Physical Science
Module 4
MATTER AND ITS STRUCTURE
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. On Earth, matter appears in three
clearly defined forms—solid, liquid, and gas—whose visible and perceptible structure is a function of
behavior that takes place at the molecular level. Though these are often referred to as "states" of
matter, it is also useful to think of them as phases of matter. This terminology serves as a reminder
that any one substance can exist in any of the three phases. Water, for instance, can be ice, liquid,
or steam; given the proper temperature and pressure, it may be solid, liquid, and gas all at once! But
the three definite earthbound states of matter are not the sum total of the material world: in outer
space a fourth phase, plasma, exists—and there may be still other varieties in the physical universe.
Atom is the fundamental unit of matter. Most of the substances people encounter in the world,
are chemical compounds, in which atoms of more than one element join together to form molecules.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the module, you will be able to:
➢ determine if a molecule is polar or nonpolar;
➢ describe the type of intermolecular forces in the properties of substances;
➢ give specific materials that are useful in medical implants, sports equipment, electronic
devices, construction supplies for buildings and furniture and household gadgets; and
➢ compare and contrast the four biomolecules.
Lesson 1. How Molecules Interact
Intermolecular forces or IMFs are physical forces between molecules. In contrast,
intramolecular forces are forces between atoms within a single molecule. Intermolecular forces are
weaker than intramolecular forces.
The interaction between intermolecular forces may be used to describe how molecules
interact with one another. The strength or weakness of intermolecular forces determines the state of
matter of a substance (e.g., solid, liquid, gas) and some of the chemical properties (e.g., melting point,
structure). The evidence for the existence of these weak intermolecular forces is the fact
that gases can be liquefied, that ordinary liquids exist and need a considerable input of energy for
vaporization to a gas of independent molecules, and that many molecular compounds occur
as solids. The role of weak intermolecular forces in the properties of gases was first examined
theoretically by the Dutch scientist Johannes van der Waals, and the term van der Waals forces is
used synonymously with intermolecular forces. Under certain conditions, weakly bonded clusters of
molecules (such as an argon atom in association with a hydrogen chloride molecule) can exist; such
delicately bonded species are called van der Waals molecules.
When the molecules in a material
exert a strong attraction toward one
another, they move slowly, and the
material is called a solid. Molecules of
liquid, by contrast, exert a moderate
attraction and move at moderate speeds. A
material substance whose molecules exert
little or no attraction, and therefore, move
at high speeds, is known as a gas.
Source: [Link]
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There are three major types of intermolecular forces: London dispersion force, dipole-dipole
interaction, and ion-dipole interaction. (Helmenstine, 2020)
London Dispersion Force
The London dispersion force is also known as LDF, London forces, dispersion forces,
instantaneous dipole forces, induced dipole forces, or the induced dipole-induced dipole force
The London dispersion force, the force between two nonpolar molecules, is the weakest of the
intermolecular forces. The electrons of one molecule are attracted to the nucleus of the other
molecule, while repelled by the other molecule's electrons. A dipole is induced when the electron
clouds of the molecules are distorted by the attractive and repulsive electrostatic forces.
Example: An example of London dispersion force is the interaction between two methyl (-CH3)
groups. A second example of London dispersion force is the interaction between nitrogen gas (N 2)
and oxygen gas (O2) molecules. The electrons of the atoms are not only attracted to their own atomic
nucleus, but also to the protons in the nucleus of the other atoms.
Dipole-Dipole Interaction
Dipole-dipole interaction occurs whenever two polar molecules get near each other. The positively
charged portion of one molecule is attracted to the negatively charged portion of another molecule.
Since many molecules are polar, this is a common intermolecular force.
Example: An example of dipole-dipole interaction is the interaction between two sulfur dioxide (SO2)
molecules, in which the sulfur atom of one molecule is attracted to the oxygen atoms of the other
molecule.
Hydrogen bonding is considered a specific example of a dipole-dipole interaction always
involving hydrogen. A hydrogen atom of one molecule is attracted to an electronegative atom of
another molecule, such as an oxygen atom in water.
Ion-Dipole Interaction
Ion-dipole interaction occurs when an ion encounters a polar molecule. In this case, the charge of the
ion determines which part of the molecule attracts and which repels. A cation or positive ion would be
attracted to the negative part of a molecule and repelled by the positive part. An anion or negative ion
would be attracted to the positive part of a molecule and repelled by the negative part.
Example: An example of the ion-dipole interaction is the interaction between a Na + ion and water
(H2O) where the sodium ion and oxygen atom are attracted to each other, while the sodium and
hydrogen are repelled by each other.
Van der Waals Forces
Van der Waals forces are the interaction between uncharged atoms or molecules. The forces are
used to explain the universal attraction between bodies, the physical adsorption of gases, and the
cohesion of condensed phases.
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Lesson 2. Polarity of Molecules
Molecules are categorized according to the nature of its properties such as electronegativity
and strength of intermolecular and intramolecular forces between them. Electronegativity (EN) is
the measure of the relative tendency of an atom to attract electrons to itself when chemically combined
with another atom. The higher the value of electronegativity, the more it tends to attract electrons
toward itself.
Polar covalent bonds occur when electron pairs are unequally shared. The difference in
electronegativity between atoms is significant. Non-polar covalent bonds occur when electron pairs
are shared equally or the difference in electronegativity between atoms is less than 0.5. Ionic
bonds are a class of chemical bonds that result from the exchange of one or more valence electrons
from one atom, typically a metal, to another, typically a nonmetal. This electron exchange results in
an electrostatic attraction between the two atoms called an ionic bond.
Lesson 3. Macromolecules
A macromolecule is a large molecule that forms through the combination of small molecules.
Macromolecules are also termed as polymers. Polymer is a term used to describe large molecules
consisting of repeating structural units, or monomers, connected by covalent chemical bonds. They
are formed by the polymerization of molecules such as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The monomer
units of macromolecules are polar in nature, with their heads and tails with different physical and
chemical properties.
Carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids are found as long polymers. Due to their polymeric
nature and large size, they are known as macromolecules. Plastics, fibers, and elastomers are major
groups of macromolecules that are essential in the industry.
Many types of plastics are made through a process known as polymerization, which is the
joining of monomer units from plastic products. One example is polyethene, a cheap plastic that is
used to make plastic bags and bottles. Another is polypropene, also plastic but stronger than
polyethene and used to make crates, fibres and ropes. Polystyrene is a common plastic that is used
in model kits, disposable eating utensils and a variety of other products. Polyvinyl chloride is used in
plumbing, gutters, electronic equipment, wires and food packaging. Polytetrafluoroethylene is more
commonly known as Teflon and is most well known for its use in non-stick frying pans. Elastomers
are macromolecules that are flexible and stretchy. The elastic property lets these materials to be used
in products like hair bands and elastic waistbands. These objects could be stretched, and they return
to their original structure once released. ([Link]
Lesson 4. Biomolecules
Life on Earth is based on carbon compounds called biomolecules. They are classified as
organic compounds because these compounds have carbon atoms as their backbone. They form the
cells of an organism and perform the chemical reactions that facilitate life. They are life’s building
blocks. Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids are the four biomolecules.
The form of all organic molecules determines their function. That means that their shape
determines how they will behave and how they will react with other molecules. For example, the order
of amino acids in a protein will determine the shape and function of the protein just as the order of
words in a sentence shapes the meaning of the sentence.
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are chief sources of energy that keep the body going; the body’s main or
primary source of energy. Carbohydrates make up a group of chemical compounds found in plant and
animal cells. They have the empirical formula CnH2nOn, or (CH2O) n. An empirical formula tells the
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atomic composition of the compound, but nothing about structure, size, or what chemical bonds are
present. Since this formula is essentially a combination of carbon and water, these materials are
called “hydrates of carbon”, or carbohydrates (“carbon water”) for short. They are named as such
because they contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with a ratio of 2 hydrogen atoms for every 1
carbon and 1 oxygen atoms (CH2O). Glucose is the building blocks or monomers of carbohydrates.
LIPIDS
Lipids are biomolecules that are not soluble in water but are soluble in oil. Lipids are
biologically important for making barriers (membranes of animal cells), which control the flow of water
and other materials into a cell. They also store energy and form a part of cell membrane
(phospholipids). They are more efficient than carbohydrates in storing energy because they contain
more C-H bonds.
Food lipids are divided into fats, which come from animal sources and are solid at room
temperature, and oils, which come from plant sources and are liquid at room temperature. Another
type of lipid is cholesterol. Cholesterol is a sterol compound made by animals and is used to make
certain steroid hormones in the body.
The building blocks or monomers of lipids are glycerol and fatty acids chains. Fatty acids
are generally long, straight chains of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms attached (hydrocarbons)
with a carboxylic acid group (COOH) at one end and a methyl group (CH 3) at the other end. These
long, straight chains combine with the glycerol molecule to form lipids (glycerol lipids).
PROTEINS
Proteins are the most versatile among all macromolecules because they have the most
diverse functions. They are used by the body to build new tissues, heal wounds and regulate body
processes such as control rate of chemical reactions, control the movement of molecules across the
cell membrane, and major functional component of living things. Examples are muscles, enzymes,
antibodies, protein channels, and hormones. Amino Acids are the building blocks of proteins. It
contains Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen (CHON). Amino acids have a basic structure that
includes an amino group (NH2) and a carboxyl group (COOH) attached to a carbon atom. This carbon
atom also has a side chain (an “R” group).
Amino acids are linked together by a peptide bond in which the carboxyl carbon of one amino
acid forms a covalent bond with the amino nitrogen of the other amino acid. Short chains of amino
acids are called peptides. Longer chains of amino acids are called polypeptides. Although the term
polypeptides should include proteins, chains with less than 100 amino acid residues are considered
to be polypeptides, while those with 100 or more amino acid residues are considered to be proteins.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are the main genetic information-carrying molecules of the cell, and, by directing
the process of protein synthesis, they determine the inherited characteristics of every living thing. The
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two main classes of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
DNA contains the genetic code that directs the synthesis of proteins in cells. Carries instructions that
control the activities of a cell. DNA is the master blueprint for life and constitutes the genetic material
in all free-living organisms and most viruses. RNA is the genetic material of certain viruses, but it is
also found in all living cells, where it plays an important role in certain processes such as the making
of proteins. RNA synthesized from DNA and is responsible for protein synthesis.
Portion of polynucleotide chain of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
The inset shows the corresponding pentose sugar and pyrimidine base in ribonucleic acid (RNA). Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Nucleic acids are polynucleotides—that is, long chainlike molecules composed of a series of
nearly identical building blocks called nucleotides. Nucleotides are the structural unit of nucleic
acids. They are made of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Phosphorus (CHONP).
Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogen-containing aromatic base attached to a pentose (five-
carbon) sugar, which is in turn attached to a phosphate group. Each nucleic acid contains four of
five possiblenitrogen-containing bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T),
and uracil (U). A and G are categorized as purines, and C, T, and U are collectively
called pyrimidines. All nucleic acids contain the bases A, C, and G; T, however, is found only in
DNA, while U is found in RNA. The pentose sugar in DNA (2′-deoxyribose) differs from the sugar in
RNA (ribose) by the absence of a hydroxyl group (―OH) on the 2′ carbon of the sugar ring. Without
an attached phosphate group, the sugar attached to one of the bases is known as a nucleoside.
The phosphate group connects successive sugar residues by bridging the 5′-hydroxyl group on one
sugar to the 3′-hydroxyl group of the next sugar in the chain. These nucleoside linkages are called
phosphodiester bonds and are the same in RNA and DNA.
References:
Bayo-ang, Rolly, et. al (2017). Physical Science for Senior High School. Educational Resources
Corporation.
Caballes, Dennis, Rodriguez, Marissa and Pazon, Andy (2016). Physical Science. JFS Publishing
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Services.
Teaching Guide for Senior High School PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11
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hemistry)/Chemical_Reactions/Properties_of_Matter
Helmenstine, Anne Marie, Ph.D. "3 Types of Intermolecular Forces." ThoughtCo, Aug. 25, 2020,
[Link]/types-of-intermolecular-forces-608513.
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[Link]/introchem/chapter/ionic-bonds