Chapter

THE LIVING WORLD

01
WHAT IS LIVING?
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
Defining
Non - Defining Characteristics
Characteristics
Metabolism,
Growth Cellular organisation
Reproduction Consciousness

Self - consciousness Defining feature of human beings.

NOMENCLATURE

• Obviously, nomenclature or naming is only possible when the organism is described correctly. This is identification.

International Code for Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN). International Code for Viral Nomenclature (ICVN).
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). International Code for Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB).

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

Two components
Generic name Specific epithet

• First word in a biological name represents the genus while the second component denotes the specific epithet.
• First word denoting the genus starts with a capital letter while the specific epithet starts with a small letter.
• Both words in a biological name, when handwritten, are separately underlined, or printed in italics to indicate their Latin origin.
• Name of the author appears after the specific epithet, i.e., at the end of the biological name and is written in an. abbreviated form, e.g., Mangifera
indica Linn. It indicates that this species was first described by Linnaeus.

Taxonomy
Kingdom

1 Characterisation 2 Identification Phylum or Division

3 Classification 4 Nomenclature Class • In case of plants, classes with few

• Systema Naturae was written by Linnaeus. Term characters are assigned to a higher
Order category called Division.
‘systematics’ was also given by ‘Carolus Linnaeus’.

Taxonomic catergories Family • The highest category in taxonomic

hierarchy is kingdom.
• Each category, rank or taxon (plural-taxa) referred to as a Genus
unit of classification.
• Species is lowest category. Species
Chapter
BIOLOGICAL
02 CLASSIFICATION
Number of species 1. 7 -1.8 million

• Aristotle used simple morphological characters to classify plants into trees, shrubs and herbs.
• He divided animals into two groups, one which had red blood (Enaima) and those that did not (Anaima).
• Two kingdom classification : Linnaeus divided all organisms into two kingdoms, Plantae & Animalia.

THREE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION SIX KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION

• Ernst Haeckel created a new kingdom Protista, having
only unicellular eukaryotes.
• Carl Woese
• Three domains
FOUR KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION
1. Archaea: Archaebacteria
• Copeland (1956). 2. Bacteria: Eubacteria
• Copeland created a separate kingdom 'Monera' 3. Eukarya: Includes 4 eukaryotic kingdoms-
Plantae, Animalia, Protista and Fungi.
FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION
• By R.H. Whittaker
1. Plantae, 2. Animalia, 3. Protista, 4. Monera and 5. Fungi

WHITTAKER HAS USED 5 CRITERIA

1. Reproduction 3. Phylogenetic relationships
2. Cell structure 5. Body organisation 4. Mode of nutrition

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FIVE KINGDOMS

Five Kingdoms
Characters
Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Noncellulosic
Cell wall (Polysaccharide + Present in some Present (with chitin) Present (cellulose) Absent
amino acid)

Nuclear Membrane Absent Present Present Present Present

Multicellular/ loose Tissue/organ/ organ
Body organisation Cellular Cellular Tissue/organ
tissue system
Autotrophic
(chemosynthetic and
Autotrophic Heterotrophic
photosynthetic) and Heterotrophic Autotrophic
Mode of nutrition (Photosynthetic) and (Holozoic/
Heterotrophic (Saprophytic/ Parasitic) (Photosynthetic)
Heterotrophic Saprophytic etc.)
(Saprophytic
/parasitic)
KINGDOM MONERA (I) BACTERIA
• Prokaryotes. Archaebacteria & Eubacteria Coccus - Spherical
Bacillus - Rod-shaped
1. ARCHAEBACTERIA Vibrium - Comma shaped
• Live in some of the most harsh habitats. Spirillum - Spiral.
• Halophiles : Inhabit salty areas.
• Reproduce mainly by fission
• Thermoacidophiles : Inhabit hot springs/deep sea water.
• Under favourable conditions, they produce spore
• Methanogens : In marshy areas and gut of ruminants.
Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria in having a different cell
wall structure or different cell membrane structure
NUTRITION IN BACTERIA

2. EUBACTERIA
Autotrophic Heterotrophic
• 'True bacteria' Includes bacteria, cyanobacteria (BGA), and
mycoplasma. 1. Photoautotropic 1. Saprophytic
2. Chemoautotropic 2. Parasitic
3. Symbiotic

• Diseases caused by the heterotrophic bacteria.

Cholera Vibrio cholerae • Cyanobacteria of BGA = Blue green algae are unicellular,
colonial or filamentous.
Typhoid Salmonella typhi • Cyanobacteria have chlorophyll a similar to green plants.
• Nostoc & Anabaena are cyanobacteria that can fix atmospheric
Tetanus Clostridium tetani nitrogen in specialised cells called heterocysts.

MYCOPLASMA :
Citrus canker Xanthomonas citri
• Mycoplasma are also called PPLO. Lack a cell wall, are the smallest
cells and can survive without oxygen.

KINGDOM PROTISTA
All single-celled eukaryotes. DINOFLAGELLATES
CHRYSOPHYTES
Includes diatoms & desmids (golden algae). • Cell wall has stiff cellulose plates. • Dinoflagellates
have 2 flagella : One lies longitudinally and the other
transversely
• Red dinoflagellates (Gonyaulax) undergo such rapid
DIATOMS multiplication making the sea appear red (red tides).
• Toxins (SAXITOXIN) released by them may even kill
• Cell wall forms two thin overlapping shells that fit
other marine animals such as fishes.
together as in a soap box.
• Walls are embedded with silica
• Large amount of cell wall deposits is referred to as
diatomaceous earth. EUGLENOIDS:
Uses :
In polishing, Euglenoids possesses a protein rich layer called pellicle,
In filtration of oils & syrups. instead of cell wall
Diatoms are the chief 'producers' of oceans. They have two flagella, a short & a long one
Euglena acts as connecting link between plants and animals.
 Slime Moulds PROTOZOANS

• Are saprophytic protists, without cell walls. Amoeboid

slime moulds possess true walls. Pseudopodia e.g. Amoeba Entamoeba
Protozoan
• Under favourable conditions, form an
aggregation called plasmodium that may grow Flagellated
Flagella e.g. Trypanosoma
& spread over several feet. protozoan
• During unfavourable conditions, forms
fruiting bodies bearing spores at their tips. Ciliated
Cilia e.g. Paramecium
• Spores are extremely resistant & survive Protozoan
for many years. They are dispersed by air No locomotory organ
Sporozoan e.g. Plasmodium
currents.

KINGDOM FUNGI

Reproduction in Fungi
• With the exception of yeasts which are unicellular,
fungi are filamentous.
• Their bodies consist of long, slender thread-like Vegetative Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction
structures called hyphae. Network of hyphae is known Means
as mycelium. Oospores
Fragmentation Conidia
• Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with
multinucleated cytoplasm are called coenocytic hyphae. Fissio Zoospore Ascospores
• Cell walls of fungi are composed of chitin. n
Budding Sporangiospore Basidiospores

SEXUAL CYCLE INVOLVES Class 1 - Phycomycetes

Fusion of protoplasms- plasmogamy. • Mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic.

Fusion of two nuclei- karyogamy.
Meiosis in zygote results in haploid spores. • Asexual reproduction occurs through
zoospores (motile), aplanospores (non-motile).
• In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells immediately results in Spores are endogenously produced in
diploid cells (2n). sporangium.
• In other fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes), an intervening
dikaryotic stage (n + n, i.e., two nuclei per cell) occurs; such a condition • Examples : Mucor
is called a dikaryon and the phase is called dikaryophase of fungus.
• The fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs, • Rhizopus : White spots seen on mustard
leading to formation of haploid spores. leaves are due to a parasitic fungus (Albugo).

Members of phycomycetes are found :

1. In aquatic habitats
2. On decaying wood in moist and damp places
3. As obligate parasites on plants.
 Class 2 - ASCOMYCETES CLASS 3 -BASIDIOMYCETES:

• Known as sac-fungi ascomycetes are mostly multicellular, e.g., • Basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket fungi or puffballs.
Penicillium unicellular, e.g., yeast (Saccharomyces). • Grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living plant bodies as
• 'Mycelium is branched and septate parasites, e.g., rusts and smuts. The mycelium is branched and
• Asexual spores are conidia produced exogenously on the special septate.
mycelium called conidiophores. Conidia on germination produce • Asexual spores are generally not found, vegetative
mycelium. reproduction by fragmentation is common.
• Sexual spores are called ascospores are produced • Sex organs are absent.
endogenously • Basidiospores are exogenously produced on the basidium
• Examples : Aspergillus, Claviceps and Neurospora. Morels ,basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps.
(Morchella) and truffles are edible Yeast (Saccharomyces, • Examples : Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut), Puccinia (rust
cerevisiae) called Baker's yeast and Brewer's yeast fungus).

CLASS 4 -DEUTEROMYCETES

Imperfect fungi (sexual reproduction is absent).

Asexual spores known as conidia. The mycelium is septate and branched.
Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.

VIRUSES. VIROIDS & LICHENS

VIROIDS
• In 1971, T.0. Diener discovered that viroids are smaller
Virus
than viruses and caused potato spindle tuber disease.
The viruses are non-cellular organisms that are • RNA of the viroid was of low molecular weight.
characterised by having an inert crystalline structure
outside the living cell. Prions
Viruses are obligate intercellular parasites. • Prions are the infectious proteinaceous agents. Prions lack
Their protein coat called capsid is made of small genetic material & contains only proteins molecule.
subunits called capsomeres.
Ivanowsky discovered virus. D.J. Ivanowsky (1892) Lichens
recognised mosaic disease of tobacco.
M.W. Beijerinek extracted infectious living fluid and
called it as Contagium vivum fluidum. Lichens (SO 2Pollution indicators)
W.M. Stanley (1935) showed that viruses could be
crystallised and are inert outside their specific Algae (Phycobiont) Fungi (Mycoboint)
host cell.
No virus contains both RNA and DNA.
Autotrophic Heterotrophic
(i) ssRNA : TMV, HIV (Retrovirus).
TMV has a coiled RNA strand.
(ii) ssDNA : Φ x 174 Bacteriophage. Prepare food Absorb mineral, nutrient, H2O
The genetic material is infectious. and provide shelter
 PLANT KINGDOM
Chapter

03
INTRODUCTION
Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

1. Artificial system of classifications 2. Natural System of Classification

• Based mainly on vegetative characters or on the androecium structure given
by Linnaeus).
• Based on natural affinities among the organisms and consider, not only the
• Genera Plantarum was written by Linnaeus.
external features, but also internal features, like ultra-structure, anatomy,
3. phylogenetic system of classification embryology and phytochemistry.
• It was given by Bentham and Hooker.
• Based on evolutionary relationships between
the various organisms.

Numerical taxonomy
CYTOTAXONOMY
• It is based on all observable characteristics. Number and codes are • Based on cytological information like chromosome number,
assigned to all the characters and the data are then processed. structure and behaviour.

Karyotaxonomy Chemotaxonomy
• Based on nucleus and banding patterns of chromosomes. • Uses the chemical constituents of the plant.

ALGAE
Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic organisms.

form and size of algae is highly variable. Ranges from unicellular forms like Chlamydomonas, to colonial forms like Volvox and to the filamentous forms like Ulothrix
and Spirogyra.

Class 1 - Chlorophyceae
Reproduction (R) in Algae
• Green algae may be unicellular, colonial or filamentous.
Usually green due to chlorophyll a and b.
Vegetative R. Asexual R. Sexual R.
• Chloroplasts may be discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral or ribbon-
shaped in different species.
By fragmentation By Zoospores
• Have one or more storage bodies called pyrenoids- Pyrenoids contain protein
Isogamous Anisogamous Oogamous besides starch.

eg. Some species of eg. Volvox and • Vegetative reproduction usually takes place by fragmentation .
Chlamydomonas Fucus
• Sexual reproduction shows considerable variation and may be isogamous,
anisogamous or oogamous.
Flagellated gametes Non - flagellated
gemetes
• Commonly found green algae are : Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra
and Chara.

Eg., Ulothrix Eg., Spirogyra

• Chlorella and Spirulina are unicellular algae, rich in proteins and are used as
food supplements even by space travelers.
 Class 2- Phaeophyceae

1. Brown algae show great variation in size and form range from simple 6. Plant body is usually attached to the substratum by a
branched filamentous forms (Ectocarpus) to profusely branched forms as holdfast, and has a stalk, the stipe and leaf like photosynthetic
represented by kelps. organ — the frond.
2. Possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids and xanthophylls. 7. Common forms are Ectocarpus, Macrocystis, Dictyota,
Laminaria (Kelp), Sargassum and Fucus (Rock weed)
3. Vary in colour from olive green to various shades of brown depending upon
the amount of the xanthophyll pigment, fucoxanthin present in them. 8. Alginic acid is obtained from brown algae like Fucus and
Laminaria.
4. Food is stored as complex carbohydrates, which may be in the form of
laminarin or mannitol.
5. Vegetative cells have a cellulosic wall usually covered on outside by a
gelatinous coating of algin.

CLASS 3 - RHODOPHYCEAE

• Commonly called red algae because of predominance of the red • Reproduce asexually by non-motile spores sexually by non-
pigment, r-phycoerythrin in their body. motile gametes.

• Food is stored as floridean starch very similar to amylopectin, • Sexual reproduction is oogamous Polysiphonia, Porphyra,
and glycogen in structure. Gracilaria, Gelidium are examples.

• Red algae usually reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation. • Agar obtained from Gelidium & Gracilaria

BRYOPHYTES
• Non-vascular terrestrial plants • Sex organs in bryophytes are multicellular. Male sex organ called
• Require water for fertilisation. antheridium. They produce biflagellate antherozoids.

• Plant body of bryophytes is more differentiated than that of algae.

• Female sex organ called archegonium is flask- shaped and produces
Thallus-like and prostrate or erect, and attached to the substratum
a single egg
by unicellular or multicellular rhizoids.

• Sphagnum, a moss, provide peat that have long been used as fuel.
• Lack true roots, stem or leaves.
Also has water holding capacity for trans-shipment of living
material.
• Main plant body of the bryophyte is haploid produces gametes, hence
is called a gametophyte.
• Bryophytes are divided into liverworts and mosses.

LIVERWORTS MOSSES

• Plant body of a liverwort is thalloid, e,g., Marchantia. • Predominant stage of the life cycle of a moss is the gametophyte
which consists of two stages. First stage is the protonema stage,
• Thallus is dorsi-ventral and closely appressed to the substrate. which develops direct(y from a spore. It is a creeping, green,
branched and frequently filamentous stage.
• Asexual reproduction takes place by fragmentation or by the formation
of specialised structures called gemmae.
• The second stage is the leafy stage.
• Gemmae are green, multi-cellular, asexual buds.
• Vegetative reproduction in mosses is by fragmentation and
• E.g.: Marchantia, Riccia.
budding in the secondary protonema.

• The sporophyte in mosses is more elaborate than that in

liverworts.

• Examples of mosses are Funaria, Polytrichum and Sphagnum.

 PTERIDOPHYTES
VESCULAR PLANTS

1. Pteridophytes include horsetails and ferns. 5. In majority of the pteridophytes all the spores are of similar kinds;
such plants are called homosporous.
2. In pteridophytes, the main plant body is a sporophyte
6. Genera like Selaginella, Salvinia Marsilea and Azolla which produce
which is differentiated into true root, stem and leaves.
two kinds of spores, macro (large) and micro (small) spores, are known
as heterosporous.
3. Leaves in pteridophyta are small (microphylls) as in The pteridophytes are further classified into four classes:
Selaginella or large (macrophylls) as in ferns.
1. Psilopsida : e.g., Psilotum
4. Sporophytes bear sporangia In some cases sporophylls 2. Lycopsida : e.g., Selaginella and Lycopodium
may form distinct compact structures called strobili or 3. Sphenopsida : e.g., Equisetum (Horsetail)
cones (Selaginella, Equisetum) 4. Pteropsida : e.g., Pteris, Dryopteris and Adiantum.

GYMNOSPERMS ANGIOSPERMS
Differences • Gymnosperms are naked seeded plants Smallest angiosperm : Wolffia
between Bryophytes and Pteridophytes Double fertilisation occurs in these
• Giant redwood tree Sequoia is one of tallest plants.
tree species
Bryophytes Pteridophytes
• All gymnosperms are heterosporous; they
produce haploid microspores and megaspores.

1. Main plant body is gametophyte (haploid). 1. Main plant body is sporophyte (diploid). E.g.: (a) Cycas (b) Pinus (c) Ginkgo (d) Cedrus.

2. Gametophytic phase is longer than 2. Sporophytic phase is longer than

sporophyte. gametophyte.
PLANT LIFE CYCLES & ALTERNATION OF
CENERATIONS
3. Sporophyte is dependent on 3. Both sporophyte and gametophyte are
gametophyte. independent.

4. True stem, leaves & roots are not

4. True stem, leaves and roots are found.
found.

5. Instead of root, rhizoids occurs. 5. True roots are present. (a) Haplontic (b) Diplontic (c) Haplodiplontic

6. Non-vascular plants 6. Vascular plants

Chapter

04 ANIMAL KINGDOM
BODY TEMPERATURE
BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION
• Poikilothermic or cold blooded eg. invertebrates, fishes,
amphibians (frog) and reptiles.
LEVELS OF ORGANISATION
• Homioithermic or warm blooded animals
e.g., Birds and mammals.
Digestive system is incomplete. Coelentrates
and Platyhelminthes
Celluar Level Tissue level Organ level Organ system level Digestive tract has 2 opening mouth and anus,
eg.: Aschelminthes to chordates

Porifera Coelentrata Platyhelminthes Aschelminthes

Ctenophora Arthropoda CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Annelida
Mollusca • Open type: Arthropoda, Mollusca and hemichordate.
Echinodermata • Closed type: Eg.: Annelida & chordata
Hemichordata
Chordata

GERM LAYERS COELOM / BODY CAVITY

• Diploblastic: cells are arranged in two embryonic layers, an external

ectoderm and an internal endoderm, • Acoelomate: animals in which the body cavity is absent. Eg. Porifer,
E.g.: Porifer, coelenterates. An undifferentiated layer, mesoglea, is present Coelentrates, Ctenophores and Platyhelminthes.
in between the ectoderm and the endoderm in Coelentrates. • Pseudocoelomate: the body cavity is not lined by mesoderm, instead,
the mesoderm is present as scattered pouches between the ectoderm
• Triploblastic: animals in which the developing embryo has a third germinal and endoderm. E.g. Aschelminthes.
layer, mesoderm, in between the ectoderm and endoderm,
(Platyhelminthes to Chordates).
COELOMATE

SYMMETRY • Body cavity , which is lined by mesoderm

• E.g., Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs, Echinoderms, Hemichordates and
Chordates.

Asymmetrical Radial Symmetry Bilateral Symmetry

Porifera Coelentrata Platyhelminthes

(sponges) Ctenophora Aschelminthes
Echinodermata Annelida, Arthropada
(in adult body) Mollusca, Echinodermata
(in larval stage)
Hemichordata, Chordata
Body division

SEGMENTATION
Arthropoda Mollusca Hemichordata
• Metamerism, eg. annelida, arthropoda and chordata.

Notochord 3 parts 3 parts 3 parts

• Notochord is a mesodermally derived rod-like structure formed on the dorsal 1. Head 1. Head 1. Proboscis
side during embryonic development in some animals. 2. Thorax 2. Muscular foot 2. Collar
• Animals with notochord are called chordates and those animals which do not 3. Abdomen 3. Visceral hump 3. Trunk
form this structure are called non-chordates, e.g., Porifera to Echinoderms.
 Levels of
Symmetry Coelom Phylum
Kingdom organisation
Cellular level Asymmetry Acoelomate Porifera

Animalia
Radial Acoelomate Cnidaria
(Multicellular)
Tissue or Ctenophora
Organ or
Acoelomate Platyhelminthes
Organ system
Bilateral Pseudococlomates Aschelminthes
Level
Coelomates Annelida
Arthropoda
Mollusca
Echinodermata
Hemichordata
Chorclata

PHYLUM [1] PORIFERA PHYLUM

[2] COELENTERATA (CNIDARIA)
• Sponges Generally marine, few are fresh water
mostly asymmetrical. • All are aquatic.
• Water enters through (ostia) and moves out through osculum • Name is derived from the endoblasts
• Choanoeytes or collar cells line the spongocoel and the canals. • Contain the stinging capsules or nematocytes
• Digestion is intracellular.
• A single opening, mouth on hypostome
• Sexes are not separate.
e.g., corals have a skeleton composed of calcium carbonate.
• Reproduce asexually by fragmentation.
• Cnidarians exhibit two basic body forms called polyp and medusa.
• Fertilisation is internal and development is indirect Scypha (Sycon),
• Those cnidarians which exist in both form (Polyp and Medusa) exhibit
Fresh water sponge (Spongilla) & Bath sponge (Euspongilla).
alteration of generation (metagenesis). Eg. Obelia
E.g.. Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia), Sea anemone (Adamsia), Sea-pen
(Pennatula), Sea-fan (Gorgonia) and Brain coral (Meandrina).
PHYLUM - [3] CTENOPHORA
• Commonly known as sea walnuts or comb jellies are
exclusively marine.
• The body bears eight external rows of ciliated comb PHYLUM [4] PLATYHEIMINTHES
plates, which help in locomotion.
• Bioluminescence (the property of a living organism to emit light) is • Flatworms.
well-marked in ctenophores. • Flame cells or protonephridia help in osmoregulation and excretion.
• Reproduction takes place only by sexual means. • Sexes are not separate.
Fertilisation is external with indirect development. e.g., Pleurobrachia, • Fertilisation is internal and development is through many larval
Ctenoplana. stages.
• Planaria possess high regeneration capacity.
Eg.: Tapeworm (Taenia), Liver fluke (Fasciola), Planaria.
PHYLUM [5] ASCHELMINTHES

• Roundworms.
• Alimentary canal is complete with a well -developed muscular pharynx.
Asexually
• Sexes are separate (dioecious), Often females are longer than males.
• Fertilisation is internal and development may be direct e.g., Common Polyp
round worm (Ascaris), Filaria worm (Wuchereria), Hookworm
Medusa
(Ancylostoma).
Sexually

PHYLUM - [6] ANNELIDA

Sessile Free – swimming
• Metamerically segmented animals.
Cylindrical Umbrella – shaped
Possess longitudinal and circular muscles which help in locomotion .
• Nereis is dioecious whereas earthworms and leeches are monoecious.
Eg. Hydra, Adamsia Eg. Aurelia
Eg.: leech (Hirudinaria), Nereis and Earthworm.
 PHYLUM [7] ARTHROPODA

• Largest phylum. Examples : Prawn, Scorpion, Spider

• Body of arthropods is covered by chitinous exoskeleton. Economically important insects :
• Body consists of head, thorax and abdomen. Apis (Honey bee), Bombyx (Silkworm), Laccifer (Lac insect).
• They have jointed appendages. Vectors : Anopheles, Culex and
• Circulatory system is of open type. Aedes (Mosquitoes)
• Statocysts or balance organs are present. Gregarious pest : Locusta (Locust).
• Excretion takes place through malpighian tubules. Living fossil : Limulus (king crab)
• Mostly dioecious, fertilization internal, development may be 3 direct
or indirect.

PHYLUM [8] MOLLUSCA PHYLUM {9} ECHINODERMATA

• Second largest animal phylum.

• Body is covered by a calcareous shell. • Have an endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles, exclusively marine
• A soft and spongy layer of skin forms a mantle over the • Adult echinoderms are radially symmetrical but larvae are
visceral hump. bilaterally symmetrical digestive system is complete.
• Feather like gills are present. • Most distinctive feature of echinoderms is the present of water
• Mouth contains a file like rasping organ for feeding called vascular system.
radula. • Excretory system is absent. Sexes are separate.
Eg.: Apple snail (Pita), Pearl oyster (Pinctada), Cuttlefish Eg.: Star fish (Asterias), Sea urchin (Echinus), Sea lily (Antedon), Sea
(Sepia), Squid (Loligo), Devil fish (Octopus), Sea-hare cucumber (Cucumaria) & Brittle star (Ophiura).
(Aplysła), Tusk shell (Dentalium) & Chiton (Chaetopleura).

CHORDATA IS DIVIDED INTO

PHYLUM {10} HEMICHORDATE
THREE SUBPHYLA:
• Excretory organ is proboscis gland.
• Urochordata , Cephalochordate and Vertebrata.
E.g.: Balanoglossus
• Urochordata and cephalochordate are often referred to as
Saccoglossus
protochordates and are exclusively marine.
• In Urochordata, notochord is present only in larval tail, while
in Cephalochordata, it extends from head to tail region and is
persistent throughout their life.
Chordata (phylum)
• Urochordata : Ascidia (Ascidians), Salpa, Doliolum
Subphylum
Cephalochordata : Branchiostoma (Amphioxus or Lancelet).

I. Urochordata II. Cephalochordata III. Vertebrata

Division
Vertebrata
Agnatha (lacks jaw) Gnathostomata (bears jaw)
Super class
Cyclostomata

Class
I. Cyclostomata
Pisces (bear fins) Tetrapoda (bear limbs) are ectoparasites on some fishes
Class Class 6 – 15 pairs of gill slits.
1. Chondrichthyes 1. Amphibia • Cyclostomes have a sucking and circular mouth without
2. Osteichthyes 2. Reptilia jaws.
3. Aves • Body is devoid of scales and paired fins
4. Mammalia eg.: Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine (Hagfish).
 CLASS – 1 CHONDRICHTHYES OR
CARTILAGENOUS FISHES CLASS - 2 OSTEICHTHYES OR BONY FISHES

• Marine animals have cartilagenous endoskeleton.

• Notochord is persistent throughout life. • Bony endoskeleton.
• Mouth is mostly terminal.
Mouth is located ventrally.
• Four pairs of gills which are covered by an operculum.
• Gill slits are separate and without operculum Skin is tough, • Skin is covered with cycloid/ctenoid scales.
containing minute placoid scales
Absence of air bladder. • Air bladder is present.
Some of them have electric organs. e.g., • Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is usually external.
• Torpedo or Rays and some possess poison sting (e.g., • Mostly oviparous and development is direct.

Trygon). Males pelvic fins bear claspers. Eg. : Marine - Exocoetus (Flying fish), Hippocampus (Sea
horse)
• Internal fertilization and many of them are viviparous.
Fresh water: Labeo (Rohu),
Examples: Scoliodon (Dog fish) Pristis (Saw fish) Carcharodon Catla (Katla), Clarias (Magur)
(Great white shark) Trygon (Sting ray), Torpedo (Electric Aquarium : Betta (Fighting fish),
Pterophyllum (Angel fish).
ray)

CLASS AMPHIBIA CLASS – AVES

• Body is divisible into head and trunk.

• Tail may be present in some.
Eg.: Crow (Corvus), Pigeon (Columba), Parrot (Psittacula),
• Amphibian skin is moist.
Ostrich (Struthio), Peacock (Pavo), Penguin (Aptenodytes),
E.g., Toad (Bufo), Frog (Rana), Tree frog (Hyla), Limbless amphibia
Vulture (Neophron).
(Ichthyophis).
Skin is dry without glands except the oil gland at the base of
the tail

CLASS – MAMMALIA

Viviparous : Macropus (Kangaroo), Pteropus (Flying fox), Camelus

(Camel), Macaca (Monkey), Rattus (Rat), Canis (Dog), Felis (Cat), False fishes
Elephas (Elephant), Equus (Horse). 1. Jelly fishes Aurelia Coelentrata
Panthera tigris (Tiger), Panthera leo (Lion).
Aquatic mammals :
2. Cray fish Astacus Arthropoda
Delphinus (Common dolphin) 3. Silver fish Lepisma Arthropoda
Balaenoptera (Blue whale) 4. Cuttle fish Sepia Mollusca
5. Devil fish Octopus Mollusca
6. Razor fish Solen Mollusca
CLASS – REPTILIA 7. Shell fish Mollusca
8. Star fish Asterias Echinodermata
Eg.: Turtle (Chelone), Tortoise (Testudo), Tree lizard
(Chameleon), Garden lizard (Calotes), Crocodile (Crocodilus), 9. Hagfish Myxine Cyclostomata
Alligator (Alligator). Wall lizard (Hemidactylus), Poisonous 10. Whale fish Balaenoptera Mammal
snakes-Cobra (Naja). Krait (Bangarus), Viper (Vipera).
Chapter
MORPHOLOGY OF
05 FLOWERING PLANTS
Smallest angiosperm is Wolffia.
THE ROOT
Tallest angiosperm is Eucalyptus ragnans Roots

Annuals : Life cycle is completed in

single year. Tap root Fibrous root Adventitious
system system roots
Annuals and biennials are monocarpic plants
Biennials : Life cycle is completed in two seasons. eg. Dicots eg. Monocots eg. Grass, Monstera,
(Mustard) (Wheat) Banyan

REGIONS OF ROOT
MODIFICATIONS OF ROOT
MODIFICATIONS OF ROOT
Region of Region of Region of
meristematic elongation maturation
activity Storage Support Respiration

Tap root Adventitious Prop root Stilt root

Thin walled Responsible for Root hairs arises
root
and repeatedly growth of root in from
eg- Carrot, eg- Banyan eg-Maize ,
dividing cells length this zone Turnip sugarcane
eg- Sweet potato,
Asparagus Pneumatophores

THE STEM eg- Rhizophora

The stem is the ascending part of the axis bearing branches,

leaves, flowers and fruits. It develops from a plumule of the
embryo of the germinating seed. MODIFICATIONS OF STEM
Stem bears buds, which may be terminal or axillary.
The stem bears nodes and internodes. Modifications of stem
Storage eg- Zaminkand, Ginger, Turmeric, Potato, Colocasia
(underground)
THE LEAF
Support Stem tendrils eg-Gourds (cucumber, pumpkin,
Parts of Leaf (Climbing) watermelon) and Grapevines

Protection Thorns eg-Citrus, Bougainvillea

1. Leaf base 2. Petiole 3. Lamina/Leaf blade Opuntia (flattened)
Photosynthesis
Euphorbia (cylindrical)
Sheath covered Pulvinus leaf Hold the blade Green expanded
leaf base base towards light part Vegetative
Propagation RUNNER → Grass & Strawberry
STOLON → Mint & Jasmine
Have midrib
eg- Monocots eg- Leguminous OFFSET → Pistia & Eichhornia
(middle prominent vein)
plants
SUCKER → Banana, Pineapple & Chrysanthemum

The leaf base may become swollen, which is called the pulvinus. E.g.:
Pea, legumes and Trifolium.
 VENATION PHYLLOTAXY
Phyllotaxy
When the Veinlets form a network, the venation
E.g., Mango
is termed as reticulate
When the veins run parallel to each other within
E.g., Banana 1. Alternate 2. Opposite 3. Whorled
a lamina, the venation is termed as parallel.
(code-CMS)

eg. - China rose eg- Alstonia

TYPES OF LEAVES - Mustard
eg- Guava
- Calotropis
- Sun flower
Types of leaves

Simple leaf Compound leaf THE INFLORESCENCE

Racemose type : The flowers are borne laterally in an
acropetal succession.
Pinnately compound Palmately compound
leaf leaf In cymose type of inflorescence the main axis
terminates in a flower.
The flowers are borne in a basipetal order.
e.g - Neem e.g - Silk cotton

MODIFICATIONS OF LEAVES
SYMMETRY OF FLOWER
Modifications of Leaves

→ Climbing or support → Tendrils → eg. Pea Actinomorphic Zygomorphic Asymmetric

(Radial sym.) (Bilateral sym) (Irregular)
Defence or protection → Spines → eg. Cacti

Storage → Fleshy leaves eg- Garlic, Onion eg -Datura eg -Pea eg -Canna

-Chilli -Bean
Photosynthesis → Expanded petiole → eg- Australian acacia -Mustard -Cassia
-Gulmohur
Pitcher/flap → Insectivorous plants → eg- Pitcher plant,
Venus-fly trap

FLOWER
Flower

Acessory organs Reproductive organs

Calyx Corolla Androecium Gynoecium

Sepals Petals Stamens Carpels/ pistils

In some flowers like lily, the calyx and corolla are not
distinct and are termed as perianth.
 TYPES OF FLOWER ON THE BASIS OF POSITION OF AESTIVATION
CALYX, COROLLA AND ANDROECIUM IN RESPECT OF
OVARY ON THALAMUS
Aestivation
Flower

Valvate Twisted Imbricate Vexillary

Hypogynous or Papilionaceous
Perigynous Epigynous
eg - Cassia
eg- Calotropis -Gulmohar
eg -China rose
Ovary eg -Pea
Ovary superior Ovary inferior -Lady's finger
half-inferior - Bean
-Cotton

eg -Mustard eg -Plum eg -Guava

-China rose -Brinjal - Rose -Peach -Cucumber
-Ray florets of
sunflower

ANDROECIUM

Remains free May be united

Polyandrous

Monoadelphous Diadelphous Polyadelphous Valvate Twisted

eg- China rose eg-Pea eg-Citrus

• A sterile stamen is called staminode.

• When stamens are attached to the petals, they are epipetalous as in
brinjal, or epiphyllous when attached to the perianth as in the flower of lily.

GYNOECIUM
lmbricate Vexillary

Single carpel More than one carpel

Monocarpellary • When more than one carpels are present,

Multicarpellary they may be free ( as in lotus and rose) are
eg-Mango called apocarpous.

They are termed syncarpous when

Syncarpous Apocarpous
carpels are fused, as in mustard,
(carpels fused)
tomato and Papaver.
eg -Rose
eg - Papaver
-Michelia
-Mustard -
-Lotus
-Tomato
 PLACENTATION Marginal

Placentation
Marginal → Pea
Axile
→ Axile → Tomato, Lemon, China
rose
→ Parietal → Mustard, Argemone
Perietal

→ Free - central → Dianthus, Primrose

→ Basal → Sunflower, Marigold

Free
central

THE FRUIT Basal

It is called a parthenocarpic fruit e.g., Banana.

Fruit is formed without fertilisation of the ovary.
Fruit

Pericarp (fruit wall) Seed In mango and coconut, the fruit is known
as a drupe.
Dry (e.g- Groundunt & Fleshyb(e.g- Guava, mango Seed coat Embryo
mustard) & orange)
Outer layer Inner layer They develop from monocarpellary
superior ovaries and are one seeded.
Epicarp Mesocarp Endocarp Testa Tegmen

In coconut which is also a drupe, the

Embryonal axis Cotyledons
mesocarp is fibrous.

Radicle Plumule One Two

(in monocot) (in dicot)

e.g. Wheat,
Maize
e.g. Gram, Pea
STRUCTURE OF A
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS SEED

Monocotyledonous seeds are endospermic but some as

THE SEED in orchids are non-endospermic.
The endosperm is bulky and stores food. The outer
covering of endosperm separates the embryo by a
STRUCTURE OF A DICOTYLEDONOUS SEED proteinous layer called aleurone layer.

Outermost covering of a seed is the seed coat. The embryo is small and situated in a groove at one
end of the endosperm. It consists of one large and
The outer layer is testa and the inner tegmen. shield shaped cotyledon known as scutellum and a
The hilum is a scar on the seed coat through which the short axis with a plumule and a radicle.
developing seeds were attached to the fruit..
In some seeds such as castor the endosperm The plumule and radicle are enclosed in sheaths which
formed as a result of double fertilisation. are called coleoptile and coleorhiza respectively.
 DESCRIPTION OF SOME IMPORTANT FAMILIES

FABACEAE SOLANACEAE
Inflorescence : Racemose
Floral Formula : % K (5) C 1+2+(2) A (9)+1 G (1) Floral Formula : K (5) C (5) A (5) G (2)

VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS

• Trees, shrubs, herbs; root with root nodules • Plants mostly herbs, shrubs and rarely small trees
• Stem: Erect or climber • Stem: Herbaceous rarely woody, aerial; erect, cylindrical, branched,
• Leaves: Alternate, pinnately compound or simple; leaf base, solid or hollow, hairy or glabrous, underground stem in potato
pulvinate; stipulate; venation reticulate. (Solanum tuberosum)
• Leaves : Alternate, simple, rarely pinnately compound, exstipulate;
• Economic importance : Many plants belonging to the family venation reticulate.
are sources of pulses (gram, arhar, sem, moong, soyabean;
edible oil (soyabean, groundnut); dye (Indigofera); fibres • Economic Importance: Many plants belonging to this family are
(sunhemp); fodder (Sesbania, Trifolium), ornamentals (Lupin, source of food (tomato, brinjal, potato), spice (chilli); medicine
sweet pea); medicine (muliathi), Pisum sativum (pea) (belladonna, ashwagandha); fumigatory (tobacco); ornamentals
(Petunia). Solanum nigrum (makoi), Ashwagandha : Withania somnifera

LILIACEAE

Floral Formula : Br P A G
(3+3) 3+3 (3)

VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS

• Perennial herbs with underground

bulbs/corms/rhizomes.
• leaves: Mostly basal, alternate, linear, exstipulate
with parallel venation.
• Economic Importance: Many plants belonging to this
family are good ornamentals (tulip, Gloriosa), source of
medicine (Aloe), vegetables (Asparagus), and colchicine
(Colchicum autumnale). Allium cepa (onion)
Chapter
ANATOMY OF
06
FLOWERING PLANTS
COLLENCHYMA
THE TISSUES
• Cells are much thickened at the corners due to deposition of
cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
• Intercellular spaces are absent.
• They provide mechanical support to the growing parts of the
plant such as young stem and petiole of a leaf.

cambium

SCLERENCHYMA
Sclereids

D=dead; L=living
• Sclerenchyma consists of long, narrow cells with thick and lignified
cell walls having a few or numerous [Link] dead and without
protoplasts.
• May be either fibres or sclereids.
• Fibres are thick-walled, elongated and pointed cells.
• Sclereids are spherical, oval or cylindrical, highly thickened
dead cells with very narrow cavities.
MERISTEMATIC TISSUES • Commonly found in the fruit walls of nuts; pulp of fruits like
guava, pear and sapota; seed coats of legumes and leaves of
Two types of meristems : Primary & secondary. tea.
Primary Meristem
Two types : Apical meristem & intercalary meristem.

Apical Meristem
COMPLEX TISSUES
Occur at the tips of roots and shoots.
Xylem and phloem constitute the complex tissues in plants.
Intercalary Meristem
Xylem
• Occurs between mature tissues.
• They occur in grasses (monocot) and regenerate parts
removed by grazing herbivores. • Conducting tissue for water and minerals from roots to the stem
and leaves. It also provides mechanical strength to the plant parts.

Secondary/Lateral Meristems • Four different kinds of elements, namely, tracheids, vessels, xylem
• Fascicular vascular cambium, interfascicular cambium and cork fibers and xylem parenchyma.
cambium are examples of lateral meristems.
• Pteridophytes & Gymnosperms lack vessels in their xylem.

PERMANENT TISSUES
TRACHEIDS
• Parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma.
PARENCHYMA • Tracheids are elongated or tube like with thick and lignified walls
• Cells are generally isodiametric. and tapering ends.
• Their walls are thin and made up of cellulose.
• Performs various functions like photosynthesis, storage, secretion. • Dead and are without protoplasm.
 VESSELS PHLOEM (BAST)

• Vessel is a long cylindrical tube-like structure made up of many cells • Phloem transports food materials, usually from leaves to other parts
called vessel members, each with lignified walls. of the plant.
• Vessel cells are also devoid of protoplasm. • Phloem in angiosperms is composed of sieve tube elements, companion cells,
• Vessel members are interconnected through perforations in their phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres.
common walls. • Gymnosperms have albuminous cells. They lack sieve tubes and companion
• Presence of vessels is a characteristic feature of angiosperms. cells.

XYLEM FIBRES SEIVE TUBE

• Highly thickened walls and obliterated central lumens. • Sieve tube elements are also long, tube-like structures, arranged
longitudinally and are associated with the companion cells.
• Cells are narrow and pointed at the ends and have bordered pits,
either septate or aseptate. • Their end walls are perforated in a sieve-like manner to form the
sieve plates.

• A mature sieve element possesses a peripheral cytoplasm and a large

XYLEM PARENCHYMA vacuole but lacks a nucleus.

• Xylem parcenchyma cells are living and thin-walled, are made up • Functions of sieve tubes are controlled by the nucleus of companion
of cellulose. cells.

• Store food materials in the form of starch or fat, and other

substances like tannins. COMPANION CELLS
• Radial conduction of water takes place by the ray parenchymatous
• Companion cells are specialised parenchyrmatous cells, which are closely
cells.
associated with sieve tube elements.
• Primary xylem is of two types, protoxylem and metaxylem. First formed
primary xylem elements are called protoxylem the later formed primary xylem is • Sieve tube elements and companion cells are connected by pit fields
called metaxylem. present between their common longitudinal walls.

• In stems, the protoxylem lies towards the centre and the metaxylem lies
towards the periphery. This type of primary xylem is called endarch.
PHLOEM PARENCHYMA
• In roots, the protoxylem lies towards periphery and metaxylem lies
towards the centre. Such arrangement of primary xylem is called • Phloem parenchyma is made up of elongated, tapering cylinclrical cells
exarch. which have dense cytoplasm and nucleus.

• The cell wall is composed of cellulose and has pits.

• Phloem parenchyma stores food and other material other substances

PHLOEM FIBRES like resins, latex and mucilage.
• Phloem parenchyma is absent in most of the monocotyledons.
• These are generally absent in the primary phloem but are found in the
secondary phloem.
EPIDERMAL TISSUE SYSTEM
• The first formed primary phloem consists of narrow sieve tubes and is
referred to as protophloem and the later formed phloem has bigger sieve
1. EPIDERMIS
tubes and is referred to as metaphloem.
• Epidermis is the outermost layer of the primary plant body. Epidermis is
THE TISSUE SYSTEM usually single layered.

• Epidermal cells are parenchymatous.

• Outside of the epidermis is often covered with a waxy thick layer called
the cuticle which prevents the loss of water.
 2. STOMATA

• Stomata are structures present in the epidermis of leaves. • Sometimes, a few epidermal cells, in the vicinity of the guard cells
• Regulate the process of transpiration and gaseous exchange. become specialised in their shape and size and are known as
subsidiary cells.
• Composed of two bean shaped cells known as guard cell.
• Stomatal aperture, guard cells and the surrounding subsidiary
• In grasses, the guard cells are dumbbell shaped.
cells are together called stomatal apparatus.

3. Epidermal Appendages Ground Tissue System

Root hairs • Consists of parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma
• Unicellular elongations of the epidermal cells.
• Helps in absorption of water and minerals from soil • Parenchymatous cells are usually present in cortex,
pericycle, pith and medullary rays.
Trichome
s
• Usually multicellular
• Prevent water loss due to transpiration.

Vascular Tissue System

• In dicotyledonous stems, cambium is present between phloem and xylem • In conjoint type of vascular bundles, the xylem and phloem are
and are called open vascular bundles. situated at the same radius of vascular bundles. Such vascular bundles
• In the monocotyledons, the vascular bundles have no cambium present in are common in stems and leaves.
them and are referred to as closed. • The conjoint vascular bundles usually have the phloem located
• When xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are arranged in an only on the outer side of xylem.
alternate manner on different radii, the arrangement is called radial
such as in roots.

Dicotyledonous Root
• Vascular bundles are radial type of arranged in a ring.
• Usually two to four xylem and phloem patches.
• Pericycle, vascular bundles and pith constitute the stele.

Monocotyledonous Root
• It has epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, vascular bundles and
pith.
2 or 4 Vascular Tissue System (T.S.)

• Cortex consists of several layers of thin-walled. parenchyma cells with

intercellular spaces.
• Innermost layer of the cortex is called endodermis.
• Endodermal cells have a deposition of water impermeable, waxy material,
suberin, in the form of casparian strips.
• Xylem bundles: There are usually more than six (polyarch) in the
• Endodermis lies a few layers of thick-walled parenchyomatous cells monocot root. Phloem parenchyma is absent.
referred to as pericycle. Initiation of lateral roots and vascular cambium
during the secondary growth takes place in these cells. • Pith is large and well developed.
• Pith is small or inconspicuous.
• Monocotyledonous roots do not undergo any secondary growth.
• Parenchymatous cells which lie between the xylem and the phloem are
called conjuctive tissue.
 DICOTYLEDONOUS STEM
ISOBILATERAL (MONOCOTYLEDONOUS)
LEAF
• Mesophyll is not differentiated.

• In grasses, certain adaxial epidermal cells along the veins modify

themselves into large, empty, colourless cells. These are called
Sclerenchymatous
bulliform cells.
Sclerenchymatous

SECONDARY GROWTH

VASCULAR CAMBIUM

• The meristematic layer that is responsible for cutting off vascular

tissues, xylem and pholem, is called vascular cambium.

• In the young stem it is present in patches as a single layer between

the xylem and phloem. Later it forms a complete ring.
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STEM
Formation of cambial ring
Monocot stem
• Dicot stems, the cells of cambium present between primary xylem
1. Hypodermis is sclerenchymatous. and primary phloem is the intrafascicular cambium.
2. Pith is absent.
• Cells of medullary rays, adjoining these intrafascicular cambium
3. Phloem parenchyma is absent. become meristematic and form the interfascicular cambium. Thus, a
4. Vascular bundles are scattered. continuous ring of cambium is formed.

5. Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral and closed.

6. Secondary growth is absent.
7. Bundle sheath is present.
ACTIVITY OF THE CAMBIAL RING
8. Medullary rays are absent.

• Cambial ring becomes active and begins to cut off (to form) new cells,
both towards the inner and the outer sides.

DORSIVENTRAL (DICOTYLEDONOUS) LEAF • Cells cut off towards pith, mature into secondary xylem and towards
periphery mature into secondary phloem.

• Cambium is generally more active on the inner side than on the outer.

• As a result, the amount of secondary xylem produced is more than

secondary phloem and soon forms a compact mass.

• Correct sequence of layers in stem is as follows from outer to inner

side : 1° Phloem -2° phloem - Cambium -2° Xylem -1° xylem - pith.
 CORK CAMBIUM/PHELLOGEN

• Cork cambium cut off cells on both sides. Outer cells differentiate into Cork or
Phellem.
• Inner cells differentiate into secondary cortex or Phelloderm.
• Cork is impervious to water due to suberin deposition in the cell wall. Cells of
secondary cortex are parenchymatous.

• Phellogen, phellem, and phelloderm are collectively known as periderm.

SECONDARY GROWTH IN ROOTS

• Secondary growth occurs in gymnosperms, dicot roots and stems.

• Dicot root, the vascular cambium is completely secondary in origin.

Stele = VPP = Vascular tissue + Pericycle + Pitr

Ground tissue = CPP = Cortex + Pericycle + Pith
water
Bark = SPP = Secondary Phloem + Periderm
Periderm. = PPP = Phellem + Phellogen + Phelloderm
= Cork + Cork cambium +2 cortex
Chapter
STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION
07 IN ANIMALS
Four types: 1 Epithelial 2 Connective 3 Muscular 4 Neural

ANIMAL Cuboidal or columnar

TISSUES epithelium

Epithelial 2. Connective 3 . Muscular 4. Neural

Ciliated epithelium Glandular

epithelium
Simple epithelium Compound epithelium
Eg., Bronchioles,
Fallopian tubes
Squamous Eg. Wall of blood vessels,
epithelium Air sacs of lungs
Cuboidal Eg. Ducts of glands, Unicellular Multicellular
epithelium Tabular parts of nephron of kIdney
Eg., Goblet cells of Eg., Salivary gland
Columnar Eg. Lining of stomach and intestine
epithelium alimentary canal

COMPOUND EPITHELIUM CONNECTIVE TISSUE (C.T.)

They cover the dry surface of the skin, the moist surface of Connective tissue (C.T.)
buccal cavity, pharynx, inner lining of ducts of salivary glands and
of pancreatic ducts. Loose C.T. Dense C.T. Specialised C.T.

Junction
Areolar Tissue Adipose Tissue Cartilage Bone Blood

Beneath the Beneath

Tight Adhering Gap junction skin the skin
junction junction
Dense regular Dense irregular

Tendons Ligament E.g., Skin

Stop substances Cementing Facilitate cell to cell
from leaking neighbouring cells communication Muscle to bone Bone to bone

1. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Areolar tissue serves as a support framework for epithelium. It contains
fibroblasts, macrophages and mast cells.

Adipose tissue is another type of loose connective tissue located mainly beneath
the skin and store fats.
 2. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
• Fibres and fibroblasts are compactly packed in the dense connective tissues.
• In the dense regular connective tissues, the collagen fibres are present in rows between many parallel bundles of fibres.
• Tendons, which attach skeletal muscles to bones and ligaments which attach one bone to another are examples of this tissue.
• Dense irregular connective tissue has fibroblasts and many fibres (mostly collagen) that are oriented differently.

3. SPECIALISED CONNECTIVE TISSUES MUSCULAR TISSUES NEURAL TISSUES

• Cartilage, bones and blood are various types of
specialised connective tissues.

• The intercellular material of cartilage is solid and

pliable and resists compression. Cells of this tissue
(chondrocytes) are enclosed in small cavities within
the matrix secreted by them.

COCKROACH MORPHOLOGY

• Periplaneta americana have wings that extend beyond the tip of the abdomen
Phylum Arthropoda. Nocturnal omnivores in males.

• The body of the cockroach is segmented and divisible into three distinct
Sense organs of cockroach regions-head, thorax and abdomen.

• The entire body is covered by a hard chitinous exoskeleton (brown in colour).

1. Antennae 3. Maxillary palps 5. Anal cerci
• In each segment, exoskeleton has hardened plates called sclerites (tergites
dorsally and sternites ventrally) that are joined to each other by a thin and
flexible articular membrane (arthrodial membrane).
2. Eyes (Compound) 4. Labial palps

HEAD MOUTH PARTS OF COCKROACH

Head is triangular.
Grinding Labrum (Upper lip)
Flexible neck. region
Mandible Mandible
The head capsule bears a pair of compound eyes. A pair of Incising region Hypopharynx
thread like antennae arise from membranous sockets lying in (tongue)
front of eyes. Maxilla Maxilla

Labium (lower lip)

Antennae have sensory receptors that help in monitoring the
environment.

Thorax
Thorax consists of three parts : prothorax, mesothorax & metathorax. The head is connected with thorax by a short extension of the prothorax known
as the neck.
Each thoracic segment bears a pair of walking legs.
The first pair of wings arises from mesothorax and the second pair from metathorax.
Forewings (mesothoracic) called tegmina or elytra are opaque dark and leathery and cover the hind wings when at rest.
The hind wings are transparent, membranous and are used in flight.
 ABDOMEN ANATOMY
The abdomen in both males and females consists of 10 segments.
Males bear a pair of short, thread like anal styles 9th sternum which are absent in DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
females. Alimentary Canal of cockroach
In both sexes, the 10th segment bears a pair of jointed filamentous structures called
anal cerci. Mouth

F Pharynx
BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM O
R Oesophagus
E
G
U Crop (for storing food)
Respiratory System T
Gizzard (for grinding)
Respiratory system consists of a network of trachea, that open through 10 pairs of
small holes called spiracles.
M Hepatic or gastric caeca (At the
junction of foregut and midgut)
Excretory System I
D
Excretion is performed by Malpighian tubules. G Malpighian tubules
U (At the junction of midgut and
T
Nervous System hindgut)

Three ganglia lie in the thorax, and six in the abdomen.

In the head region, the brain is represented by supra-oesophageal ganglion which H
supplies nerves to antennae and compound eyes. I Ileum
N
D
Sense organs G Colon
U
Antennae, eyes, maxillary palps, labial palps, anal cerci, etc. T Rectum Anus
The compound eyes are situated at the dorsal surface of the head.
Each eye consists of about 2000 hexagonal ommatidia.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Cockroaches are dioecious.

Male reproductive system consists of a pair of testes lying one on each lateral side in the 4th-6th abdominal segments.
A characteristic mushroom shaped gland or utricular gland is present in the 6th-7th abdominal segments which functions as
an accessory reproductive gland.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

In females, the 7th sternum is boat shaped and together with the 8th and 9th sterna forms a brood or genital pouch whose anterior part
contains female gonopore, spermathecal pores and collaterial glands.
The female reproductive system consists of two large ovaries, lying laterally in the 2nd-6th abdominal segments.
A pair of spermatheca is present in the 6th segment which opens into the genital chamber.
Sperms are transferred through spermatophores.
Their fertilised eggs are encased in capsules called oothecae.
On an average, females produce 9-10 oothecae, each containing 14-16 eggs. The nymphs look very much like adults.
The development of P. americana is paurometabolous, meaning there is development through nymphal stage.
The nymph grows by moulting about 13 times to reach the adult form.
Chapter

08 CELL THE UNIT OF LIFE

Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell

Cell was discovered by Robert Hooke. theory.
Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first saw and described a live
cell. Rudolf Virchow (Omnis cellula-e cellula).
Matthias Schleiden examined a large number of Cell theory as understood today is:
plants. i) All living organisms are composed of cells and
Theodore Schwann studied different types of products of cells.
animal cells and reported that cells had a thin ii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
outer layer which is today known as the
'plasma membrane'.
PROKARYOTIC CELLS

AN OVERVIEW OF CELL Bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma and PPLO

(Pleuro Pneumonia like organisms).
Cytoplasm is the main arena of cellular activities in Cell wall surrounding the cell membrane except in
both the plant and animal cells. mycoplasma.
Mycoplasmas, smallest cells are only 0.3μm in No well defined nucleus.
length while bacteria could be 3 to 5μm.
Genetic material is basically naked.
Largest isolated single cell is the egg of an ostrich
(15 cm).
Small circular DNA outside the genomic DNA (Plasmids.)
Human red blood cells are about 7.0 μm in
diameter. No organelles, like the ones in eukaryotes, except
Nerve cells are longest cells. forribosomes.
RBCs are round & biconcave. Something unique in the form of inclusions.

CELL ENVELOPE AND ITS

MODIFICATIONS Help in cell wall formation, DNA replication
respiration,respiration secretion processes.
Three layered structure outermost glycocalyx Cyanobacteria, have other membranous
followed by the cell wall and then the plasma
extensions into the cytoplasm called
membrane. Function together as a single
protective unit. chromatophores which contain pigments.

Those that take up the gram stain are Gram Cell wall determines the shape of the cell and
provides a strong structural support to cell.
positive and the others that do not are called
Gram negative bacteria. Plasma membrane is selectively-permeable in
nature.
Glycocalyx Could be a loose sheath called the
slime layer in some, in others it may be thick and Mesosome formed by extensions of
tough, called the capsule. plasma membrane in the form of vesicles,
tubules and lamellae.

FLAGELLA

Filamentous extensions from their cell wall.

Pili and Fimbriae are also surface structures of the
bacteria but do not play a role in motility.
Pili made of a special protein Pilin.
Fimbriae are small bristle like fibres.
Help attach the bacteria to rocks in streams and
also to the host tissues.
 RIBOSOMES INCLUSION BODIES

15 nm by 20 nm in size made of two subunits 50S and 30S Reserve material are stored in the cytoplasm in the
units which when present together form 70S. form of inclusion bodies.
Site of protein synthesis. Not bounded by any membrane system
Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA and form Gas vacuoles are found in blue green and purple and
a chain called polyribosome or polysome. green photosynthetic bacteria.

EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Extensive compartmentalisation, presence of
membrane bound organelles.
Organised nucleus with a nuclear envelope. Variety of
complex locomotory and cytoskeletal structures.
Plant and animal cell are different as the former CELL MEMBRANE
possess cell wall, plastids and a large central vacuole
which are absent in animal cells.
Lipids are arranged in a bilayer.
Polar head towards the outer sides hydrophobic tails
towards the inner part.
CELL WALL
The membrane of the erythrocyte has approximately 52 per
cent protein and
A non-living rigid structure forms an outer covering 40 per cent lipids.
for the plasma membrane.

Gives shape to the cell and protects the cell from

mechanical damage and infection, it also helps in cell- FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
to-cell interaction provides barrier to undesirable
macromolecules.
Proposed by Singer and Nicolson.
Algae made of cellulose, galactans, mannans and
minerals like calcium carbonate, in other plants it Peripheral proteins lie on the surface of membrane
while the integral proteins are partially or totally
consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins & proteins. buried in the membrane.
Young plant cell, the primary wall is capable of
growth, secondary wall is formed on the inner Quasi-fluid nature of lipid enables lateral movement of
(towards membrane) side of the cell. proteins within the overall bilayer.

Middle lamella is a layer mainly of calcium pectate Fluid nature of the membrane; cell growth formation of
which holds or glues the different neighbouring cells intercellular junctions, secretion, endocytosis, cell division
together. etc.

Cell wall and middle lamella may be traversed by Important functions of the plasma membrane is the
plasmodesmata to connect the cytoplasm of transport of the molecules across it.
neighbouring cells.
Movement of water by diffusion is called osmosis.

ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
(i) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (III). LYSOSOMES

Network or reticulum of tiny tubular structures

scattered in the cytoplasm. Formed by the process of packaging in the
golgi apparatus.
Divides the intracellular space into two, luminal &
extra luminal compartments. Rich in almost all types of hydrolytic enzymes
Endoplasmic reticulum bearing ribosomes on their optimally active at the acidic pH.
surface is called rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER).
Capable of digesting the macromolecules like
In the absence of ribosomes they appear smooth and carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic
are called smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). acids
RER involved in protein synthesis and secretion.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum, major site for synthesis (IV). VACUOLES
of lipid and steroids (lipid – like steroidal hormones).
Membrane-bound space found in the cytoplasm,
bound by a single membrane called tonoplast.
(II). GOLGI APPARATUS
Vacuoles can occupy up to 90 per cent of the
volume of the cell.
Camillo Golgi first observed densely stained Contains water, dissolved substances, sap,
reticular structures near the nucleus. excretory product and other materials not
Many flat, membranous disc-shaped sacs/bag or useful for the cell.
cisternae of 0.5μm to 1.0μm diameter.
Transport of a number of ions and other
Stacked parallel to each other. materials against concentration gradients into
the vacuole.
Concentrically arranged near the nucleus with
distinct convex cis or the forming face and
concave trans or the maturing face. In Amoeba, contractile vacuole is important for
excretion & osmoregulation.
Function of packaging materials to be delivered
either to the intra-cellular targets or secreted In protists, food vacuoles are formed by
outside the cell. engulfing the food particles.
Packed in the form of vesicles from the ER fuse with
the cis face of the golgi apparatus and move towards
the maturing face.
Proteins modified in the cisternae of the golgi
(4) MITOCHONDRIA
apparatus before they are released from trans
face.
Important site of formation of glycoproteins and Absent in mammalian RBCs and prokaryotes.
glycolipids.
Sausage-shaped or cylindrical having a diameter of
0.2 -1.0 μm (average 0.5 μm) and length 1.0 – 4.1 μm
Double membrane-bound structure
(5) PLASTIDS distinctly two aqueous compartments, the outer
compartment and the inner compartment.
Inner compartment is called the matrix.
Found in all plant cells and in euglenoids.
Inner membrane forms a number of infoldings called
Bear some specific pigments, imparting specific the cristae (sing.: crista) towards the matrix.
colours to the plants.
Sites of aerobic respiration or Kreb's cycle.
Classified into chloroplasts, chromoplasts and 'Power houses' of the cell.
leucoplasts.
Single circular DNA molecule, few RNA molecules,
ribosomes (70S).
Divide by fission.
 CHLOROPLASTS

Lens-shaped, oval, spherical, discoid or even ribbon-like

organelles having variable length (5-10Pm) and width (2-
4Pm).
1 per cell of the Chlamydomonas, 20-40 per cell in the
mesophyll.
Double membrane bound., the inner chloroplast membrane is
relatively less permeable.
Space limited by the inner membrane of the chloroplast is
called the stroma.
Number of organised flattened disc like membranous sacs
called the thylakoids,

oil & fat protein Thylakoids are arranged in stacks like the piles of coins
called grana.

Flat membranous tubules called the stroma lamellae

connecting the thylakoids of the different grana.
(6) RIBOSOMES Membrane of the thylakoids enclose a space called a lumen.

Granular structures first observed as dense particles by small, double-stranded circular DNA molecules and
George Palade (1953). ribosomes.

Composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA). Ribosomes of the chloroplasts are smaller (70S) than the
cytoplasmic ribosomes (80S).
Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S prokaryotic ribosomes are
70S. Mitochondria and chloroplast are semi-autonomous
organelles because
'S' stands for the Svedberg unit or sedimentation
coefficient. Possess their own nucleic acid (DNA molecule).
Two subunits of 70S ribosome are 50S (larger subunit) Can form some of the required protein.
30S (smaller subunit).
Do not arise de novo.
Two subunits of 80S ribosome are 60S (larger subunit) & membrane similar to those of bacteria.
40S (smaller subunit).

Ribosomes are site of protein synthesis so they are called

protein factories.
(8) CILIA AND FLAGELLA

(7) CYTOSKELETON Hair-like outgrowths of the cell membrane.

Cilia are small structures which work like oars.
Network of filamentous proteinaceous structures present Flagella are comparatively longer and responsible for cell
in the cytoplasm is collectively referred to as the movement.
cytoskeleton.
Core called the axoneme, possesses a number of microtubules
Mechanical support, motility, maintenance of the shape of running parallel to the long axis.
the cell.
Axoneme usually has nine pairs of doublets of radially
arranged peripheral
microtubules, and a pair of centrally located microtubules.
9+2 array.
Both the cilium and flagellum emerge from centriole like
structure called the basal bodies.
 (9) CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES

Two cylindrical structures called centrioles. They are

surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar materials.
Centrioles in a centrosome lie perpendicular to each
other in which each has an organisation like the
cartwheel.
Nine evenly spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin.
Each of the peripheral fibril (microtubule) is a
triplet. The adjacent triplets are also linked.
The central part of the centriole is also
proteinaceous and called the hub, which is
connected with tubules of the peripheral triplets
by radial spokes made of protein.
The centrioles form spindle fibres that give rise to
spindle apparatus

10) MICROBODIES
Membrane bound minute vesicles called
microbodies.

11) NUCLEUS

First described by Robert Brown

structure
Stained by the basic dyes was given the
name chromatin by flemming.
Normally, there is only one nucleus per cell.
Some mature cells even lack nucleus, e.g., Chromatin contains DNA and some basic proteins called histones
erythrocytes of many mammals and sieve some non-histone proteins and also RNA.
tube cells of vascular plants. These cells
are enucleated or anucleated. Every chromosome essentially has a primary constriction or the
centromere on the sides of which disc shaped structures called
The interphase nucleus has highly extended kinetochores are present.
and elaborate nucleoprotein fibres called
chromatin, nuclear matrix and one or more
spherical bodies called nucleoli.
Two parallel membranes with a space between
(10 to 50 nm ) called the perinuclear space.

Nuclear envelope is interrupted by minute

pores, which are formed by the fusion of its
two membranes.
Nuclear pores are the passages through
which movement of RNA and protein
molecules takes place in both directions
between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

Nucleoplasm contains nucleolus and

chromatin.
Content of nucleolus is continuous with
the rest of the nucleoplasm it is not a
membrane bound structure.

Nucleolus is a site for active ribosomal

RNA (r-RNA) synthesis.
Few chromosomes have non-staining secondary constrictions at a constant location. This gives the appearance of a
small fragment called the satellite.
Chapter

09 BIOMOLECULES
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS PRIMARY AND SECONDARY METABOLITES

BIOMACROMOLECULES and BIOMiCROMOLECULES

Except lipid, other macromolecules are formed by polymerization or condensation of monomers hence these are called polymers.

BIOMOLECULES

Micromolecules Macromolecules

Mwt. ranging from 18 to Mwt. in range of 10,000

800 Da. Da or above.
Present in acid soluble Present in acid insoluble
pool pool
Many types 4 types
eg. eg.
Glucose Protein
Ribose Nucleic acid
Amino acids Polysaccharide
Nitrogen bases Lipid (exception)
Nucleosides
Nucleotides

Lipids are not strictly macromolecules.

 CARBOHYDRATES AMINO ACIDS
Homopolysaccharides
Starch : Starch forms helical secondary structures. Substituted methanes.
starch can hold I₂ molecules These are four substituent groups occupying the four valency
Glycogen : commonly called animal starch because its structure positions.
similar to amylopectin. These are hydrogen, carboxyl group, amino group and a variable
In a polysaccharide chain (say glycogen}, the right end is called the group.
reducing end and the left end is called the non-reducing end. It has Based on the nature of R group there are many amino acids. However,
branches. those which occur in proteins are only of twenty types.
Cellulose does not contain complex helices and cannot hold I₂ The R group in these proteinaceous amino acids could be a hydrogen
Chitin - Homopolymer of N Acetyl Glucosamine (the amino acid is called glycine), a methyl group (alanine), hydroxy
Inulin - Polymer of Fructose methyl (serine).
1. Acidic amino acids – Glutamic acid (glutamate), Aspartic acid
(aspartate).
LIPIDS 2. Basic amino acids – Histidine, Arginine and Lysine.
Water insoluble 3. Neutral amino acids – Valine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Alanine and Glycine.
They could be simple fatty acids. A fatty acid has a carboxyl group 4. Alcoholic amino acids – Threonine and Serine.
attached to a R group. 5. Aromatic amino acids – Tryptophan, Tyrosine and Phenylalanine.
The R group could be a methyl (–CH₃), or ethyl (–C₂H₅) or higher 6. Sulphur containing amino acid – Cysteine and Methionine.
number of –CH₂ groups (1 carbon to 19 carbons).
Palmitic acid has 16 carbons including carboxyl carbon.
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds in their Zwitter ion
carbon chain.
Arachidonic acid has 20 carbon atoms including the carboxyl
carbon.
Simple lipid is glycerol which is trihydroxy propane.
Many lipids have both glycerol and fatty acids.
Fats and oils are differentiated on basis of melting point.
Here the fatty acids are found esterified with glycerol. They can be
then monoglycerides, diglycerides and triglycerides.
Phospholipids : They are found in cell membrane.
Lecithin

PROTEIN SECONDARY STRUCTURE (PEPTIDE BOND +

A protein is a heteropolymer H-BOND)

Proteins, only right handed helices are observed.

Other regions of the protein thread are folded into other forms in
STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS what is called the secondary structure.

PRIMARY STRUCTURE
TERTIARY STRUCTURE
The first aminoacid is also called as N-terminal amino acid.
The last amino acid is called the C-terminal amino acid. (Peptide + H Bond + Disulphide Bond)

PROTEIN FUNCTIONS
Collagen Intercellular ground substances
QUARTERNARY STRUCTURE
Trypsin Enzymes
Insulin Hormone
Some proteins are an assembly of more than one polypeptide or
Antibody Fights infectious agents subunits.
Receptor Sensory reception (smell, taste, hormone, etc.) Adult human haemoglobin consists of 4 subunits. Two of these are
GLUT-4 Enables glucose transport into cells. identical to each other. Hence, two subunits of α-type and two
subunits of β-type together constitute the human haemoglobin.
 ENZYMES
NATURE OF ENZYME
All enzymes are protein
ACTION
Some nucleic acids behave like enzymes. These
are called ribozymes.
In the tertiary structure the backbone of the
protein chain folds upon itself, the chain criss-
crosses itself and hence, many crevices or Concept of activation energy
pockets are made. One such pocket is ‘active How do enzymes bring about such high rates of
site’. chemical conversions?

FACTORS AFFECTING CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE OF ENZYMES

ENZYME ACTIVITY
Oxidoreductases/dehydrogenases : Enzymes which catalyse oxidoreduction between two
substrates S and S’ or transfer of electron.
1. Temperature and pH
S reduced + S’ oxidized → S oxidized + S’ reduced.
Transferases : Enzymes catalysing a transfer of a group, G (other than hydrogen)
between pair of substrate S and S’ e.g.,
S – G + S’ → S + S’ – G
Hydrolases : Enzymes catalysing hydrolysis of ester, ether peptide, glycosidic, C-C, C-halide
or P-N bonds.
Lyases : Enzymes that catalyse removal of groups from substrates by mechanisms other
Effect of change in pH on Effect of change in temp. on than hydrolysis leaving double bonds.
enzyme activity enzyme activity Isomerases : Includes all enzymes catalysing inter-conversion of optical, geometrical or
positional isomers.
Ligases : Enzymes catalysing the linking together of 2 compounds e.g., enzymes which
catalyse joining of C–O, C–S, C–N, P–O etc. bonds.
2. Concentration of Substrate
Km indicates the substrate concentration at
which reaction attains half of its maximum
CO-FACTORS
velocity.
The protein portion of the enzymes is called the apoenzyme.
Three kinds of cofactors may be identified : prosthetic groups, co-enzymes and metal ions.

PROSTHETIC GROUPS

They are tightly bound to the apoenzyme.

Example, in peroxidase and catalase, which catalyze the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide
of water and oxygen, haem is the prosthetic group and it is a part of the active site of the
enzyme.
Effect of change in concentration of subtrate on
enzyme activity
CO-ENZYMES
3. Inhibitors
Co-enzymes are also organic compounds but their association with the apoenzyme is only
When the inhibitor closely resembles the substrate transient, coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and NADP contain the vitamin
in its molecular structure and inhibits the activity niacin.
of the enzyme, it is known as competitive inhibitor. Every co-enzyme is a cofactor but every cofactor is not a co-enzyme.
E.g. inhibition of succinic dehydrogenase by
malonate which closely resembles the substrate
succinate in structure. METAL IONS
Zinc is a cofactor for the proteolytic enzyme carboxypeptidase.
Chapter
CELL CYCLE AND CELL
10
DIVISION

Cell duplicates its genome, other constituents of the cell and

Duration of cell cycle can vary from organism to
eventually divides in two daughter cells.
organism
DNA synthesis occurs only during one specific stage in the cell cycle.
Yeast; (90 minutes), Bacteria ([Link]); 20 min.
The cell cycle is divided into two basic phases: A typical eukaryotic cell divide once in approximately
interphase and M phase. every 24 hours

M Phase represents the phase when the actual cell division or mitosis 3. G phase / pre mitotic gap phase
occurs interphase represents the phase between two successive M • Proteins are synthesised in preparation for mitosis while cell growth
phases. continues.
Interphase, resting phase, lasts for 95% of the duration of cell • Cells that do not divide further exit G phase to enter 1 an inactive
cycle. stage called quiescent stage (G ) of the cell cycle.
1. G phase / Post-mitotic gap phase • Cells in G stage remain metabolically active but no longer
metabolically active continuously grows, does not replicate its DNA. proliferate.
• In animals, mitotic cell division is only seen in the diploid somatic cells.
2. S phase
1
• Against this, the plants can show mitotic divisions in both haploid
DNA synthesis or replication takes place. Amount of DNA per cell
and diploid cells.
doubles but no increase in the chromosome number

TOPIC 2. M-PHASE OR MITOSIS PHASE 2 . METAPHASE

The number of chromosomes in the parent and progeny cells is the same, it is • Condensation of chromosomes is completed.
also called as equational division . • Morphology of chromosomes is most easily studied.
• Small disc - shaped structures at the surface of the centromeres
are called kinetochores.
1. PROPHASE • Spindle fibres attach to kinetochores of chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are moved to spindle equator and get aligned along
metaphase plate through spindle fibres to both poles.
Longest phase of mitosis.
Initiation of condensation of chromosomal material.
Centrosome, move towards opposite poles of the cell.
Chromosomes are seen to be composed of two chromatids attached together 4. TELOPHASE
at the centromere.
Initiation of the assembly of mitotic spindle, • Chromosomes, decondense and lose their individuality.
At the end of prophase, golgi complexes, endoplasmic reticulum, nucleolus and • Chromosomes cluster at opposite spindle poles.
the nuclear envelope. disappear. • Nuclear envelope developes around the chromosome clusters at
each pole forming two daughter nuclei.
• Nucleolus, golgi complex and ER reform.
3. ANAPHASE
Centromeres split and chromatids separate.
Chromatids move to opposite poles.
 CYTOKINESIS
• Cytokinesis involves division of cytoplasm.
• In an animal cell, this is achieved by the appearance of a furrow in the plasma membrane.
• In plant cells, wall formation starts in the centre of the cell and grows outward to meet the existing lateral walls called the cell-plate.
• In some organisms karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis leading to the formation of syncytium (e.g. liquid endosperm in coconut).

TOPIC 3. SIGNIFICANCE OF TOPIC 4. MEIOSIS

MITOSIS
Cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half results in
the production of haploid daughter cells.
• In some lower plants and in some social insects haploid cells also This kind of division is called meiosis or reductional divison.
divide by mitosis. Meiosis during gametogenesis in plants and animals. leads to the
• Continuous growth of plants. formation of haploid gametes.
• Restore the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio. Meiosis involves two sequential cycles, meiosis I and meiosis II, but
• Cell repair. only a single cycle of DNA replication.

(I) Meiosis-I ii. Zygotene

1. Prophase-1 • Chromosomes start pairing together and this process of association is
called synapsis. Such paired chromosomes are called homologous
chromosomes.
• Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene and Diakinesis. • Formation of synaptonemal complex.
• Formation of bivalent or a tetrad.
i. Leptotene
• Compaction of chromosomes continues.
iii. Pachytene iv. Diplotene
• Bivalent chromosomes now clearly appears as tetrads. • The dissolution of the synaptonemal complex and recombined homologous
• Crossing over occurs between non-sister chromatids of the chromosomes of the bivalents, separate from each other except at the
homologous chromosomes , by enzyme recombinase. sites of crossovers .
• Recombination between homologous chromosomes is completed by the • These X-shaped structures, are called chiasmata. In oocytes of some
end of pachytene. vertebrates, diplotene can last for months or years.

2. Metaphase-I
v. Diakinesis
• Terminalisation of chiasmata.
• Chromosomes are fully condensed Bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial plate. Spindle
• Nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope also breaks down. attach to the kinetochore of homologous chromosomes

3. Anaphase-I 4 . Telophase-I
Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear, cytokinesis follows
• Homologous chromosomes separate, sister chromatids remain
and this is called as dyad of cells.
associated at their centromeres.
Stage between the two meiotic divisions is called interkinesis and
is generally short lived.
 (II) MEIOSIS-II 2. Metaphase-II
Meiosis II is the equational divison. • Chromosomes align at the equator.
• Spindle get attached to the kinetochores of sister chromatids.
1. Prophase-II
• Nuclear membrane disappears.
• Chromosomes again become compact.
4. Telophase-II
Two groups of chromosomes once again get enclosed by a nuclear envelope;
3. Anaphase-II cytokinesis follows result in the formation of tetrad of cells. i.e., four haploid
daughter cells.
• Splitting of the centromere of each chromosome.

TOPIC 5. SIGNIFICANCE OF
MEIOSIS

• Conservation of specific chromosome number of each species.

• Increase in genetic variability in the population of organisms.
• Helps the process of evolution.
Amitosis is cleavage of nucleus without recognisable
chromosome distribution and spindle formation.
Chapter
PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN
13 HIGHER PLANTS
EARLY EXPERIMENTS
LIGHT REACTION
Joseph priestley (1770)
performed experiments that showed the essential role of air in the
growth of green plants 1 Light absorption

Jan Ingenhousz
Showed that sunlight is essential for photosynthesis
2 Water splitting

Julius von sachs (1854) 3 O₂ release

Provided evidence for production of glucose and that the glucose
is stored as starch.
4 Formation of ATP & NADPH
T.W Engelmann

He split light using a prism & then illuminated a green alga 2 different photochemical light harvesting complexes.
(Cladophora) in suspension of aerobic bacteria LHC are made up of hundreds of pigment molecules
Bacteria accumulated in the region of blue & red light
single Chl-a molecule forms the reaction centre.
First action spectrum of photosynthesis resembled absorption
spectra of Chlorophyll a & b In PSI reaction centre has absorption peak at 700 nm
CO₂ + H₂O → [CH₂]O + O₂ In PSII absorption peak is at 680 nm
Van Niel
Experiment with purple & green – sulphur bacteria demonstrated 1. Electron Transport
that Hydrogen from a suitable oxidisable compound reduces CO₂ to
carbohydrate In PSII reaction centre (P680) Chl-a absorbs 680 nm wavelength
2H₂A + CO₂ → 2A + CH₂O + H₂O Causing electron to becomes excited
O₂ evolved by the green plants comes form H₂O not from CO₂ These are passed to an electron transport system
6CO₂ + 12H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6H₂O + 6O₂ Passed on to the pigments of PSI.
Electrons in the reaction centre of PSI are also excited
Moved downhill to a molecule of energy rich NADP⁺
SITE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS NADP⁺ → NADPH + H⁺
Mesophyll cells in the leaves have chloroplasts. Scheme of transfer of electrons is called Z-scheme,
Chloroplast has a membranous system & fluid stroma When 2 photosystems work; PSII & then PSI; non-cyclic photo-
Membrane system traps light energy & synthesises ATP & NADPH phosphorylation occurs
(Dark reaction) Both ATP & NADH⁺ H⁺ are synthesised

PIGMENTS AND SPECTRUM 2. Splitting of water

1 2
Electrons of PSII replaced by electrons available due to splitting of
Chlorophyll a (bright or Chl - b (yellow green)
water.
blue green)
2H₂O → 4H⁺ + O₂ + 4e–

3 Xanthophylls (yellow)
4 Carotenoides (yellow to
yellow orange).
CYCLIC PHOSPHORYLATION

In blue & red regions there is maximum absorption by Chl-a

Chl-a is the major pigment responsible for trapping light. When only PSI is functional
Pigments like Chl-b, xanthophylls is carotenoids which are called Synthesis of ATP but not of NADPH+ H⁺
accessory pigments also absorb light and transfer the energy to
Chl-a
 CHEMIOSMOTIC HYPOTHESIS PHOTORESPIRATION

ATP synthesis is linked to development of proton gradient across RuBisCO has a much greater affinity for CO₂ than for O₂.
membranes of thylakoid In C₃ plants some O₂ does bind to RuBisCO.
Protons accumulate in the lumen RuBP instead of being converted to PGA forms phosphoglycerate &
Breakdown of this gradient leads to release of energy.
Gradient is broken down due to the movement of protons through the phosphoglycolate in a pathway called photorespiration.
transmembrane channel of F₀ of the ATPase enzyme No synthesis of ATP or NADPH.
ATPase enzyme consists of Photorespiration is a wasteful process.
(i) F₀: carries out facilitated diffusion of protons across the
C₄ plants have a special type of leaf anatomy (kranz), tolerate higher
membrane.
(ii) F₁: protrudes on the outer surface of the thylakoid temperatures, show a response to high light intensities, lack
membrane, change in the F₁ particle makes the enzyme photorespiration and have greater productivity.
synthesise ATP.

BIOSYNTHETIC PHASE/DARK FACTORS AFFECTING

REACTION PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Products of light reaction are ATP, NADPH & O₂.
O₂ diffuses out, ATP & NADPH are used for the synthesis of sugar
(biosynthetic phase) Blackman's law of limiting factors: Rate will be determined by the factor
Melvin Calvin used radioactive C¹⁴ to show first CO₂ fixation product was which is nearest to its minimal value.
3-carbon organic acid.
First product → 3-PGA (3-phosphoglyceric acid).
First product of CO₂ fixation C₃ acid (PGA) → C₃ pathway A. LIGHT
First product is C₄ acid (OAA) → C₄ pathway
At low light intensities there is a linear relationship
between incident light & CO₂ fixation rate.
CALVIN CYCLE (C₃ PATHWAY) Light is rarely a limiting factor

Calvin pathway occurs in all photosynthetic plants

→
First CO₂ acceptor (RUBP-Ribulose bisphosphate)
B. CO₂ CONCENTRATION
3 stages i) Carboxylation ii) Reduction iii) Regeneration
Major limiting factor
CO₂ is utilised for the carboxylation of RUBP (catalysed by the enzyme RUBP
Atmospheric concentration Of CO₂ is very low (between 0.03
carboxylase)
formation of 2 molecules of 3- PGA. & 0.04%)
Formation of glucose Increase in concentration can cause increase in
Utilisation of 2 molecules of ATP for phosphorylation & 2 of NADPH for photosynthesis.
reduction per CO₂ molecule fixed. C₄ plants show saturation 360 μ1L⁻¹ (0.036%)
Regeneration requires 1 ATP for phosphorylation to form RUBP. C₃ plants show saturation beyond 450 μ1L⁻¹ (0.045%)

C₄ PATHWAY (HATCH & SLACK C. TEMPERATURE

PATHWAY)
C₄ plants respond to higher temperature C₃ plants
Occurs in the plants that are adapted to dry tropical regions. have a much lower temperature optimum.
OAA is the first CO₂ fixation product
Calvin cycle as the main biosynthetic pathway.
First CO₂ acceptor is a 3-C molecule PEP (phosphoenol pyruvate)
D. WATER
The enzyme responsible for the fixation is PEPcase (PEP carboxylase)
Water stress causes the stomata to close and makes leaves wilt.
C₄ acid (OAA) is formed in mesophyll cells
Forms other 4-C compounds like malic acid or aspartic acid which are
transported to the bundle sheath cells.
In the bundle sheath cells these C₄ broken down to release CO₂ & a 3-C
molecule.
3-C molecule is transported back to mesophyll and converted to PEP
again
CO₂ released in the bundle sheath cells enters the C₃ or Calvin pathway
 RESPIRATION IN
Chapter

14 PLANTS
INTRODUCTION

Breaking of C-C bonds of complex compounds through oxidation

within cells leading to release of energy is called respiration .

Usually carbohydrates are oxidized to release energy.

Proteins or fats can also be used as respiratory substrates.

C₆H₁₂O₆ +6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Energy

GLYCOLYSIS
Enzymatic machinery to partially oxidise glucose to from 2 molecules of
pyruvic acid without the help of O₂ is called glycolysis.

Given by Embden, Meyerhof & Parnas also called EMP pathway.

In anaerobic organisms, it is the only process in respiration.

Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. FERMENTATION

Sucrose is converted into glucose & fructose by the enzyme invertase. Under anaerobic conditions in many prokaryotes, unicellular eukaryotes,
in germinatition of seeds.
ATP is utilized at 2 steps Alcholic fermentation (by
yeast)
ATP is synthesized at 2 steps

Pyruvic acid is the key product of glycolysis Bacteria produce lactic

acid

Less than 7% of the energy in glucose is released & not all of it is trapped
in ATP

Yeast poison themselves to death when the concentration of alcohol

reaches about 13%
 AEROBIC RESPIRATION

Complete oxidation of organic substances in the presence of 0 2&

release of CO2 , H20 & a large amount of energy.

Pyruvate after entering the mitochondrial matrix undergoes oxidative

decarboxylation by pyruvate dehydrogenase.

Requires the participation of several coenzymes, including NAD+ &

coenzyme A.

Mg+
PA + CoA + NAD Acetyl CoA + CO 2 + NADH + H+
pyruvate dehydrogenase

2 molecules of NADH are produced from the

metabolism of 2 molecules of PA.

+
KREB'S CYCLE OR TCA CYCLE OR
TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE

3 points in the cycle where NAD + is reduced to NADH + H

1 point in the cycle where FAD + is reduced FADH 2

+ + Mitochondrial + ++ FADH + ATP

PA + 4NAD + FAD + 2H2O+ ADP + Pi 3C02+ 4NADH + 4H 2

Matrix

ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM

(ETS)

⚫ The energy stored in NADH + H+ & FADH2 is released & utilized.

⚫ Present in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

⚫ Oxidation of 1 molecule of NADH gives rise to 3 molecules of ATP.

⚫ Oxidation of 1 molecule of FADH 2 gives rise to 2 molecules of ATP.

⚫ The role of O2 is limited to the terminal stage of process as it removes

hydrogen from the system.

⚫
O2 acts as final hydrogen and/or e- acceptor. (O +2H+ + 2e- H2O).
2
 COMPARISON B/W FERMENTATION AND
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
⚫ This process is called oxidative phosphorylation. ⚫ Fermentation accounts for only a partial breakdown of glucose
whereas in aerobic respiration it is completely degraded to CO2and H2O.
⚫
ATP synthesis is explained by chemiosmotic hypothesis.
⚫ In fermentation there is a net gain of only two molecules of ATP,
ATP synthase consists of 2 components - F0 & F1 .
whereas many more molecules of ATP are generated under aerobic
⚫

⚫ F0 is an integral membrane protein complex. conditions.

⚫
F1 headpiece is a peripheral membrane protein complex. ⚫
+
NADH is oxidised to NAD rather slowly in fermentation, however the
⚫ For each ATP produced 2H + passes through F 0 reaction is very vigorous in case of aerobic respiration.

AMPHIBOLIC PATHWAY RESIRATORY QUOTIENT

⚫ Glucose is the favoured substrate for respiration.
RQ =
⚫ Other substrates can also be respired.
For fat RQ is less than 1.
⚫ Proteins degraded by proteases & individual amino acid enter the
pathway at some stage within the kreb cycle or even as PA or For tripalmitin, RQ = 0.7
acetyl CoA.
For proteins RQ is 0. 9
Fats
If fatty acids were to be respired they would first be degraded
For carbohydrate RQ is 1,
to acetyl CoA & Enter the pathway.
C6H12O 6 + 6O 2 6CO 2+ 6H2O + Energy,
Glycerol would enter the pathway after being converted to PGAL RQ = 6CO2 /6O2= 1.
(triose-phosphate).
To synthesise fatty acids, acetyl CoA could be withdrawn
from the respiratory pathway for it.

Respiratory pathway is involed in both anabolism &

catabolism.
Chapter

15 PLANT GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT
Development = Growth + Differentiation. GEOMETRIC GROWTH
GROWTH Initial growth is slow (lag phase), increases rapidly (log or
exponential phase), then slows down (stationary phase)
Irreversible permanent increase in size.
Accompanied by metabolic processes at the sigmoid or S-Curve
expense of energy.
The exponential growth can be expressed as : W₁=W₀ eʳᵗ.
Plants retain the capacity for unlimited growth
W₁= final size (weight, height, number etc.)
throughout their life.
W₀ = initial size at the beginning of the period
Due to the presence of meristems.
r = growth rate
Measured by increase in fresh weight, dry weight, t = time of growth
length, area, volume and cell number. e = base of natural logarithms

Measurement of total growth per unit time is called

Maize root apical meristem can give rise to more than
absolute growth rate.
17,500 new cells per hour.
Cells in a watermelon increase in size by upto 3,50,000 times. Growth per unit time expressed per unit initial parameter is
called relative growth rate
Growth is divided into three phases-
Cells derived from meristems mature to perform, specific
Meristematic phase: Constantly dividing cells functions. This is differentiation.
Phase of elongation: Increased vacuolation, cell
Differentiated cells, that have lost the capacity to
enlargement, cell wall deposition
divide can regain the capacity of division
Zone of maturation: Cells attain their maximal
(dedifferentiation) e.g., formation of interfascicular
size.
cambium

Cells once again lose the capacity to divide but mature to

perform specific functions. i.e., get redifferentiated. e.g.,
ARITHMETIC GROWTH 2⁰ Xylem elements

•Only one daughter cell continues to divide after mitosis. Development includes all changes from germination of seed to
senescence
•Linear curve is obtained.
Lₜ = L₀ + rt
Lₜ = length at time ‘t’
L₀ = length at time ‘zero’
r = growth rate/elongation per unit time.
 PGRs are molecules of diverse chemical composition.

AUXIN
DISCOVERY OF PGRS
Auxins first isolated from human urine
Produced by the growing apices of the stem and roots.
Charles Darwin and Francis Darwin observed the coleoptiles
of canary grass. Natural auxins- IAA and indole butyric acid (IBA) Synthetic
Concluded that transmittable influence caused the bending auxins- NAA (naphthalene acetic acid) and 2, 4-D (2, 4
of coleoptile. dichlorophenoxyacetic)
Auxin was isolated by F.W. Went from oat seedlings.
Initiate rooting in stem cuttings
Bakane' (foolish seeding) disease of rice seedlings, was
Promote followering e.g., in pineapples.
caused by fungus Gibberella fujikuroi.
The active substances were identified as gibberellic acid. Induce parthenocarpy, e.g., in tomatoes.

F. Skoog and his co-workers observed that callus from 2,4-D, widely used to kill dicotyledonous weeds.
tobacco stems required extracts of vascular tissues, yeast
Controls xylem differrentation.
extract, coconut milk or DNA to proliferate.
During mid-1960s three independent researchers reported
inhibitor-B, abscission II and dormin.
All the three were found chemically identical. It was named GIBBERELLINS
abscisic acid (ABA).

H.H Cousins confirmed the release of volatile substance from GA 3 is most extensively studied form.
ripened oranges that hastened the ripening of unripened
bananas. This substance was identified as ethylene. Causes increase in length of axis, used to increase the
length of grapes stalks.

Cause fruits like apple to elongate, improve shape

CYTOKININS
Delay senescence.

Speed up malting process in brewing industry.

Specific effects on cytokinesis
Discovered as kinetin (modified from of adenine) Spraying juvenile conifers with GAs hastens maturity period
Zeatin from corn-kernels and coconut milk.
Helps produce new leaves, chloroplasts in leaves, Increases length of sugarcane stem
lateral shoot growth and adventitious shoot Promotes bolting {internode elongation} in beet, cabbages.
formation.
Help overcome apical dominance.
Promote nutrient mobilisation
Delay of leaf senescence.
 ETHYLENE
Synthesised in tissues undergoing senescence and ripening Root growth and root hair formation
fruits.
Initiate flowering in pineapples, mango
Horizontal growth of seedlings, swelling of axis, apical hook
Widely used compound as source of ethylene is ethephone.
formation in dicot seedlings.
Hastens fruit ripening in tomatoes and apples
Breaks seed and bud dormancy, initiates germination.
Accelerates abscission in flowers and fruits (thinning of
Promotes rapid internode/petiole elongation cotton, cherry, walnut).

ABSCISIC ACID PHOTOPERIODISM

Inhibitor of plant growth and metabolism. Long day plants : require exposure to light for a period
exceeding a critical duration before the flowering is initiated
Inhibits seed germination.
Short day plants : must be exposed to light for a period less
Stimulates the closure of stomata than this critical duration

Increases tolerance to stresses (stress hormone).

Day-neutral plants : no such correlation between exposure to
Role in seed development, maturation and dormancy.
light and flowering
Acts as an antagonist to GAs.
Site of perception of light/dark duration are the leaves..

VERNALISATION

Flowering dependent on exposure to low temperature

Some food plants, wheat, barley, rye have winter

and spring varieties.

Winter varieties: planted in autumn, over winter

come out as small seedlings, resume growth in the
spring, harvested around mid-summer.

Biennials are monocarpic plants that flower

and die in the second season.
e.g., Sugerbeet, cabbages, carrots
Chapter
BREATHING AND
17 EXCHANGE OF GASES
TOPIC 2
Topic 1. RESPIRATORY ORGANS HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
External Nostrils
Lower invertebrates like sponges, coelenterates, flatworms, etc.,
exchange O₂ with CO₂ by simple diffusion over their entire body Nasal passage
surface.
Earthworms use their moist cuticle and insects have a network of Nasal chamber
tubes (tracheal tubes).
Nasopharynx
Among vertebrates, fishes use gills while reptiles, birds and
mammals respire through lungs. Larynx (through glottis)
Amphibians like frogs can respire through moist skin
Larynx is a cartilaginuous box which helps in sound production and Trachea

hence called the sound box. 1° Bronchi (left and right bronchi)
Human have two lungs which are covered by a double layered
pleura, with pleural fluid between them. 2° Bronchi

The part starting with the external nostrils upto the terminal 3° Bronchi
bronchioles constitute the conducting part whereas the alveoli and
their ducts form the respiratory or exchange part of respiratory Initial bronchioles
system. Terminal bronchioles
The lungs are situated in the thoracic chamber
Duct of Alveoli
The thoracic chamber is formed by the vertebral column, the
sternum, the ribs and the dome-shaped diaphragm. Alveoli

TOPIC 3. MECHANISM OF BREATHING

Breathing involves two stages

INSPIRATION EXPIRATION
Alveolar air rich in carbon dioxide expelled out from
Atmospheric air rich in oxygen drawn into lungs
the lungs

It is an active process It is a passive process

Inspiration occurs when intra-pulmonary pressure is less than

Expiration occurs when intra-pulmonary pressure is
the atmospheric pressure. It is due to negative pressure in the
high than the atmospheric pressure
lungs

It is initiated by: It is initiated by:

Contraction of diaphragm Relaxation of diaphragm

Increase in volume of the thoracic chamber in the anterio- Inter costal muscles, the diaphragm and sternum
posterior axis return to their normal position

Contraction of external inter-costal muscles and lifting up of Reduction in the volume of thoracic chamber and
the ribs and sternum overall pulmonary volume

Increase in the volume of the thoracic chamber in the dorso- Increase in intra pulmonary pressure to more than
ventral axis the atmospheric pressure

Overall increase in thoracic volume leads to increase in

pulmonary volume and decrease in
It leads to the expulsion of air from the lungs
intra pulmonary pressure to less than
atmospheric pressure

It forces atmospheric air to come into the lungs

 Topic 4. RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES

RESPIRATORY VOLUMES VOLUME OF AIR

DEFINITION
(NEET 2018)
500 ml;
Tidal Volume (TV) Air volume inspired (inhaled) or expired (exhaled) per breath
6000-8000 ml/min.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) Extra volume of air one inhales (inspires) by forced inspiration 2500-3000 ml

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) Extra volume of air one exhales by forced expiration 1000-1100 ml

Residual Volume (RV) Volume of air remaining in lungs after forced exhalation 1100-1200 ml
It prevents collapsing of the lungs
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES (SHOWS THE CAPACITY
DEFINITION VOLUME OF AIR
OF THE LUNGS)
Total volume of air one inhales after normal exhalation
Inspiratory Capacity (IC) 3000-3500 ml
It is the sum of tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume (TV+IRV)
Total volume of air one exhales after normal inhalation
Expiratory Capacity (EC) It is the sum of tidal volume and 1500-1600 ml
expiratory reserve volume (TV+ERV)

Volume of air remaining in lungs after normal exhalation (expiration)

Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) It is the sum of expiratory reserve volume and residual volume (ERV+RV). 2100-2300 ml
It is the volume of air required to keep the lungs functioning in the normal condition

Maximum volume of air one can inhale after forceful exhalation or maximum volume of air one can exhale
Vital Capacity (VC) (AIPMT 2009) after forceful inhalation 3500-4500 ml
It is the sum of expiratory reserve volume, tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume (ERV+TV+IRV)

Total volume of air accommodated in lungs after a forced inspiration.

Total Lung Capacity (TLC) It is the sum of vital capacity and residual volume (VC+RV) or 5000-6000 ml
(ERV+TV+IRV + RV)

Volume of air present in the respiratory tract (nostrils to terminal bronchi) not involved in the gaseous
Dead air volume 150 ml
exchange. It is called dead space

topic 5. EXCHANGE OF GASES

Alveoli are the primary sites of exchange of gases. Exchange of gases

occur between blood and tissues.
O₂ and CO₂ are exchange by simple diffusion.
The diffusion membrane is made up of three major layers namely,

topic 6. TRANSPORT OF GASES

Squamous epithelium of alveoli

Diffusion membrane (Thickness is
less than a millimetre)

Basement membrane

Endothelium of alveolar capillaries

 TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE CHEMICAL REGULATION

A chemosensitive area is situated adjacent to the rhythm centre

CO₂ is carried by haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin (about which is highly sensitive to CO₂ and hydrogen ions.
20-25 per cent). Receptors associated with aortic arch and carotid artery also can
This binding is related to the partial pressure of CO₂. Partial recognise changes in CO₂ and H⁺ concentration and send necessary
pressure of O₂ is a major factor which could affect this binding. signals to the rhythm centre for remedial actions.
When pCO₂ is high and pO₂ is low as in the tissues, more binding of
carbon dioxide occurs whereas, when the pCO₂ is low and pO₂ is high
as in the alveoli, dissociation of CO₂ from carbamino-haemoglobin
RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS
takes place, i.e., CO₂ which is bound to haemoglobin from the tissues
is delivered at the alveoli.
RBCs contain a very high concentration of the enzyme, carbonic Hb occurs in RBCs of all vertebrates. Hb dissolved in the plasma of
anhydrase. This enzyme facilitates the following reaction. earthworm and Nereis.
CO₂ trapped as bicarbonate at the tissue level and transported to Haemocyanin contain Cu and occurs in plasma of crustaceans
the alveoli is released out as CO₂. (prawn), snails (Pila) and cephalopods (Sepia) – Molluscs.
Vanabin is present in the blood of tunicates/urochordates.

TOPIC 8. DISORDERS OF THE

TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Asthma difficulty in breathing due to inflammation of bronchi and
Haemoglobin is a red coloured iron containing pigment present in bronchioles.
the RBCs. Emphysema is a chronic disorder where alveolar walls are
O₂ can bind with haemoglobin in a reversible manner to form damaged due to which respiratory surface is decreased. Caused
oxyhaemoglobin. by of this is cigarette smoking.
Each haemoglobin molecule can carry a maximum of four molecules Human protein alpha-1 antitrypsin is used to treat emphysema.
of O₂. Thus, chemical formula of oxyhaemoglobin is Hb (O₂)₄.
Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin is primarily related to partial OCCUPATIONAL RESPIRATORY DISORDERS
pressure of O₂. Damage to the lung caused by dust or fumes of substances
A sigmoid curve is obtained when percentage saturation of inhaled by workers in certain industries, involving grinding or
haemoglobin with O₂ is plotted against the pO₂. This curve is called breaking of stone.
the Oxygen dissociation curve and is highly useful in studying the Long exposure can give rise to inflammation leading to fibrosis.
effect of factors like pCO₂, H⁺ concentration, etc., on binding of
O₂ with haemoglobin.
This clearly indicates that O₂ gets bound to haemoglobin in the lung
surface and gets dissociated at the tissues.

TOPIC 7. REGULATION OF
RESPIRATION

In humans, respiration is under both nervous and chemical regulation.

A specialized centre present in the medulla called respiratory rhythm
centre is primarily responsible for this regulation.
Another centre present in the pons region of the brain called
pneumotaxic centre can moderate the functions of the respiratory
rhythm centre.
Chapter

18 BODY FLUIDS AND

CIRCULATION
Blood is a special connective tissue Formed Elements
consisting of - Constitute 45 percent of the blood.
PLASMA
RBC s (Erythrocytes)
Straw coloured, viscous fluid constituting 55 per cent of
blood. 90-92 per cent water and 6 to 8 per cent most abundant.
proteins which include
-3
5 - 5.5 million RBCs mm
Fibrinogens: coagulation of blood.
Formed in red bone marrow.
Globulins: defense mechanisms albumins osmotic
balance.
Devoid of nucleus, biconcave in shape.
Albumins: osmotic balance
Have red coloured, iron containing protein called
Plasma also contains Na+ , Ca++ , Mg++, haemoglobin.
- -
HCO 3 Cl , glucose, amino acids, lipids,
etc.
12-16 g of haemoglobin in 100 ml blood
Plasma without the clotting factors is serum.
Role in transport of respiratory gases.

Life span of 120 days

WBC s (LEUCOCYTES)
6000-8000 mm⁻³ of blood. Destroyed in the spleen (graveyard of RBCs).

Short lived

Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils are

granulocytes, lymphocytes and monocytes are the
PLATELETS (THROMBOCYTES)
agranulocytes.
produced from megakaryocytes in bone marrow.
Neutrophils: most abundant (60-65 per cent), kill -3
microbes by phagocytosis. 1,500,00 - 3,500,00 platelets mm.

Monocytes: (6-8 per cent), phagocytic cells

Basophils: least abundant (0.5-1 per cent), secrete

histamine, serotonin, heparin, involved in inflammatory ABO grouping
reactions.
Based on the presence or absence of two surface antigens
Eosinophils (2-3 per cent) resist infections.
A and B.
Lymphocytes (20-25 per cent)
Plasma contains two natural antibodies.
B and T lymphocytes are responsible for immune
responses.
 BLOOD GROUPS AND DONOR COMPATBILITY

Blood group Antigens of RBCs Antibodies in Plasma Donor’s group

A A Anti-B A, O
B B Anti-A B, O
AB A, B nil AB, A, B, O
O Nil Anti-A, B O

COAGULATION OF BLOOD
'O' group individuals are 'universal donors'.
Prevent excessive loss of blood.
'AB' individuals are 'universal recipients'.
Calcium ions play important role.

Rh grouping

Rh antigen is observed on the surface of RBCs of 80 per cent

of humans (Rh+ve). When antigen is absent
(RH-ve).
Rh incompatibility between the Rh-ve blood of mother with
Rh+ve blood of foetus leads to erythroblastosis foetalis.

TISSUE FLUID
Fluid released out from capillaries is called interstitial
fluid or tissue fluid.
Same mineral distribution as plasma. NODAL TISSUE
lymphatic system drains it back to veins.
Lymph: colourless fluid containing specialised lymphocytes. Specialised musculature distributed in heart.
Sino-atrial node (SAN): Right upper corner of the right
atrium
HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Atrio - ventricular node (AVN): lower left corner of the
Heart (mesodermally derived). right atrium
Protected by double walled pericardium. Bundle of nodal fibres continues, passes through atrio -
Two small upper chambers (atria) ventricular septa, divides into a right and left bundle.
two larger lower chambers (ventricles). Give rise to minute fibres throughout ventricular
Tricuspid valve: between right atrium and right musculature (Purkinje fibres).
ventricle These fibres with right and left bundles bundle of His
Bicuspid or mitral valve: between left atrium left Nodal musculature is autoexcitable.
ventricle. SAN generates maximum number of action
–1
Semilunar valves: openings of right and left potentials, i.e., 70-75 min,
–1
ventricles into pulmonary artery and aorta It is called the pacemaker (average 72 beats min.
Valves prevent backward flow.
 CARDIAC CYCLE

This sequential event is called the cardiac cycle.

4 phases in a cardiac cycle: Duration of a cardiac cycle is 0.8 seconds.
Joint Diastole: all four chambers are in relaxed state. Each ventricle pumps out 70 mL blood/min (stroke
Blood flows into ventricles. volume).
Atrial systole : SAN generates an action potential and Cardiac output: volume of blood pumped out by each
atria undergo contraction. ventricle per minute (5000 mL)
This increased the flow of blood into ventricles Cardiac output = Stroke volume x Heart rate.
Ventricular systole : action potential conducted to During cardiac cycle two prominent sounds are
ventricular side, produced.
Ventricles contract, atria relax. First heart sound (lub): closure of the tricuspid
Closure of tricuspid and bicuspid valves. and bicuspid valves
Semilunar valves open. Second heat sound (dub): closure of the semilunar
`Ventricular diastole: ventricles relax closure of valves.
semilunar valves.
Tricuspid and bicuspid valves open.
Blood moves freely to ventricles.

ELECTTROCARDIOGRAPH (ECG)

Machine (electro-cardiograph) used to obtain

an electrocardiogram (ECG).
Graphical representation of electrical activity
of heart.
Patient is connected with three electrical leads
(one to each wrist and to left ankle)
P-wave: depolarisation of the atria
QRS complex: depolarisation of the ventricles
T-wave: (repolarisation).

CIRCULATORY PATHWAYS
Systemic circulation: left ventricle pumps blood into the
aorta
Fishes have 2-chambered heart. Oxygenated blood entering the aorta is carried by capillaries
Amphibians reptiles (except crocodiles) 3-chambered to tissues from where the deoxygenated blood emptied into
heart. the right atrium.
Birds and mammals 4-chambered heart.
Hepatic portal system: Unique vascular connection between
the digestive tract and liver
DOUBLE CIRCULATION Special coronary system of blood vessels for circulation to
cardiac musculature.
Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood received by the left Neural centre in the medulla oblangata can moderate the
and right atria respectively passed to two separate cardiac function through autonomic nervous system (ANS).
circulatory pathways Sympathetic nerves increase heart beat, ventricular
Pulmonary circulation: Blood pumped by the right ventricle contraction and cardiac output.
enters the pulmonary artery Passed on to the lungs from Parasympathetic neural signals decrease the heart beat,
where the oxygenated blood is carried by the pulmonary conduction of action potential and cardiac output.
veins into the left atrium
 DISORDERS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

High Blood Pressure (Hypertension)

Normal: 120 mm Hg systolic pressure and 80 mm Hg diastolic pressure.

If 140/90 mm Hg (140 over 90) or higher, it shows hypertension.
Leads to heart diseases, affects vital organs.

Coronary Artery Disease (atherosclerosis)

Deposits of calcium, fat, cholesterol and fibrous tissues, makes arteries narrower.

Angina pectoris: acute chest pain when not enough oxygen is reaching the heart muscle.

Heart Failure: heart is not pumping blood effectively enough

Cardiac Arrest: heart stops beating,

Heart attack (Myocardial Infarction) : heart muscle is suddenly damaged.

Chapter
EXCRETORY PRODUCTS &
19 THEIR ELIMINATION
TOPIC 1. INTRODUCTION

Ammonia is the most toxic form requires large amount of

Removal of metabolic wastes from the body. water for its elimination. Uric acid, being the least toxic, can be
Ammonia, urea and uric acid are the major forms of removed with a minimum loss of water.
nitrogenous wastes Produced during metabolism of protein.

TOPIC 2. EXCRETORY PRODUCTS

1. AMMONOTELISM
1. Excreting ammonia
2. Bony fishes, aquatic amphibians and aquatic insects
3. Excreted by diffusion or through gill surfaces
4. Kidneys do not play any significant role

2. UREOTELISM 3. URICOTELISM
1. Mammals, many terrestrial amphibians and marine fishes
2. Ammonia produced by metabolism is converted into urea in • Reptiles, birds, land snails and insects excrete nitrogenous wastes as uric acid in the
the liver & eliminated by kidney. form of pellet or paste with minimum loss of water.

TOPIC 3. EXCRETORY STRUCTURES

• In invertebrates, structures are simple tubular forms while vertebrates have complex tubular organs called kidneys.

• Protonephridia or flame cells in Platyhelminthes (Flatworms), rotifers, some annelids and the cephalochordate - Amphioxus.
• Nephridia : earthworms and other annelids.
• Malpighian tubules: insects including cockroaches.
• Antennal glands or green glands: crustaceans like prawn

TOPIC 4. HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

• One pair of metanephric kidneys, one pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra.
• Kidneys are reddish brown, bean shaped structures close to the dorsal inner wall of the
abdominal cavity.

• 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in width, 2-3 cm thickness average weight of 120-170 g.

• Towards centre of the inner concave surface of

the kidney is a notch called hilum through which ureter, blood vessels and nerves enter.
• Inner to the hilum is a funnel shaped space called the renal pelvis with projections called calyces.

• Two zones, outer cortex and an inner medulla.

• Medulla is divided into a few conical masses (medullary pyramids)

• Cortex extends in between the medullary pyramids as renal columns called Columns of Bertini.
 TOPIC 5. NEPHRON

Two parts - the glomerulus and the renal tubule.

Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries formed by the different
arteriole
Blood is carried away by an efferent arteriole.
Double walled cup-like structure called Bowman's capsule,
Glomerulus along with Bowman's capsule, is called the Malpighian
body or renal corpuscle.
The Malpighian body or renal corpuscle, PCT and DCT of the nephron
are situated in the cortical region of the kidney whereas the loop of
Henle dips into the medulla.
In majority of nephrons, the loop of Henle is too short and extends
only very little into the medulla,
are called cortical nephrons.
In some of the nephrons, the loop of Henle is very long and runs
deep into the medulla, are called juxta medullary nephrons.
A minute vessel of this network runs parallel to the Henle's loop
forming a ' U ' shaped vasa recta.
Vasa recta is absent or highly reduced in cortical nephrons.

TOPIC 6. URINE FORMATION 2. REABSORPTION :

1. Glomerular Filtration : non-selective process.

• Filtrate formed per day [180 litres per day) urine released (1.5
litres), 99 per cent of the filtrate has to be reabsorbed by the renal
• First step in urine formation. tubules.
• 1100-1200 ml of blood is filtered by the kidneys per minute • Substances like glucose, amino acids, Na+, etc., in the filtrate are
reabsorbed actively while nitrogenous wastes are absorbed by
• Through 3 layers, the endothelium of glomerular blood vessels, the passive transport.
epithelium of Bowman's capsule and a basement membrane between
these two layers. • Reabsorption of water also occurs passively.
• Epithelial cells of Bowman's capsule leave some minute spaces called
filtration slits or slit pores.
• All the constituents of the plasma except the proteins pass onto the
lumen of the Bowman's capsule. Hence known as process of ultra 3. SECRETION :
filtration. + +
• Tubular cells secrete substances like H , K and ammonia into the
• GFR in a healthy individual is approximately 125ml/minute, i.e., 180 litres filtrate.
per day.
• JGA is a region formed by cellular modifications in the distal
convoluted tubule and the afferent arteriole at the location of
their contact. 3. Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
• A fall in GFR can activate the JG cells to release renin
+
Conditional reabsorption of Na and water takes place in this segment.
-
TOPIC 7. FUNCTION OF THE TUBULES Reabsorption of HCO₃ selective secretion of hydrogen and potassium ions and
NH₃- to maintain pH.

1. Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)

• Lined by simple cuboidal brush border epithelium
• 70-80 percent of electrolytes and water are reabsorbed by this 4. Collecting Duct
segment.

• Secretion of hydrogen ions, ammonia and potassium ions into the Extends from the cortex of the kidney to the inner parts of the medulla.
filterate.
Large amounts of water could be reabsorbed under the influence of ADH
2. Henle's Loop to produce a concentrated urine.
• Reabsorption is minimum in its ascending limb. Allows passage of small amounts of urea into the medullary interstitium
+ +
• Plays a significant role in the maintenance of high osmolarity of medullary Maintenance of pH and ionic balance selective secretion of H and K ions.
interstitial fluid.

• The descending limb of loop of Henle is permeable to water but impermeable to

electrolytes.

• The ascending limb is impermeable to water but allows transport of

electrolytes actively or passively.
 TOPIC 8. MECHANISM OF CONCENTRATION OF THE FILTRATE

Henle's loop and vasa recta play a significant role in this.

Proximity between the Henle's loop and vasa recta, as well as the
counter current in them help in maintaining an increasing osmolarity
towards the inner medullary interstitium, i.e., from 300 mOsmol L⁻¹ in
the cortex to about 1200 mOsmol L⁻¹ in the inner medulla
Mainly caused by NaCl and urea.
Transport of substances facilitated by the special arrangement
of Henle's loop and vasa recta is called the counter current
mechanism.

Maintain a concentration gradient in the medullary interstitium. Helps in an easy passage of water from the collecting tubule
thereby concentrating the filtrate (urine).
Produce urine nearly four times concentrated than the initial
filtrate formed.

2 Control by JGA

• A fall in glomerular blood flow/glomerular blood

TOPIC 9. REGULATION OF KIDNEY FUNCTIONs pressure/GFR can activate the JG cells to release renin
• Renin- Angiotensin mechanism.

Hormonal feedback mechanisms

1. Control by ADH
• Osmoreceptors in the body are activated by changes in blood volume, body
fluid volume and ionic concentration.

• Stimulate the hypothalamus to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or

vasopressin from the neurohypophysis .
• ADH facilitates water reabsorption from latter parts of the tubule,
preventing diuresis.
• Increase in body fluid volume can switch off the osmoreceptors
• Constrictory effects on blood vessels.

3. CONTROL BY ANF

1. Increase in blood flow to atria the can cause the release of

Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF).

2. Causes vasodilation and decreases the blood pressure.

3. check on the renin-angiotensin mechanism

 TOPIC 10. MICTURITION

1. Process of release of urine is called micturition, abd the neural

mechanisms causing it is called the micturition renex.

2. 1 to 1. 5 litres of urine excreted per day.

3. Urine is light yellow coloured watery fluid which is slightly acidic

(pH 6.0)

4. 25-30 gm of urea is excreted out per day.

5. Highest concentration of urea is found in hepatic vein

6. Presence of glucose (Glycosuria) and ketone bodies (Ketonuria) in

urine are indicative of Diabetes Mellitus.

TOPIC 11. ROLE OF OTHER ORGANS IN EXCRETION

Lungs, liver and skin also help in the elimination of excretory wastes. Sweat is a watery fluid containing NaCl, small amounts of urea,
lactic acid, etc.
Lungs remove large amounts of CO₂ (200 mL/minute) Sebaceous glands eliminate substances like sterols,
hydrocarbons and waxes through sebum. This secretion provides
Liver secretes bile-containing substances like bilirubin, biliverdin, oily covering for the skin.
cholesterol, degraded steroid hormones, vitamins and drugs.
Small amounts of nitrogenous wastes could be eliminated through
Sweat and sebaceous glands can eliminate certain substances through saliva too.
their secretions.

TOPIC 12. DISORDERS OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Haemodialysis
[Link]/Kidney failure

Kidney transplantation is the ultimate method in

the correction of acute renal failure (kidney
failure).

2 . Renal calculi
• Insoluble mass of crystallised salts (oxalates, etc.)
formed within the kidney.

3. Glomerulonephritis
• Inflammation of glomeruli of kidney.
Chapter
LOCOMOTION AND
20
MOVEMENT
INTRODUCTION MUSCLE
Animals and plants exhibit a wide range of
movements. Mesodermal origin.

Movements result in a change of place or location. Such 40-50 percent of the body weight have special
voluntary movements are called locomotion. properties like excitability, contractility, extensibility
and elasticity.

TYPES OF MOVEMENT Made of many long, cylindrical fibres composed of

numerous fine fibrils, called myofibrils.
Type of movement in human body
Muscle fibres contract (shorten) in response to
stimulation, then relax (lengthen) & return to their
uncontracted state.

TYPES OF MUSCLES

Skeletal (striated) muscles

Locomotion requires a perfect coordinated activity of
muscular, skeletal and neural systems.

SKELETAL MUSCLE

Made of a number of muscle bundles or fascicles held

together by a common collagenous connective tissue layer
called fascia.
Visceral (Non-striated) muscles
Muscle fibre is the anatomical unit of muscle.

Total number of muscle in human body

- 639.

Largest muscle - Gluteus maximus

Smallest muscle – Stapedius

Longest muscle – Sartorius

Cardiac muscles
 Muscle Fibre
Lined by the plasma membrane Syncitium
called sarcolemma.
Presence of a large number of
Sarcoplasmic reticulum is parallelly arranged filaments
the store house of calcium in the sarcoplasm called
ions. myofilaments or myofibrils.

Each myofibril has alternate dark and light bands on it.

The portion of the myofibril between two successive 'Z' lines is considered
sarcomere.

Structure of Contractile Proteins

MECHANISM OF MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
Sliding filament theory which states that contraction of a
muscle fibre takes place by the sliding of the thin filaments
over the thick filaments

Signal sent by (CNS) via a motor neuron.

Motor neuron along with the muscle fibres constitute a

motor unit junction between a motor neuron and the
sarcolemma of the muscle fibre is called the neuromuscular
junction or motor-end plate.
++
Increase in Ca level leads to the binding of calcium with a subunit of troponin
A neural signal reaching this junction releases a
on actin filaments and thereby remove the masking of active sites for myosin.
neurotransmitter (Acetylcholine) which generates an
action potential in the sarcolemma.

Spreads through the muscle fibre and causes the release

of calcium ions into the sarcoplasm.
Utilising the energy from ATP hydrolysis, the myosin head now
binds to the exposed active sites on actin to form a cross
bridge.

'Z' line attached to these actins are also pulled inwards

thereby causing a shortening of the sarcomere, i.e.,
contraction.
During shortening of the muscle, i. e. 'I' bands get reduced.'A'
bands retain the length. H-zone also reduced
++
The process continues till the Ca ions are pumped back to the
sarcoplasmic cisternae resulting in the masking of actin
filaments. causes the return of 'Z' lines back to their original
position, i.e .,relaxation.

Repeated activation of the muscles can lead to the

accumulation of lactic acid due to anaerobic breakdown of
glycogen in them, causing fatigue.

SKELETAL SYSTEM
In human beings , this system is
made up of 206 bones and a few
cartilages.

Axial skeleton comprises 80 bones

distributed along the main axis of the
body.

Thus the skull consists or 29 bones as

Cranial bones. - 8
Facial bones. - 14
Hyoid bones. - 1
Ear ossiclcs - 6
29

Vertebral column of man is made up of 33 bones Axial skeleton (80 bones)

but is consists of only 26 vertebrae because 5
sacral vertebrae fused to form one sacrum & 4 1. Skull - 29 (8, 14, 1, 6)
coccygeal vertebrae fused to form one coccyx. 2. Vertebral - 26 (7, 12, 5, 1, 1)
26 serially arranged units called vertebrae. column
3. Sternum - 1
First vertebra is the atlas and it articulates with the 4. Ribs - 24 (7, 3, 2) × 2
occipital condyles 80

RIBS Fore limb (30 bones)

12 pairs of ribs . Each rib is a thin flat bone connected Appendicular skeleton (126 bones) 1. Humerus - 1
dorsally to the vertebral column and ventrally to the 2. Radius - 1
sternum. 1. Fore limb - 60 (30 × 2) 3. Ulna - 1
Bicephalic 2. Hind limb - 60 (30 × 2) 4. Carpals - 8
3. Pectoral girdle - 04 (2 × 2) (wrist bones)
First seven pairs of ribs are called true ribs.
4. Pelvic girdle - 02 5. Metacarpals - 5
Dorsally, attached to the thoracic Vertebrae ventrally 126 (palm bones)
connected to the sternum with the help of hyaline 6. Phalanges
cartilage..
(digits) - 14
30
 Hind limb (30 bones)
The 8th , 9th and 10th pairs of ribs do not articulate
directly with the sternum but join the seventh rib with the 1. Femur (thigh bone) - 1
help of hyaline cartilage. These are called vertebrochondral 2. Tibia - 1
(false) ribs. 3. Fibula - 1
4. Tarsals (ankle bones) - 7
Last 2 pairs (11th and 12th) of ribs are not connected 5. Metatarsals - 5
ventrally and are therefore, called floating ribs. 6. Phalanges (digits). - 14
7. Patella (cup-shaped) - 1
30
PECTORAL GIRDLE/
SHOULDER GIRDLE
Below the acromion is a depression called the glenoid cavity which
articulates with the head of the humerus to form the shoulder joint.
Consists of a clavicle and a scapula.
Clavicle is a long slender bone with two curvatures. This bone is
Scapula is present in dorsal part of thorax between the
commonly called the collar bone.
second an d the seventh ribs.

Dorsal, triangular body of scapula called the acromion.

The clavicle articulates with this. JOINTS

PELVIC GIRDLE

Two coxal bones.

Each coxal bone is formed by the fusion of three bones -

ilium, ischium and pubis.

At the point of fusion of the above bones is a cavity called

acetabulum to which the thigh bone articulates.

The two halves of the pelvic girdle meet ventrally to form

the pubic symphysis containing fibrous cartilage.

DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR
AND SKELETAL SYSTEM

Myasthenia gravis : Auto immune disorder affecting

neuromuscular junction leading to fatigue, weakening
and paralysis of skeletal muscle.
Chapter
NEURAL CONTROL AND
21 COORDINATION
All the functions of the body are integrated, coordinated & regulated by the neuro-endocrine system of the body.

NEURON

Three major parts - Cell body, dendrites and axon. Axon is a long fibre, the distal end of which is branched.

Cell body cytoplasm with typical cell organelles and certain Each branch terminates as a bulb-like structure called
granular bodies called Nissl's granules. synaptic knob which possess synaptic vesicles containing
chemicals called neurotransmitters.
Short fibres which branch repeatedly and project out of the
cell body also contain Nissl's granules are called dendrites. It transmit nerve impulses away from the cell body to a
They transmit impulses towards the cell body. synapse or to a neuro-muscular junction.

TYPE OF AXONS

Myelinated nerve fibres have Schwann cells, which form a Unmyelinated nerve fibre enclosed by a Schwann cell that does
myelin sheath around the axon. not form a myelin sheath around the axon and are found in
autonomous and the somatic neural systems
Gaps between two adjacent myelin sheaths are called nodes
of Ranvier which are found in spinal and cranial nerves.

TYPES OF THE NEURONS GENERATION AND CONDUCTION

OF NERVE IMPULSE
Pseudounipolar neurons
Ion channels are present on the neural membrane, which are
A single process arises from the cyton & then divides into axon & dendrite
selectively permeable to different ions.
Eg.: dorsal root ganglia of spinal nerves.
When a neuron is not conducting any impulse, i.e., resting, the axonal
membrane is comparatively more permeable to potassium ions (K⁺),
less permeable to Na⁺ and impermeable to negatively charged proteins
present in the axoplasm.
Ionic gradients maintained by the active transport of ions by the sodium-
TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSES
+ +
potassium pump which transports 3Na outwards for 2K into the cell.+
+
Through junctions called synapses.
As a result, the outer surface of the axonal membrane possesses a
positive charge while its inner surface becomes negatively charged and There are two types: 1. Electrical synapses and 2.
therefore is polarised. Chemical synapses

The electrical potential difference across the resting plasma Electrical synapses allows quick transmission,
membrane is called as the resting potential (–70mV). both membranes are in close contact. They are
rare in our body.
+

EYE CHEMICAL SYNAPSES

Two types of photoreceptor cells, namely, rods and cones. Photoreceptor cells are not present in region medial to and slightly
above the posterior pole of the eye ball from where optic nerves
Contain the light-sensitive proteins called the photopigments. leave the eye and the retinal blood vessels enter It is called the blind
spot.
Daylight vision/colour vision is function of cones and the twilight
(scotopic) vision is the function of the rods. At the posterior pole of the eye lateral to the blind spot, there is a
yellowish pigmented spot called macula lutea with a central pit called
The rods contain a purplish-red protein called the rhodopsin or the fovea, where only the cones are densely packed, and the visual
visual purple, which contains a derivative of Vitamin A. acuity (resolution) is the greatest.

There are three types of cones which respond to red, green and The space between the cornea and the lens is called the aqueous
blue lights. chamber and contains a thin watery fluid called aqueous humor.

The space between the lens and the retina is called the vitreous
When these cones are stimulated equally, a sensation of white
chamber and is filled with a transparent gel called vitreous humor.
light is produced.
Chapter
CHEMICAL COORDINATION &
22 INTEGRATION
The neural system and the endocrine system jointly coordinate
and regulate the physiological functions in the body. HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND Pituitary, pineal, thyroid , adrenal , pancreas, parathyroid, thymus and
gonads (testis in males and ovary in females)
HORMONES GIT, kidney, heart also produce hormones.
Ductless glands secretions are called hormones.
Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals, intercellular messengers,
and are produced in trace amounts. PITUITARY GLAND

1. HYPOTHALAMUS
Adenophypophysis Neurohypophysis

Contains group of neurosecretory cells called nuclei which

produce hormones of two types: Pars distalis or Pars intermedia Pars nervosa or
1. Releasing hormones (which stimulate secretion of pituitary Anterior Pituitary Posterior pituitary
hormones eg. GnRH)
GH Oxytocin
2. Inhibiting hormones (inhibit secretions of pituitary hormones eg.
Somatostatin) PRL MSH Vasoprcssin (ADH)
They regulate synthesis and secretion of Pituitary Hormones through TSH
hypophyseal portal circulation ACTH
3. Oxytocin, vasopressin (ADH) through direct neural secretion of LH
posterior pituitary. FSH

2. THE PITUITARY GLAND REGULATION OF SPERMATOGENESIS

The pituitary gland is located in a bony cavity called sella Hypothalamus
tursica of sphenoid bone and is attached to hypothalamus by a
stalk. GnRH
Over secretion of GH causes Gigantism, low secretion of GH
causes pituitary dwarfism. Anterior pituitary or Pars distalis
Excess secretion of GH in adults especially in middle age can
result in severe disfigurement (especially of face) called Gonadotrophin (In Male)
Acromegaly.
In females, LH induces ovulation of fully mature follicles
(graafian follicles) and maintains the corpus luteum Luteinizing Follicle Stimulating
FSH stimulates growth and development of the ovarian follicles Hormone (LH) Hormone (FSH)
in females.
Neurohypophysis stores and releases 2 hormones: Oxytocin & Leydig cell Sertoli cells
vasopressin.
Oxytocin stimulates a vigorous contraction of uterus,Also known Androgen Some factors
as milk ejection hormone
Vasopressin causes resorption of water and electrolytes by the Spermatogenesis Spermiogenesis
distal tubules and reduce water loss through urine (diuresis)
also called as anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) .
'Diabetes Insipidus’ (hyposecretion of ADH)
4. THYROID GLAND
3. THE PINEAL GLAND
Two lobes either side of the trachea.
Dorsal side of forebrain. Interconnected with a thin flap of connective tissue isthmus.
Secretes a hormone melatonin Composed of follicles and stromal tissues.
Regulation of a 24-hour (diurnal) rhythm of our body. Follicle is composed of follicular cells
Maintaining body temperature. Follicular cells synthesise two hormones, tetraiodothyronine or thyroxine
Metabolism, pigmentation, menstrual cycle as well as our (T₄ ) and triiodothyronine (T₃ ).
defense capability. Iodine is essential
 THYROID DISORDERS
Hypothyroidism and enlargement of the thyroid gland, commonly called goitre due to deficiency of Iodine.
Cretinism: Hypothyroidism during pregnancy causes defective development and maturation of the growing baby leading to stunted growth mental
retardation, low intelligence quotient, abnormal skin, deaf-mutism, etc.
Myxoedema or Gull's disease: hypothyroidism in adult women, menstrual cycle become irregular.
Exophthalmic Goitre or Grave's disease : hyperthyroidism, enlargement of thyroid gland due to cancer of thyroid gland unit. Causes protrusion of eye ball,
increased BMR & weight loss.
Thyrocalcitonin (TCT) (by parafollicular cell); hypocalcaemic hormone, lower the blood calcium level.

5. PARATHYROID GLAND 6. THYMUS

Four parathyroid glands are on the back side of the thyroid gland, one Lobular structure located on the ventral side of the heart and the
pair each in the two lobes of the thyroid gland. aorta, major role in the development of the immune system. Secretes
Parathyroid hormone (PTH). peptide hormones called thymosins.
Increases the Ca²⁺ level of blood & stimulates the process of bone Major role in the differentiation of T-lymphocytes provide cell-
resorption (dissolution/demineralisation). mediated immunity.
Stimulates reabsorption of Ca⁺² by the renal tubules & increases Ca²⁺ Production of antibodies to provide humoral immunity.
absorption from the digested food. Degenerated in old individuals
PTH is a hypercalcemic hormone
Hyposecretion of PTH (hypoparathyroidism) causes hypocalcaemie
tetany.
ADRENAL MEDULLA
Increase alertness, pupilary dilation, piloerection (raising of hairs),
7. ADRENAL GLAND sweating etc.
Catecholamines also stimulate the breakdown of glycogen
Our body has one pair' of adrenal glands, one at the anterior part of breakdown of lipids and proteins.
each kidney (supra-renal glands).

Adrenal gland

Adrennl Cortex (Outer) Adrenal medulla

(Inner)

Catecholamines
Outer zona Middle Zona fasciculata Inner Zona reticularls
glomerulosa (Glucocorticoid) (Sex corticoid)
(Mineralo- Adrenaline or Noradrenaline or
corticoid) epinephrine norepinephrine

Emergency hormones or hormones of fight or flight

ADRENAL CORTEX
Androgenic steroids play a role in the growth of axial hair, pubic
Aldosterone acts mainly at the renal tubules and stimulates the hair and facial hair during puberty. Hyposecretion of adrenal
reabsorption of Na⁺ and water and excretion of K⁺ and phosphate ions. cortex hormone alters carbohydrate metabolism causing acute
Maintenance of electrolytes, body fluid volume, osmotic pressure and weakness, fatigue leading to a disease called Addison's disease.
blood pressure. Hypersecretion: Cushing syndrome.
Cortisol is the main glucocorticoid. Stimulate, gluconeogenesis, lipolysis
and proteolysis. Maintaining the cardio-vascular system as well kidney
functions. Produces anti inflammatory reactions and suppresses the
immune response.
 8. PANCREAS 9. TESTIS
Hyposecretion of Insulin - causes hyperglycemia leads to a complex Primary male sex organ as well as an endocrine gland.
disorder called diabetes mellitus. Loss of glucose through urine and The Leydig cells or interstitial cells, which are present in the
formation of harmful compounds known as ketone bodies. intertubular spaces produce a group of hormones called
androgens mainly testosterone.
Main male hormone or androgen is testosterone.
Pancreas
Responsible for the puberty in male.
Regulate the development, maturation and functions of the
male accessory sex organs like epididymis, vas deferens,
Exocrine part (98- Endocrine part (1-
99%) 2%)
seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra etc.
Stimulate muscular growth, growth of facial and axillary
Islets of Langerhans hair, aggressiveness, low pitch of voice etc.
Regulates the process of spermatogenesis
Influence the male sexual behaviour (libido).
alpha-cells beta-cells Anabolic (synthetic) effects on protein and carbohydrate
Hepatocytes metabolism.
Glucagon Hepatocytes Insulin
Adipocytes
Hyperglycemic Hypoglycemic
11. HORMONES OF HEART AND
KIDNEY.
10. OVARY Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF), which decreases blood
pressure. vasodilation)
The juxtaglomerular cells of kidney produce a peptide hormone
Primary female sex organ called erythropoietin which stimulates erythropoiesis (formation
Estrogen is synthesised and secreted mainly by the growing ovarian of RBC).
follicles.
After ovulation, the ruptured follicle is converted to a structure
called corpus luteum, which secretes mainly progesterone. NATURE OF HORMONE
Estrogens stimulates the growth and activities of female secondary
sex organs, development of growing ovarian follicles, appearance of
female secondary sex characters e.g., mammary gland development. Peptide, polypeptide, protein hormones (e.g., insulin, glucagon,
Regulate female sexual behaviour. pituitary hormones, hypothalamic hormones, etc.), TCT, PTH,
Progesterone supports pregnancy. Thymosines.
Progesterone also acts on the mammary glands and stimulates the Steroids (eg., cortisol, testosterone, estradiol and progesterone)
formation of alveoli (sac-like structures which store milk) and milk Iodothyronines (thyroid hormones)
secretion. Amino-acid derivatives (eg., epinephrine)

MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION

Mechanism of steroid hormone action

Mechanism of protein hormone action