MODULE-3 DEPT OF ECE, MITK SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Syllabus:
Principles of Measurement: Static Characteristics, Error in Measurement, Types of Static Error.(Text 2: 1.2-1.6)
Multirange Ammeters, Multirange voltmeter.(Text2:3.2,4.4) Digital Voltmeter: Ramp Technique, Dual slope
integrating Type DVM, Direct Compensation type and Successive Approximations type DVM (Text 2: 5.1-5.3, 5.5,5.6)

Introduction

Measurement is the foundation for all experimental science. All the great technological development could not have been
possible without ever-increasing levels of accuracy of measurements. The measurement of an amount is based on some
international standards, which are completely accurate compared with others.

The performance of the measurement system/instruments are divided into two categories. (a) Static Characteristics.
(b)Dynamic Characteristics.

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS - These are those characteristics of an instrument which do not vary with time and are
generally considered to check if the given instrument is fit to be used for measurement. The static characteristics are from
one form or another by the process called Calibration. There are a number of related definitions (or characteristics), which
are described below, such as accuracy, precision, repeatability, resolution, errors, sensitivity, etc.
1. Instrument:
A device or mechanism used to determine the present value of the quantity under measurement.
2. Measurement:
The process of determining the amount, degree, or capacity by comparison (direct or indirect) with the accepted standards
of the system units being used.
3. Accuracy:
The degree of exactness (closeness) of a measurement compared to the expected (desired) value.
[Link]:
The smallest change in a measured variable to which an instrument will respond.
5. Precision:
A measure of the consistency or repeatability of measurements, i.e. successive reading do not differ. (Precision is the
consistency of the instrument output for a given value of input).
6. Expected value:
The design value, i.e. the most probable value that calculations indicate one should expect to measure. .
7. Error:
The deviation of the true value from the desired value.
8. Sensitivity:
The ratio of the change in output (response) of the instrument to a change of input or measured variable.
Error in Measurement
Every measurement carries a level of uncertainty which is known as an error. This error may arise in the process or due to a
mistake in the experiment. So 100% accurate measurement is not possible with any method.

An error may be defined as the difference between the measured and actual values. For example, if the two operators
use the same device or instrument for measurement. It is not necessary that both operators get similar results. The
difference between the measurements is referred to as an ERROR.

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Types of Static Error:

The static error of a measuring instrument is the numerical difference between the true value of a quantity and its value as
obtained by measurement, i.e. repeated measurement of the same quantity gives different indications. Types of Static Errors are
categorized as gross errors or human errors, systematic errors, and random errors.

Gross Errors
This category basically takes into account human oversight and other mistakes while reading, recording, and readings. The
most common human error in measurement falls under this category of measurement errors. For example, the person taking
the reading from the meter of the instrument may read 23 as 28. Gross errors can be avoided by using two suitable
measures, and they are written below:

 Proper care should be taken in reading, recording the data. Also, the calculation of error should be done accurately.
 By increasing the number of experimenters, we can reduce the gross errors. If each experimenter takes different
readings at different points, then by taking the average of more readings, we can reduce the gross errors

Random Errors
The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and hence are random. These can arise due to random and
unpredictable fluctuations in experimental conditions (Example: unpredictable fluctuations in temperature, voltage supply,
mechanical vibrations of experimental set-ups, etc, errors by the observer taking readings, etc. For example, when the same
person repeats the same observation, he may likely get different readings every time.

Systematic Errors:
Systematic errors can be better understood if we divide them into subgroups; They are:

 Environmental Errors
 Observational Errors
 Instrumental Errors
Environmental Errors: This type of error arises in the measurement due to the effect of the external conditions on the
measurement. The external condition includes temperature, pressure, and humidity and can also include an
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external magnetic field. If you measure your temperature under the armpits and during the measurement, if the electricity
goes out and the room gets hot, it will affect your body temperature, affecting the reading.

Observational Errors: These are the errors that arise due to an individual’s bias, lack of proper setting of the apparatus, or
an individual’s carelessness in taking observations. The measurement errors also include wrong readings due to Parallax
errors.

Instrumental Errors: These errors arise due to faulty construction and calibration of the measuring instruments. Such errors
arise due to the hysteresis of the equipment or due to friction. Lots of the time, the equipment being used is faulty due to
misuse or neglect, which changes the reading of the equipment. The zero error is a very common type of error. This error is
common in devices like Vernier callipers and screw gauges. The zero error can be either positive or negative. Sometimes
the scale readings are worn off, which can also lead to a bad reading.

VOLTMETERS AND AMMETERS

Introduction:The most commonly used dc meter is based on the fundamental principle of the motor. The motor action is
produced by the flow of a small amount of current through a moving coil which is positioned in a permanent magnetic field.
This basic moving system, often called the D’Arsonval movement, is also referred to as the basic meter.
Different instrument forms may be obtained by starting with the basic meter movement and adding various elements of DC
Meter as follows.
1. The basic meter movement becomes a dc instrument
 measuring dc current, by adding a shunt resistance, forming a microammeter, a milliammeter or an ammeter.
 dc voltage, by adding a multiplier resistance, forming a milli voltmeter, voltmeter or kilovoltmeter.
 resistance, by adding a battery and resistive network, forming an ohmmeter.
2. The basic meter movement becomes an ac instrument, measuring
 ac voltage or current, by adding a rectifier, forming a rectifier type meter for power and audio frequencies.
 RF voltage or current, by adding a thermocouple-type meter for RF.
DC Ammeter:
An ammeter is a measuring instrument which is used for the measurement of electric current in an electric circuit.. When
large currents are to be measured, it is necessary to bypass a major part of the current through a resistance called a shunt,
as shown in Fig. 3.1. The resistance of shunt can be calculated using conventional circuit analysis.

Multirange Ammeters:
The current range of the dc ammeter may be further extended by a number of shunts, selected by a range switch. Such a
meter is called a multirange ammeter, shown in Fig. 3.2.

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The circuit has four shunts R1, R2, R3 and R4, which can be placed in parallel with the movement to give four different current
ranges. Switch S is a multiposition switch, (having low contact resistance and high current carrying capacity, since its
contacts are in series with low resistance shunts).

DC Voltmeter:

A basic D’ Arsonval movement can be converted into a dc voltmeter by adding a series resistor known as multiplier, as
shown in Fig. below. The function of the multiplier is to limit the current through the movement so that the current
does not exceed the full scale deflection value. A dc voltmeter measures the potential difference between two points in a dc
circuit or a circuit component.

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To measure the potential difference between two points in a dc circuit or a circuit component, a dc voltmeter is always
connected across them with the proper polarity.

The multiplier limits the current through the movement, so as to not exceed the value of the full scale deflection I fsd. The above
equation is also used to further extend the range in DC voltmeter.

Multirange Voltmeter:

As in the case of an ammeter, to obtain a multirange ammeter, a number of shunts are connected across the movement with
a multi-position switch. Similarly, a dc voltmeter can be converted into a multirange voltmeter by connecting a number
of resistors (multipliers) along with a range switch to provide a greater number of workable ranges.

Figure shows a multirange voltmeter using a three position switch and three multipliers R 1, R2, and R3 for voltage values V1,
V2, and V3. This can be further modified to Fig. 4.3, which is a more practical arrangement of the multiplier resistors of a
multirange voltmeter.

In this arrangement, the multipliers are connected in a series string, and the range selector selects the appropriate amount
of resistance required in series with the movement.

This arrangement is advantageous compared to the previous one, because all multiplier resistances except the first have the
standard resistance value and are also easily available in precision tolerances:

The first resistor or low range multiplier, R4, is the only special resistor which has to be specially manufactured to meet the
circuit requirements.

Numerical problems:

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Digital Voltmeters:
Introduction:
A digital voltmeter is an electronic device used to calculate electrical potential differences or voltage. It transforms the analog voltage signal into digital values and
shows output on a digital screen or panel Advantages Associated with Digital Voltmeters
The advantages of digital voltmeters include:
 Readout of DVMs is easy as it eliminates observational errors in measurement committed by operators.
 Error on account of parallax and approximation is entirely eliminated.
 Reading can be taken very fast.
 Output can be fed to memory devices for storage and future computations.
 Versatile and accurate
 Compact and cheap
 Low power requirements
 Portability increased
Working Principle of Digital Voltmeter
working of digital voltmeter that it is nothing but an analog to digital converter which converts an analog signal into a train of
pulses, the number of which is proportional to the input signal. So a digital voltmeter can be made by using any one of the A/D
conversion methods.

Types of Digital Voltmeters

Ramp-Type Digital Voltmeter

The ramp-type digital voltmeter operated wth a comparison of input volts with known ramp waveform. It measures the time
required for ramp volts to reach a similar value of input volts and converts it into digital reading.
Integrating-Type Digital Voltmeter
This voltmeter calculates input volts by integration with known time intervals. It uses an integrator circuit to get the charge of
input volts that converts in digital value.
Dual-Slope Digital Voltmeter
it gets input voltage by integrating the input signal for a certain duration in one direction and then for the same duration in the
opposite direction. By comparing the 2 integrator output values, it measures the input voltage.
Successive Approximation Digital Voltmeter
It uses a binary search algorithm to measure the input voltage. It sequentially makes a comparison of unknown voltage with
different fractions of a reference voltage until it measures the required match.

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Ramp Technique of Digital Voltmeter:
Ramp Technique – The operating principle is to measure the time that a linear ramp takes to change the input level to the
ground level, or vice-versa. This time period is measured with an electronic time-interval counter and the count is displayed
as a number of digits on an indicating tube or display.
The operating principle and block diagram of a ramp type DVM are shown in diagrams below.

The ramp may be positive or negative; in this case a negative ramp has been selected.
 At the start of the measurement a ramp voltage is initiated (counter is reset to 0 and sampled rate multivibrator gives
a pulse which initiates the ramp genera-tor).
 The ramp voltage is continuously compared with the voltage that is being measured.
 At the instant these two voltage become equal, a coincidence circuit generates a pulse which opens a gate, i.e. the
input comparator generates a start pulse.
 The ramp continues until the second comparator circuit senses that the ramp has reached zero value.
 The ground comparator compares the ramp with ground.
 When the ramp voltage equals zero or reaches ground potential, the ground comparator generates a stop pulse. The
output pulse from this comparator closes the gate.
 The time duration of the gate opening is proportional to the input voltage value.
 In the time interval between the start and stop pulses, the gate opens and the oscillator circuit drives the counter. The
magnitude of the count indicates the magnitude of the input voltage, which is displayed by the readout.
 Therefore, the voltage is converted into time and the time count represents the magnitude of the voltage.
 The sample rate circuit provides an initiating pulse for the ramp generator to start its next ramp voltage. At the same
time a reset pulse is generated, which resets the counter to the zero state.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
 The ramp technique circuit is easy to design and its cost is low.
 Also, the output pulse can be transmitted over long feeder lines.
 Large errors are possible when noise is superimposed on the input signal. Input filters are usually required with this
type of converter.
Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM (Voltage to Time Conversion):

In ramp techniques, superimposed noise can cause large errors. In the dual ramp technique, noise is averaged out by the positive
and negative ramps using the process of integration.

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Principle of Dual Slope Type DVM:

 As illustrated in Fig. above, the input voltage ’ei’ is integrated, with the slope of the integrator output proportional to
the test input voltage.
 After a fixed time,equal to t1, the input voltage is disconnected and the integrator input is connected to a negative
voltage – er
 The integrator output will have a negative slope which is constant and proportional to the magnitude of the input
voltage. The block diagram is given in Fig. above
 At the start a pulse resets the counter and the F/F output to logic level ‘0’. Si is closed and Sr is open. The capacitor begins
to charge.
 As soon as the integrator output exceeds zero, the comparator output voltage changes state, which opens the gate
so that the oscillator clock pulses are fed to the counter.
 When the counter reaches maximum count,i.e. 9999, on the next clock pulse all digits go to 0000 and the counter
activates the F/F to logic level ‘1’.
 This activates the switch drive, ei is disconnected and –er is connected to the integrator.
 Integrator output now decreases linearly to 0 volts. Comparator output state changes again and locks the gate.
 The discharge time t2 is now proportional to the input voltage. The counter indicates the count during time t 2.
 When the negative slope of the integrator reaches zero, the comparator switches to state 0 and the gate closes, i.e.
the capacitor C is now discharged with a constant slope.
 As soon as the comparator input (zero detector) finds that e o, is zero, the counter is stopped.
 The pulses counted by the counter thus have a direct relation with the input voltage.
During charging

During discharging

Subtracting Eqs 5.2 from 5.1 we have

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The dual slope technique has excellent noise rejection because noise and superimposed ac are averaged out in the process
of integration.
Direct Compensation type :
Principles of operation – The input signal is compared with an internally generated voltage which is increased in steps starting
from zero. The number of steps needed to reach the full compensation is counted. A simple compensation type is the staircase
ramp.
Block diagram of Staircase Ramp Type:

 The voltage, Vc generated by a series circuit consisting of a pulse generator (clock), a counter counting the pulses
and a digital to analog converter, converting the counter output into a dc signal.
 As soon as Vc is equal to Vi, the input comparator closes a gate between the clock and the counter, the counter stops
and its output is shown on the display. The basic block diagram is shown in Fig. above.
Operation of the Circuit:
 The clock generates pulses continuously. At the start of a measurement, the counter is reset to 0 at time t 1 so that
the output of the digital to analog converter (DAC) is also 0.
 If Vi is not equal to zero, the input comparator applies an output voltage that opens the gate so that clock pulses are
passed on to the counter through the gate.
 The counter starts counting and the DAC starts to produce an output voltage increasing by one small step at each
count of the counter.
 The result is a staircase voltage applied to the second input of the comparator, as shown in Fig. 5.9.
 This process continues until the staircase voltage is equal to or slightly greater than the input voltage Vi.
 At that instant t2, the output voltage of the input comparator changes state or polarity, so that the gate closes and the
counter is stopped.
 Each count corresponds to a constant dc step in the DAC output voltage, the number of counts is directly
proportional to Vc and hence to Vi.
 By appropriate choice of reference voltage, the step height of the staircase voltage can be determined
 Example: Each count can represent 1 mV and direct reading of the input voltage in volts can be realized by placing a
decimal point in front of the 10 decade.

Successive Approximations type DVM

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The Successive Approximation Type DVM principle can be easily understood using a simple example; the determination of
the weight of an object. By using a balance and placing the object on one side and an approximate weight on the other side,
the weight of the object is determined.

 The Successive Approximation Type DVM works on the same principle. Its basic block diagram is shown in Fig. 5.10.
 When the start pulse signal activates the control circuit, the successive approximation register (SAR) is cleared. The
output of the SAR is 00000000. V out of the D/A converter is 0.
 Now, if Vin > Vout the comparator output is positive. During the first clock pulse, the control circuit sets the D 7 to 1, and
Vout jumps to the half reference voltage. The SAR output is 10000000.
 If Vout >Vin, the comparator output is negative and the control circuit resets D7.
 However, if Vin > Vout, the comparator output is positive and the control circuits keep D 7 set.
 Similarly the rest of the bits beginning from D7 to D0 are set and tested.
 Therefore, the measurement is completed in 8 clock pulses.

Ex-SAR OUTOUT=[Link]=5V,Vi=1V.
Set D7=1 in next clock pulse,Vo=Vref/2.=5/2=2.5Vi.e,SAR output is 10000000. Vi<Vref.
Now,D7=0,D6=1,Vo=Vref/2=2.5/2=1.25V,SAR output=[Link] Vi<Vout.
In 3rd clock pulse,D6=0,D5=1,SAR output=00100000. Vo=Vref/2=1.25/2=[Link],Vi>Vo.,i.e,1V >0.625.
In 4th pulse,D5=1 is retained & next bit =1,i.e,D4=1,SAR output=00110000. Bow,Vo=0.625+0.625/2=0.625+0.3125=0.9375.
Vi>Vo,i.e,1V>0.9375.
5th clock pulse,D5,D4 are retained and D3 is set to 1. i.e,SAR output=00111000,
Vo=0.9375+0.3125/2=0.9375+0.15625=1.09375,Vi<Vo,i.e,1V<1.09375.
6th pulse, D5=D4=1,D3=0,D2=1,V0=1.09375-0.15625/2,ie,1.09375-0.078125=1.0156,Vi<V0,i.e,1V<1.0156.
7th pulse,D5=1,D4=1,D3=0,D2=0,D1=1. Vo=1.0156-0.078125/2=1.0156-0.0390625,=[Link],Vi>Vo=i.e,1V>0.977.
8th pulse,D5=1.D4=1,D3=0,D2=0,D1=[Link]=0.977+0.01953125=0.99785.
Now,Digital Approximation of input 1V is 00110011

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