emissions (to incentivize reduction of emissions)
● Remediation
○ Add lime to increase pH (limestone is basic so when it mixes with acid it neutralizes)
Photochemical Smog
Photochemical smog – a brown air smog that is the product of photochemical reactions.
• Over 100 chemicals are present in the smog, but tropospheric ozone is one of the most abundant
• High levels of NO2 produce a brownish haze.
• Hot, sunny, windless days provide perfect conditions for the formation of photochemical smog.
• tied directly to traffic conditions
• Peak levels occur in the early afternoon- takes time for the exhaust of the morning commute to rise
and react with sunlight
Formation of Photochemical Smog
1. Vehicle exhaust releases NOx and VOCs into the air.
2. Photochemical reactions convert NOx and VOCs into ozone
Factors that increase the formation of photochemical smog include . . .
1. Sunlight – more sunlight, more photochemical reactions.
a. Cloud cover reduces amount of photochemical smog
2. Still air – stagnant air allows for pollutants to collect over city.
a. Gusty winds will disperse the pollutants, reducing smog.
3. Thermal inversions – A trapped layer of warm air over a city creates a cap that prevents
dispersion of pollutants.
a. common in Los Angeles due to the proximity to the water
Impact of Photochemical Smog
● Major human health concern is that is worsens lung conditions.