PEÑA, ALIAH EUNICE C.

BSA 2-1
ETHICS

MODULE 1 : WHAT IS ETHICS?

Ethics
-or moral philosophy can be provisionally described as the
empirical study of moral decisions.
-It is a discipline concerned with what is morally good and evil,
right and wrong.
-often refers to any scheme or philosophy of universal ideals or
beliefs.
-concept is derived from the Greek word “ethos” which may
mean tradition, habit, character, or attitude.
-is not only about the nature of specific courses of action, but it
is also about the goodness of people and what it means to
lead a decent life. (Leandro, Jr & Gubia-on, 2018)
1.1 IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS
-ethics is a systematic analysis of the nature of human actions.
Ethics
-is concerned about the correctness and wrongness of the act.
-is a set of rules that allows us to say right from wrong, good
 An act is deemed to be right or wrong, based on the
from the bad.
intent, circumstances, or character of the act itself.
-can provide true, specific guidance to our lives.
-As a philosophy, is a very important discipline because it
 Ethical principles such as fairness, trustworthiness,
involves critical thinking, as it explores and describes
responsibility help direct us to cope more effectively with
fundamental beliefs, standards, ideals, and traditions.
ethical dilemmas by removing actions that do not adhere
-This is thus a higher level of human discipline.
to our sense of right and wrong–our own moral interests–
without compromising others.
As a branch of philosophy, ethics is divided into normative and
-ethics is all about decisions.
meta-ethics.
Why should other individuals have a lack of ethics?
1. Normative ethics
 Bazerman and Ann Trebrunsel (2011) identify the blind
-which concerns human behavior in general,
spots as the differences between who you want to be and
-is to address our questions about the essence of human
who you are. Hence, most of us want to do the right
behavior.
thing, but internal and external factors are in the way.
-by definition, examine whether or not a particular act should
 However, ethicists put less emphasis on studying
or should not be carried out.
philosophic principles and, instead, emphasize the
importance of establishing good habits of character –
There are two fields of normative ethics
needs of doing the right thing in the right place and time
: moral philosophy and applied ethics or practical ethics.
in the right way.
 The virtues of intelligence, bravery, patience, and justice
Moral philosophy
guide ethical decision-making as they provide the basis
-deals with moral ideas such as what human beings "must do
for rational decisions when faced with an ethical dilemma.
or how human beings should be."
 We ought to be ethical, as it determines who we are both
-also deals with our moral obligation, the meaning of the act, or
personally and as a society.
the purpose of the act.
 There must be moral principles that should be observed
by all. Some people will lie; many may not do what they
Applied ethics
assume they will do, and others may behave
-is a philosophy that discusses strong and basic moral issues
irresponsibly and participate in harmful conduct.
linked to abortion.
 For moralists, following one's interests is not wrong.
Nevertheless, an ethical individual must be able – at least
 In contrast to meta-ethics, normative ethics seeks to
occasionally–to place the needs of others ahead of self-
examine how human beings respond to a moral question.
interest, because of our duty to civil society.
This also aims to clarify and prescribe common
expectations on what human beings should do to interact
According to Leano Jr. & Gunta-on (2018),
with others in society and in a meaningful way. (Maboloc,
 the study of ethics should consider making it possible for
2012)
an individual to fully understand what his conscience is,
how he has gained it, how far he is willing and able to
2. Meta-ethics
respect his outward manifestations with protection, and
-is a discipline that relies on meaning.
how well he can strengthen it and make it even smarter.
-is a science that is seeking to address non-moral questions
 Added to it, a person can gain a better insight into his
about morality.
claims to society as well as the obligations he owes to
-refer to questions about the nature of moral statements,
society.
the purpose and significance of moral facts, and concerns
 He must learn to distinguish between the respects in
about the interpretation and justification of moral statements.
which all persons are highly dependent and those who
are responsible for his or her own life and will focus on
freedom of initiative.
 Eventually, it will at least allow certain observations, for
understanding, self-sacrifice, and obligation, which will
enable us to make these decisions.

From the standpoints of the authors mentioned above,

several views on the importance of ethics were profound
and these are the following:
(1) through ethics people can determine the difference  Cheating on examination is an example wherein the
between right from wrong, good and bad; students should not cheat during exams as a rule in an
(2) people can eliminate actions that do not conform to what is educational institution and in doing such an act, cheating,
right; is wrong. It’s not because students are afraid of the
(3) people will be very careful to the actions and decisions to teacher, instructor, or professor but the students know
make; that is a wrongful act.
(4) people will not be disturbed of the internal and external
factors of not doing the right thing; 3. Moral standards should be adopted over other values,
(5) establish good habits of characters of a person; including self-interest.
(6) come up to rational decisions in facing an ethical dilemma; -Moral standards should always be retained even if they are at
(7) it makes a person responsible in the family, school and stake with self-interest.
society;
(7) a person becomes sensitive to the needs of others more 4. Moral standards are focused on objective
than himself or herself; and considerations.
(8) reminds a person to fully need conscience in decision -The basis of considerations and decisions must not be
making and a person can acknowledge the actions made. favorable only to a particular person or group. Anyone who
commits
1.2 THE DIFFERENCES OF MORAL AND NON-MORAL
STANDARDS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL 5. Moral standards are perceived to be universal.
STANDARDS -We want everyone to live up to these norms and feel resentful
 Countries and nations rich or poor, developed and when somebody doesn't live up to them.
underdeveloped have their own set of laws, policies, -Moral standards believed to be universal as it is applicable
cultures, traditions, customs, and beliefs. It may be anywhere and anytime.
acceptable to other countries but not acceptable to  For instance, lying. Telling the truth is a universal
others. standard. Hence, we should not lie.
 Some principles and values have social consequences,
whereas some do not. It is a matter of moral indifference, 6. Moral standards are correlated with different feelings
that is, a matter of taste in one society may be a matter of and vocabulary.
moral meaning in another. For this reason, people need -If anyone doesn't live up to the norm or standards, he will feel
to recognize the difference between moral principles and guilty, bad, and wrong. The same is true when someone else
non-moral ones, to define the basic ethical values that does not live up to the expectations, norms, and standards,
can direct our actions. others may feel disgusted at this person.

Moral standards Non-moral standards

-compel us to behave accordingly, although we have no right -apply to laws which are not related to social or legal
to insist on others on non-moral values based on the considerations.
explanation above -these criteria are not inherently related to morality or, by their
-refer to the guidelines we have on the types of acts that we very definition, lack of ethical sense.
find to be morally permissible and morally unacceptable.
-It primarily deals with issues that can either potentially Examples of non-moral standards are the following:
threaten or greatly benefit human beings. etiquette, statutes, code of professional ethics, etc. (Leandro,
 Some ethicists placed moral ethics on par with Jr & Gubia-on, 2018)
social values and moral principles. (Leandro, Jr &
Gubia-on, 2018)
-normally promote the common good, that is, the welfare and
well-being of human beings, animals, and the environment.
-are a blending of norms and values. ( norms plus values
pertain to moral standards)

Norms
-as standards are basic guidelines regarding human acts.

Values
-though, are universal convictions as to what is acceptable,
desirable, and beneficial or not.

There are several characteristics of morals standards as Etiquette

mentioned by Velasquez (2012) such as and vocabularies -is a decorum; propriety means reverence for the formal
such as: criteria governing conduct in a civilized society.
1. Moral standards entail serious harm or benefit. -refers conventional ways and uses the rules of etiquette.

Examples of this are the following: Decorum

-theft, the murder of innocent people, respect others, a feeding -implies modesty and a sense of what is becoming or is fitting
program for the poor, etc. for a person of good breeding: a fine sense of decorum.
(The first two examples cause harm and the next two examples
produce benefits and the action has done is helpful to human beings. )  In the Philippines, noisily eating meals is unethical but in
other countries like Japan. China and South Korea, in
2. Moral standards are not determined by authority doing that show that a person likes the food especially in
figures. taking soup.

-Moral values should always be upheld, even though they are Statute
at odds with self-interest. -is a written law passed by a legislative body as defined by
Oxford English and Spanish Dictionary
-As mentioned by the University of Melbourne Library Guide,
statutes shall contain Acts of the Congress, Local Charters,
Municipal Codes, Districts, Administrative Rules and
Regulations, Statutory Rules, and Presidential Issues.
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 11463, An Act Establishing
Malasakit Centers in all Department of Health (DOH)
Hospitals in the Country and in the Philippine General
Hospital (PGH), Providing Funds Therefor and for Other PEÑA, ALIAH EUNICE C.
Purposes is an example of one of the statutes in the BSA 2-1
Philippines. ETHICS
 The powers conferred by the laws on the Medical
Director, the Chief of the Hospital, or the Chief of the MODULE 2 WHAT ARE MORAL DILEMMAS
Medical Center, the Director of the Malasakit Centers,
shall oversee the proper management and effective 2.0 DEFINITION OF MORAL DILEMMAS:
operation of the Malasakit Center. If its powers do not
conflict with any other form of law, it is legally binding. Kvalnes (2019),
 Legality and morality are distinct, but often people are -a moral dilemma is a situation in which a decisionmaker must
confused about these terms. We believe that what is give preference to one moral principle over another.
moral is also legal and that what is immoral is not good. -Dilemmas occur when, confronted with a challenging situation
Not all that is lawful is moral. (e.g., equal treatment for some versus job protection for
 The Professional Code of Ethics, consequently, is a set others), two or more of that kind of values disagree with the
of guidelines intended to help practitioners differentiate understanding of the decision-maker, or when one assesses
between right and wrong to guide their decision-making. the moral option of another.
 Such rules, also referred to as the Code of Ethics, define -A person experienced with a dilemma must decide whether
the purpose and ideals of the organization, how staff the moral duty will be given priority; "whatever action is taken
within the organization are to handle the issues, and the will offend an important moral value."
expectations to which workers are bound. -a moral dilemma may arise as a result of a prior personal
 The members of the profession to which he or she mistake.
belongs have learned, approved, and complied with the -It's called a self-inflicted dilemma.
laws, regulations, and conditions set down by the
profession. In a strict sense, a moral dilemma is a situation in which moral
 Violations of the Code can result in the disapproval of the values are of equal importance.
Members. In extreme cases, a lawyer may be excluded
from a legal career and may prohibit him or her from In a broader sense, there may be moral dilemmas in which a
practicing law. person has strong moral reasons for acting which are
 The essence of the Professional Code of Ethics is not a described to be as remarkable, nonetheless, not equally strong
more comprehensive or fully accurate guide to one's moral reasons for acting in another way.
moral obligations.
 Almost all professional codes are strictly moral in nature, Kurie & Albin (2007)
and even so, the fact that a law is legally embodied as -a moral dilemma is a situation in which people assume that
part of a professional code does not guarantee that it is a they should morally do one thing and that they should morally
sound moral concept. do another thing, and occasionally a third thing or even a
 A practitioner must take the sanctions of his or her fourth thing, but they're not doing any of these mutually
profession seriously, however, he or she also has the contradictory choices together.
right to evaluate certain laws objectively for himself or
herself. Figar & Dordevic, (2016)
-is a situation whereby a person has to make a decision.
1.3 HOW MORAL STANDARDS ARE FORMED -Among competing alternatives, which is the right (ethical)
Morals alternative and which is the best?
-are shaped by the beliefs of an individual.
-Morals build on this to form concrete, contextdriven rules that The above definitions characterized moral dilemma or
regulate the actions of an individual. ethical dilemma as:
-They are formed from the experience of a person's life and (1) Making an option to one moral value over the other;
are subject to opinion. (2) A situation where moral values are equally significant;
(3) A scenario where a person has a strong moral reason in
Values action, but not equally strong moral reason in acting in another
-are the basis of the capacity of an individual to distinguish way;
between right and wrong. (4) A state where a person should morally do one, two, or
more and have difficulty in deciding any of those conflicting
There are certain moral standards that all of us hold in our choices.
actions in society. There are various factors on how moral
standards are influenced: A moral dilemma or ethical dilemma
(1) the moral values or principles that we conform with, in our -applies to our personal life, in a job, in a profession,
rearing; education, and some others.
(2) the character and manners that imbibed with us by means  In any decision, an individual must analyze every aspect,
of birthright; scrutinize the pros and cons, and after several
(3) the religious values that our forefathers taught us; evaluations then finally decide. That is the most
(4) the values we learned from school; challenging part, nonetheless, makes an individual more
(5) the moral conduct, ways and habits of those people around mature in handling obstinate situations.
us;
(6) the direct and implied cultural norms; 2.1 THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS
(7) our life experiences; and 1. ORGANIZATIONAL ETHICAL OR MORAL DILEMMA
(8) our critical thinking in these experiences. -As discussed by Lamberto et. al (2013), an organizational
ethical dilemma refers to a situation that uses an organization
to respond negatively or positively to an ethical issue that independently and not be influenced by undesirable
affects staff, shareholders, and society, as well as corporate pressures. It is alright to enjoy life as long as a person
ethics and customers. knows his boundaries and limitations and others will not
-It includes also the leaders' ethical actions in preserving be affected by what he or she does specifically the
financial reporting integrity. unwanted acts.
Based on the article of Michigan State University [Link]  Human beings must not be confused nor ambiguous and
(2020) and Small Business [Link] (2019), there are put himself or herself in a dilemma where he doesn't
common ethical issues in the organization such as : know what to do and decide to what is good and what is
right.
(1) Unethical leadership/bad leadership behavior.
-A leader of the organization must act with candor, be an 3. STRUCTURAL MORAL DILEMMA
example to his subordinates, with upright moral values. -The structural moral dilemma is that selecting a proper
-he or she doesn’t engage in abuse of leadership authority, system of responsibilities and relationships, which is a
accepting inappropriate gifts and other related unethical continuing universal challenge.
leadership.
There are five concepts in the structural moral dilemma to
(2) Toxic workplace culture. consider namely:
-A leader of the organization must focus on the development of 1. Differentiation vs. Integration
work culture. -The conflict between the distribution of jobs and the
-He makes sure that his subordinates have work-life balance, organization of numerous activities generates a classic
motivated and happy working in the organization, if not then dilemma.
the performance and productivity of the employees will be -The more complicated a task structure, the more difficult it is
affected. to sustain a centered, tightly coupled organization.
-When complexity grows, the company needs more
(3) Discrimination and harassment/ Peril of employee complicated and expensive management techniques.
favoritism. -Laws, regulations, and directives need to be balanced by
-A leader must treat fairly his or her subordinates and avoid lateral approaches.
any form of discrimination and harassment.
2. Gap vs Overlap
(4) Unrealistic and conflicting goals. -When the main tasks are not explicitly defined, the critical job
-A leader must have realistic and very clear goals so that his or will slip through gaps.
her subordinates understand what the organization is going -In a similar manner, functions and activities can overlap,
through, hence, they can work together thoroughly until they causing conflict, wasting time, and unintended duplication of
reach the goals of the organization. responsibilities.

(5) Use of the organization’s technology, social media use, 3. Lack of Clarity vs. Lack of Creativity
technology, and privacy concerns. -When employees are not clear about what they are expected
-It is ethical that the technology of the organization must only to do, they often adapt their tasks to personal interests instead
use for the organization’s transactions of system-wide goals that often lead to problems.
-Social media use while in the office must be avoided as much -Yet when people 's duties are over defined, they comply with
as possible so that important dealings with the clients must be their positions and procedures in a bureaucratic manner.
prioritized. -They specifically follow job requirements as to how much the
service or product fails.
(6) Business travel ethics.
-There are times that a leader and an employee are in official 4. Excessive Autonomy vs. Excessive Interdependence
business and in doing that, they have per diem every meal and -When individuals or groups are too independent, they are
must use the fund of the organization appropriately. always isolated.
-On the other hand, if the units and responsibilities are too
2. INDIVIDUAL MORAL DILEMMA closely connected, people are absentminded from work and
-As mentioned by Smith (2018), individual ethical or moral waste time or excessive coordination.
dilemma pertains to a situation where individuals confront with
a number of factors such as peer pressure, personal financial
position, an economic and social status which may influence Based on the discussion above, to avoid structural moral
all individual ethical standards. dilemma then following characteristics must be
maintained:
 Socialization is part of every individual's life. It is just a (1) Must have well-distributed jobs and the laws, policies,
query as to whether an individual remains aware of doing rules, and regulations must be balanced through lateral
what is good and what is right. There are times that due approaches.
to peer pressure, an individual engages in a certain
scenario in which may change their behavior and attitude (2) Must have an implicitly defined job description, roles, and
 For instance, before that young people, A is a duties to evade from gaps and overlaps.
responsible and obedient child to his parents. When he
met young people B and young people C, young people (3) Must have a clear-cut expectation of the tasks in a wide
A tremendously transform as a human being, his range of goals
character shifted to an irresponsible, hard-headed, and a
trouble-maker. The reason is that his friend young people (4) Must have a well-balanced interdependence and
B and young people C taught him to take illegal drugs. co0rdination.
 Others, however, are affected by the financial standing
position, the social and economic status of others that
even he is not capable, forcing him or her that he or she
is at the same level as them, portrays that he or she
belongs to the group, and called to be as social climbers.
 A human being should bear in mind that living in this
world is not easy. He must be strong enough to stand still