Module 2

Mathematics & Astronomy

Session 1
SLO 1 & 2

Time in Hindu mythology is conceived as a wheel turning through vast cycles of creation and destruction
(pralaya), known as kalpa. According to the Hindu theory of creation, time (Sanskrit ‘kal’) is a
manifestation of God. Creation begins when God makes his energies active and ends when he withdraws
all his energies into a state of inactivity. God is timeless, for time is relative and ceases to exist in the
Absolute. The past, the present and the future coexist in him simultaneously.
In fact the same phenomena of Astrophysics were even known to our ancient sages, the Puranakaras long
back in the Puranic age, about 5,000 years ago. They were not only aware of space journeys, but also of
the existence of other planets besides the earth which they knew as Pitriloka, Devaloka, Indraloka,
Brahmaloka, so on and so forth. Not only this but, they also freely moved from earth to other far-off
planets like Brahma loka which had different time speeds than Earth. They were also equipped with
knowledge such as that gravity can bend time in space.

Source: [Link]

Additional reading: [Link]

[Link]

Task 1:
1. List the two philosophical systems at the basis of Indian physics—and metaphysics
Two philosophical systems at the basis of Indian physics—and metaphysics—
are S¯amkhya and Vai´sesika
S¯amkhya, which is an ancient system that goes back to the 3rd millennium BC, posits 25
basic categories together with 3 constituent qualities, which evolve in different ways to create the
universe at the microcosmic as well as the macrocosmic levels
Vai´sesika is a later system which is an atomic theory with the non-atomic ground of
ether, space, and time upon which rest four different classes of indestructible
atoms which combine in a variety of ways to constitute all matter

2. What is Vedic Cosmology?

Vedic cosmology is not merely an attempt to understand the world around us, rather it is
the process by which we understand both the world, our place within it, and the
relationship between ourselves, this world and the Supreme source of all, from Whom all
other energies are emanating.

3. Which is the oldest accurate book in the field of astronomy? – Surya Siddhanta
4. Discuss how the beliefs of Hinduism are associated with time.
Hindus believe that time goes in a circle. In this cycle, everything is in constant change,
like seasons and lives. Only Brahman, the Creator, exists forever. Hindu believers think
everything in the world is part of Brahman, including the human soul.
5. What is Puranic Cosmology?
 The Puranas present an elaborate mythical cosmography. The old tripartite universe
persists, but it is modified. There are three levels—heaven, earth, and the netherworld—
but the first and last are further subdivided into vertical layers. Earth consists of seven
circular continents, the central one surrounded by the salty ocean and each of the other
concentric continents by oceans of other liquids. In the centre of the central mainland
stands the cosmic mountain Meru; the southernmost portion of this mainland is
Bharatavarsa, the old name for India. Above earth there are seven layers in heaven, at the
summit of which is the world of brahman (brahma-loka); there are also seven layers below
earth, the location of hells inhabited by serpents and demons.

6. The day on which the Sun’s direct rays cross the celestial equator is called
a) The ecliptic
b) The quionox
c) Easter
d) The solstice
7. Which of these objects is the farthest from the Sun?
a) Saturn
b) Neptune
c) Mercury
d) Jupiter
8. The planet which completes one revolution in 88 days around the Sun is:
a) Saturn
b) Mars
c) Mercury
d) Venus
9. The smallest planet of the solar system:
a) Saturn
b) Jupiter
c) Neptune
d) Uranus
10. The small groups of planetary pieces which are confined and revolving between Mars and Jupiter
are called:
a) Meteors
b) Comet
c) Celestial bodies
d) Asteroids

Task 2: Debate
Prepare for a debate on the topic ‘Time as a coefficient of all consciousness’

Session 2
SLO 1 & 2
Aryabhata, an Indian Mathematician (c. 500AD) accurately calculated celestial constants like earth's
rotation per solar orbit, days per solar orbit, days per lunar orbit. In fact, no source from prior to the 18th
century had more accurate results on the values of these constants. Aryabhata's 499 AD computation of pi
as 3.1416 (real value 3.1415926...) and the length of a solar year as 365.358 days were also extremely
accurate by the standards of the next thousand years.

The notion of time spans that are truly gigantic by modern standards are rarely found in ancient
civilizations as the notion of large number is rare commodity. Apart from the peoples of the Mayan
civilization, the ancient Hindus appear to be the only people who even thought beyond a few thousand
years.
In the famous book Cosmos, physicist-astronomer-teacher Carl Sagan writes "... The dates on Mayan
inscriptions also range deep into the past and occasionally far into the future. One inscription refers to a
time more than a million years ago and another perhaps refers to events of 400 million years ago, ... The
events memorialized may be mythical, but the time scales are pridigious".

Hindu scriptures refer to time scales that vary from ordinary earth day and night to the day and night of
the Brahma that are a few billion earth years long. Sagan continues, "A millennium before Europeans
were wiling to divest themselves of the Biblical idea that the world was a few thousand years old, the
Mayans were thinking of millions and the Hindus billions".
Source: [Link]

A Mathematician named Pingala (c. 100BC) developed a system of binary enumeration convertible to
decimal numerals [See 3]. He described the system in his book called Chandahshaastra. The system he
described is quite similar to that of Leibnitz, who was born in the 17th century.
Invention of Zero: (Zero invented by Indian Mathematicians (youtube))
Although ancient Babylonians were known to have used what is often called "place holders" to
distinguish between numbers like 809 and 89, they were nothing more than blank spaces or at times two
wedge shapes like ". More importantly, they lacked the realization that zero has a place in the number
system as well as it comes with a baggage of abstract interpretations. Hence, while they can be credited
with intelligently solving a practical problem of avoiding misinterpreting two numbers like 809 and 89,
they can hardly be credited with the invention of the complex notion of zero and the even more complex
notion of the abstract idea of "nothingness".

Task 1:
1. Give the list of Indian mathematicians from Ancient to Modern India with their contribution. (10
marks)
1. Baudhayana
ii. Born: Around 800 BC
iii. Notable Work: Approximation of the square root of 2 and the statement of a
version of the Pythagorean Theorem
2. Katyayana
i. Born: Around 300 BC
ii. Notable Work: Varttika, Vyakarana, later Sulba Sutras

3. Pingala
 i. Born: Around 500 BC
ii. Notable Work: Matrameru, binary numeral system, arithmetical triangle

4. Aryabhata
i. Born: Between 476-550 CE
ii. Notable Ideas: Explanation of lunar eclipse and solar eclipse, rotation of Earth on
its axis, reflection of light by moon, sinusoidal functions, solution of single variable
quadratic equation, value of π correct to 4 decimal places, circumference of Earth
to 99.8% accuracy, calculation of the length of sidereal year.

5. Bhaskara I
i. Born: Between 600–680 CE
ii. Known for: Sine approximation formula

iii. 9. Shridhara
iv. Born: Between 650–850 CE
v. Contribution: Gave a rule for finding the volume of a sphere

6. Mahavira
i. Born: 9th century CE
ii. Notable Work: His work is a highly syncopated approach to algebra and the
emphasis in much of his text is on developing the techniques necessary to solve
algebraic problems.

7. Pavuluri Mallana
i. Born: 11th century CE
ii. Notable Work: He translated Ganitasara Samgraham, a mathematical treatise of
Mahivaracharya, into Telugu as Sara Sangraha Ganitamu.

8. Bhaskara II
i. Born: 1114–1185 CE
ii. Known for: Discovery of the principles of differential calculus and its application
to astronomical problems and computations

9. Madhava of Sangamagrama
i. Born: 1340-1350 CE
ii. Known for: Discovery of power series expansions of trigonometric sine, cosine and
arctangent functions

10. Parameshvara
i. Born: Between AD 1360–1455
ii. Notable Work: Discovered drk-ganita, a mode of astronomy based on observations

11. Jyeshtadeva
i. Born: Around AD1500
 ii. Known for: Authorship of Yuktibhaṣa
iii. Notable work: Yuktibhāṣā, Drkkarana

12. Munishvara
i. Born: Around 17th century
ii. Notable Work: Produced accurate sine tables

13. Jagannatha Samrat

i. Born: Around AD1730
ii. Notable Work: Siddhanta-samrat, Yantra-prakara

14. Srinivasa Ramanujan

i. Born: 22 December 1887
ii. Known for: Landau–Ramanujan constant; Mock theta functions; Ramanujan
conjecture; Ramanujan prime; Ramanujan–Soldner constant; Ramanujan theta
function; Ramanujan's sum; Rogers–Ramanujan identities; Ramanujan's master
theorem

15. Subbayya Sivasankaranarayana Pillai

i. Born: April 5, 1901
ii. Known for: Pillai's conjecture; Pillai's arithmetical function; Pillai prime

16. Raj Chandra Bose

i. Born: 19 June 1901
ii. Known for: Association scheme; Bose–Mesner algebra; Euler's conjecture on Latin
squares; strongly regular graphs; Partial Geometries; Morse code

17. Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

i. Born: 19 October 1910
ii. Known for: Chandrasekhar limit; Chandra X-ray Observatory; Chandrasekhar
friction; Chandrasekhar number; Chandrasekhar tensor; Chandrasekhar equation;
Chandrasekhar virial equations; Chandrasekhar's Variational Principle; 1958
Chandra; Schonberg–Chandrasekhar limit

18. C. R. Rao
i. Born: 10 September 1920
ii. Known for: Cramér–Rao bound, Rao–Blackwell theorem, Orthogonal arrays, Score
test

19. Harish chandra

i. Born: 11 October 1923
ii. Known for: Harish-Chandra's c-function;Harish-Chandra's character formula;
Harish-Chandra homomorphism; Harish-Chandra isomorphism; Harish-Chandra
module; Harish-Chandra's regularity theorem; Harish-Chandra's Schwartz space;
Harish Chandra transform; Harish-Chandra's Ξ function
 20. C.S. Seshadri
i. Born: February 29, 1932
ii. Known for: Seshadri constant; Narasimhan–Seshadri theorem;standard monomial
theory

21. K. R. Parthasarathy
i. Born: 25 June 1936
ii. Known for: Quantum stochastic calculus
22. Vasanti N. Nayak
i. Born: 10 June 1938
ii. Known for: Combinatorial design and Graph Theory

23. Srinivasa Varadhan

i. Born: 2 January 1940
ii. Known for: Martingale problems; large deviation theory

24. Narendra Krishna Karmarkar

i. Born: 1957
ii. Known for: Karmarkar's algorithm

25. Dr. Neena Gupta

i. Known for: Providing a counter-example over a field of positive characteristic to
the special Zariski Cancellation Problem

2. Tabulate the contributions made by Astronomers and Mathematicians

Name Year Contributions

The earliest astronomical text—named Vedānga Jyotiṣa details several

astronomical attributes generally applied for timing social and religious
events.[22] The Vedānga Jyotiṣa also details astronomical calculations, calendrical
studies, and establishes rules for empirical observation.[22] Since the texts written by
1st 1200 BCE were largely religious compositions the Vedānga Jyotiṣa has connections
Lagadha millennium with Indian astrology and details several important aspects of the time and seasons,
BCE including lunar months, solar months, and their adjustment by a lunar leap month
of Adhimāsa.[23] Ṛtús are also described as yugāṃśas (or parts of the yuga, i.e.
conjunction cycle) .[23] Tripathi (2008) holds that ' Twenty-seven constellations,
eclipses, seven planets, and twelve signs of the zodiac were also known at that
time.'[23]

Āryabhaṭa was the author of the Āryabhatīya and the Āryabhaṭasiddhānta, which,
according to Hayashi (2008), "circulated mainly in the northwest of India and,
476–550 through the Sassanian Dynasty (224–651) of Iran, had a profound influence on the
Āryabhaṭa
CE development of Islamic astronomy. Its contents are preserved to some extent in the
works of Varāhamihira (flourished c. 550), Bhāskara I (flourished c. 629),
Brahmagupta (598–c. 665), and others. It is one of the earliest astronomical works
to assign the start of each day to midnight."[18] Aryabhata explicitly mentioned that
 the Earth rotates about its axis, thereby causing what appears to be an apparent
westward motion of the stars.[18] In his book, Aryabhata, he suggested that the Earth
was sphere, containing a circumference of 24,835 miles (39,967 km).[24] Aryabhata
also mentioned that reflected sunlight is the cause behind the shining of the
Moon.[18] Aryabhata's followers were particularly strong in South India, where his
principles of the diurnal rotation of the Earth, among others, were followed and a
number of secondary works were based on them.[3]

Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta (Correctly Established Doctrine of Brahma, 628 CE) dealt

with both Indian mathematics and astronomy. Hayashi (2008) writes: "It was
translated into Arabic in Baghdad about 771 and had a major impact on Islamic
mathematics and astronomy".[25] In Khandakhadyaka (A Piece Eatable, 665 CE)
598–668 Brahmagupta reinforced Aryabhata's idea of another day beginning at
Brahmagupta
CE midnight.[25] Brahmagupta also calculated the instantaneous motion of a planet, gave
correct equations for parallax, and some information related to the computation of
eclipses.[3] His works introduced Indian concept of mathematics based astronomy
into the Arab world.[3] He also theorized that all bodies with mass are attracted to the
earth.[26]

Varāhamihira was an astronomer and mathematician who studied and Indian

astronomy as well as the many principles of Greek, Egyptian, and Roman
Varāhamihira 505 CE
astronomical sciences.[27] His Pañcasiddhāntikā is a treatise and compendium
drawing from several knowledge systems.[27]

Authored the astronomical works Mahābhāskariya (Great Book of

Bhāskara), Laghubhaskariya (Small Book of Bhaskara), and
the Aryabhatiyabhashya (629 CE)—a commentary on the Āryabhatīya written by
Aryabhata.[28] Hayashi (2008) writes 'Planetary longitudes, heliacal rising and setting
of the planets, conjunctions among the planets and stars, solar and lunar eclipses,
Bhāskara I 629 CE
and the phases of the Moon are among the topics Bhāskara discusses in his
astronomical treatises.'[28] Bhāskara I's works were followed by Vateśvara (880 CE),
who in his eight chapter Vateśvarasiddhānta devised methods for determining the
parallax in longitude directly, the motion of the equinoxes and the solstices, and the
quadrant of the sun at any given time.[3]

Author of the Śiṣyadhīvṛddhida (Treatise Which Expands the Intellect of Students),

which corrects several assumptions of Āryabhaṭa.[29] The Śisyadhīvrddhida of Lalla
itself is divided into two
parts:Grahādhyāya and Golādhyāya.[29] Grahādhyāya (Chapter I-XIII) deals with
planetary calculations, determination of the mean and true planets, three problems
pertaining to diurnal motion of Earth, eclipses, rising and setting of the planets, the
8th century
Lalla various cusps of the Moon, planetary and astral conjunctions, and complementary
CE
situations of the Sun and the Moon.[29] The second part—titled Golādhyāya (chapter
XIV–XXII)—deals with graphical representation of planetary motion, astronomical
instruments, spherics, and emphasizes on corrections and rejection of flawed
principles.[29] Lalla shows influence of Āryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Bhāskara
I.[29] His works were followed by later astronomers Śrīpati, Vateśvara,
and Bhāskara II.[29] Lalla also authored the Siddhāntatilaka.[29]

1068–1099
Śatānanda Authored Bhāsvatī (1099) – estimated precession[30]
CE
 Authored Siddhāntaśiromaṇi (Head Jewel of Accuracy)
and Karaṇakutūhala (Calculation of Astronomical Wonders) and reported on his
Bhāskara II 1114 CE observations of planetary positions, conjunctions, eclipses, cosmography,
geography, mathematics, and astronomical equipment used in his research at
the observatory in Ujjain, which he headed[31]

Śrīpati was an astronomer and mathematician who followed the Brahmagupta

school and authored the Siddhāntaśekhara (The Crest of Established Doctrines) in
Śrīpati 1045 CE
20 chapters, thereby introducing several new concepts, including Moon's second
inequality.[3][32]

Mahendra Sūri authored the Yantra-rāja (The King of Instruments, written in 1370
CE)—a Sanskrit work on the astrolabe, itself introduced in India during the reign of
the 14th century Tughlaq dynasty ruler Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388 CE).[33] Sūri
seems to have been a Jain astronomer in the service of Firuz Shah Tughluq.[33] The
182 verse Yantra-rāja mentions the astrolabe from the first chapter onwards, and
14th
Mahendra Sūri also presents a fundamental formula along with a numerical table for drawing an
century CE
astrolabe although the proof itself has not been detailed.[33] Longitudes of 32 stars as
well as their latitudes have also been mentioned.[33] Mahendra Sūri also explained
the Gnomon, equatorial co-ordinates, and elliptical co-ordinates.[33] The works of
Mahendra Sūri may have influenced later astronomers like Padmanābha (1423
CE)—author of the Yantra-rāja-adhikāra, the first chapter of his Yantra-kirṇāvali.[33]

Creator of the Drgganita or Drig system, Parameshvara belonged to the Kerala

school of astronomy and mathematics. Parameshvara was a proponent
of observational astronomy in medieval India and he himself had made a series
Parameshvara 1380 -
of eclipse observations to verify the accuracy of the computational methods then in
Nambudiri 1460 CE
use. Based on his eclipse observations, Parameshvara proposed several
corrections to the astronomical parameters which had been in use since the times
of Aryabhata.

In 1500, Nilakantha Somayaji of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics,

in his Tantrasangraha, revised Aryabhata's model for the
planets Mercury and Venus. His equation of the centre for these planets remained
the most accurate until the time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th
century.[34] Nilakantha Somayaji, in his Āryabhaṭīyabhāṣya, a commentary on
Āryabhaṭa's Āryabhaṭīya, developed his own computational system for a
partially heliocentric planetary model, in which Mercury,
Nilakantha 1444–1544 Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar
Somayaji CE to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century.
Nilakantha's system, however, was mathematically more efficient than the Tychonic
system, due to correctly taking into account the equation of the centre
and latitudinal motion of Mercury and Venus. Most astronomers of the Kerala school
of astronomy and mathematics who followed him accepted his planetary
model.[34][35] He also authored a treatise titled Jyotirmīmāṁsā stressing the necessity
and importance of astronomical observations to obtain correct parameters for
computations.

fl. 1055–
Daśabala Author of Cintāmanṇisāraṇikā (1055) and the Karaṇakamalamārtaṇḍa (1058).
1058 CE
 Sphuṭanirṇaya (Determination of True Planets) details an elliptical correction to
existing notions.[36] Sphuṭanirṇaya was later expanded to Rāśigolasphutānīti (True
Longitude Computation of the Sphere of the Zodiac).[36] Another
1550–1621
Acyuta Piṣāraṭi work, Karanottama deals with eclipses, complementary relationship between the
CE
Sun and the Moon, and 'the derivation of the mean and true
planets'.[36] In Uparāgakriyākrama (Method of Computing Eclipses), Acyuta Piṣāraṭi
suggests improvements in methods of calculation of eclipses. [36]

Author of a popular work, the Candrārkī with 33 verses to produce calendars,

Dinakara 1550 CE
calculate lunar, solar, and star positions.[37][38]

3. Who was the famous astronomer of ancient India? Aryabhata 1

4. Who was the great mathematician of India?
Srinivasa Ramanujan was one of India's greatest mathematical geniuses.
5. Who is the father of Indian astronomy?
Vainu Bappu – who went on to be fondly remembered as the “father of modern Indian astronomy

Task 2:
Make a PPT on the topic ‘The idea of life-cycles of the universe’ and submit to your teacher. (10 marks)

Session 3
SLO 1 & 2

Watch this video [Link] and try to answer the questions

given below.

Task 1:

1. How is your birth chart determined? If you have one draw it here.
Birth chart explains where the planets were in the sky at the date and time of your birth. "It's a
snapshot or map of the position of the planets or the stars at the time you were born," says Nymph of
Neptune. "Each planet has a different effect on an aspect of our life, and this illuminates that."
Essentially, this means that we all have the personality traits of several zodiac signs in our chart,
and they correspond to different areas of our lives. For example, Venus is the planet that rules
relationships, so if your Venus is in Scorpio, for instance, that means you embody those traits in your
relationships — i.e. passionate, intense, loyal, and sexual.
 2. What do planets represent in Vedic astrology?
In Vedic astrology, each planet symbolizes a different aspect of your life, from love to
intelligence. The position of these 9 planets determines the 12 signs of the zodiac and your personal
Sidereal chart.

3. How many planets are in Vedic astrology?

Vedic astrology pays attention to nine grahas, which are collectively referred to as the navagrahas, with
nava meaning nine.

Task 2: Group Discussion

Discuss on the topic ‘Astrology in the Age of Uncertainty’ (keeping in mind the pandemic situation)

Additional reading: [Link]

astrology-reading
[Link]