The Complete Laboratory HVAC Resource

ASHRAE
ASHRAE Laboratory Design Guide is a comprehensive reference manual for the
planning, design, and operation of laboratories. It gives engineers, owners, and
system operators the design and control strategies they need to reduce the
LABORATORY
DESIGN GUIDE
laboratory’s energy footprint while ensuring safety, providing good comfort and
indoor air quality, and protecting the integrity of laboratory experiments.
The Guide is organized around a typical project, progressing through the basic

ASHRAE LABORATORY DESIGN GUIDE

steps of planning, design, construction, and operation and maintenance. It offers
basic background information on laboratories, including their various types Planning and Operation of
and the typical equipment found in them, to provide a basic understanding
of laboratories and their importance as well as their different functions and
needs. The book covers topics such as exhaust hoods, primary air systems,
Laboratory HVAC Systems
process cooling, air treatment, exhaust stack design, airflow patterns and Second Edition
system balancing, energy recovery, the laboratory commissioning process, and
the economics of both initial and life-cycle costs. A dedicated chapter gives
guidance on laboratories that specialize in biological containment and animal
research, addressing envelope design, system reliability, redundancy, proper
space pressurization, biohazard containment and control, product protection,
and sanitation.
Updated to reflect current standards and industry practices, this second edition
also adds two new chapters: one on high-performance building design concepts
for sustainability and one with guidelines on evaluating airflow patterns and
contaminant concentrations using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) computer
modeling. Finally, included with this Guide are expanded web links to industry
standards and resources as well as design tools that help illustrate the features
of laboratories and provide practical aids for design.

Second Edition
Comprehensive guidance on
ISBN 978-1-936504-98-5
• Loads, equipment, processes, air treatment,
exhaust stack design, airflow, and balancing
• Designing for energy efficiency and sustainability
1791 Tullie Circle • Initial and life-cycle costs
Atlanta, GA 30329-2305 • Operation and maintenance for safety and efficiency
404-636-8400 (worldwide) 9 781936 50498 5
• Commissioning for laboratory systems
[Link] Product code: 90558 8/15
Includes access to bonus digital tools for learning and design

ASHRAE_Lab Des Guide_Cover [Link] 1 7/24/2015 [Link] PM

F1_Front.fm Page 1 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:41 AM

ASHRAE
Laboratory
Design Guide

Second Edition
F1_Front.fm Page 2 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 1:21 PM

This publication was prepared under the auspices of

TC 9.10, Laboratory Systems.

Updates/errata for this publication

will be posted on the ASHRAE website at
[Link]/publicationupdates.
F1_Front.fm Page 3 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:41 AM

ASHRAE
Laboratory
Design Guide
Planning and Operation
of Laboratory
HVAC Systems
Second Edition

Atlanta
F1_Front.fm Page 4 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 1:26 PM

ISBN 978-1-936504-98-5

© 2001, 2015 ASHRAE

1791 Tullie Circle, NE
Atlanta, GA 30329
[Link]
All rights reserved.
Cover design by Laura Haass

ASHRAE is a registered trademark in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, owned by the American Society of Heat-
ing, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE has compiled this publication with care, but ASHRAE has not investigated, and ASHRAE expressly disclaims
any duty to investigate, any product, service, process, procedure, design, or the like that may be described herein. The
appearance of any technical data or editorial material in this publication does not constitute endorsement, warranty, or
guaranty by ASHRAE of any product, service, process, procedure, design, or the like. ASHRAE does not warrant that
the information in the publication is free of errors, and ASHRAE does not necessarily agree with any statement or opin-
ion in this publication. The entire risk of the use of any information in this publication is assumed by the user.
No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission in writing from ASHRAE, except by a reviewer who
may quote brief passages or reproduce illustrations in a review with appropriate credit, nor may any part of this publica-
tion be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any way or by any means—electronic, photocopying,
recording, or other—without permission in writing from ASHRAE. Requests for permission should be submitted at
[Link]/permissions.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ASHRAE laboratory design guide : planning and operation of laboratory HVAC systems. -- Second edition.
pages cm
Revised edition of: ASHRAE laboratory design guide / Ian B.D. McIntosh, Chad B. Dorgan, Charles E. Dorgan. 2001.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Summary: "Reference manual for planning, design, and operation of laboratory HVAC systems to reduce the laboratory's energy footprint while
ensuring safety, providing good comfort and indoor air quality, and protecting the integrity of experiments; includes online access to electronic
design tools that illustrate features of laboratories and provide practical design aids"-- Provided by publisher.
ISBN 978-1-936504-98-5 (softcover : alk. paper) 1. Laboratories--Design and construction. 2. Laboratories--Safety measures. 3. Laboratories-
-Energy conservation. 4. Buildings--Environmental engineering. I. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
TH7688.L3M35 2015
697.9--dc23
2015016133

ASHRAE STAFF SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS Mark S. Owen, Editor/Group Manager of Handbook and Special Publications
Cindy Sheffield Michaels, Managing Editor
James Madison Walker, Managing Editor of Standards
Sarah Boyle, Assistant Editor
Lauren Ramsdell, Editorial Assistant
Michshell Phillips, Editorial Coordinator
PUBLISHING SERVICES David Soltis, Group Manager of Publishing Services and Electronic Communications
Jayne Jackson, Publication Traffic Administrator
Tracy Becker, Graphics Specialist
PUBLISHER W. Stephen Comstock
F2_TOC.fm Page v Wednesday, July 8, 2015 2:03 PM

Contents
~
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Abbreviations and Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
1 ~ Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Reference Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2 ~ Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Laboratory Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Laboratory Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3 ~ Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4 ~ Laboratory Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Environmental Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Appliances and Occupancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Pressure Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Ventilation and IAQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
F2_TOC.fm Page vi Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:40 AM

Laboratory Codes, Standards, and References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Integration of Architecture and Engineered Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Development of Planning Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5 ~ Exhaust Hoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Types of Exhaust Hoods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Selection of Exhaust Hoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Hood Performance Verification and Continuous Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6 ~ Primary Air Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Zone Air Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Zone Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Exhaust Air System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Supply Air System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Duct Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Energy Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7 ~ Process Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Types of Water-Cooled Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Water Treatment and Quality Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Temperature and Pressure Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
System Pumping Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8 ~ Air Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Requirements for Acceptable and Safe Levels of Pollutants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Air Treatment Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9 ~ Exhaust Stack Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Elements of Stack Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Dispersion Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

vi ASHRAE Laboratory Design Guide, Second Edition

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10 ~ Energy Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Air-to-Air Energy Recovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Water-to-Air Energy Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Selection Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
11 ~ Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Constant-Volume versus Variable-Air-Volume Fume Hood Control . . . . . . . . 174
Air Control Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Source Containment and Exhaust Device Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Room Pressurization Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Dilution Ventilation and Minimum Ventilation Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Room Temperature Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Central System Level Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Emergency Modes of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Animal Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
12 ~ Airflow Patterns and Testing Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Airflow Patterns and Direction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Laboratory Testing Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
13 ~ O&M for Ventilation and Exhaust Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Maintenance of Equipment and Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Decontamination of Existing Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Cost Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
14 ~ Laboratory Commissioning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Commissioning Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Predesign Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Design Phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Construction Phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Acceptance Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Contents vii
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Occupancy and Operations Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Commissioning of Existing Buildings (Retrocommissioning) . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
15 ~ HVAC System Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Initial Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Life-Cycle Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
16 ~ Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Introduction to Biological Containment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Biosafety Level Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Users’ Program Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Engineering Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Special Animal Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
17 ~ CFD Modeling of Laboratory Ventilation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Uses of CFD in Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Introduction to CFD Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Types of CFD Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Typical Stages in CFD Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Recommendations for Conducting CFD Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Interpreting CFD Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
18 ~ Sustainable Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
High-Performance Building Design Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Computer Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Green Tips for Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Ongoing Commissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Laboratory Sustainability Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

ASHRAE Laboratory Design Guide: Planning and Operation of

Laboratory HVAC Systems is accompanied by supplemental
online content, which can be found at [Link]/LabDG.

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Preface
~
ASHRAE Laboratory Design Guide: Planning and Operation of Laboratory HVAC
Systems is a significant revision of the first edition of the design guide, which was pub-
lished in 2001. It is intended that the information in this Guide assist engineers, owners,
and system operators in determining the needs of their laboratory facility and how to best
match these needs to mechanical system options.
This Guide is written in a manner that progresses from general to specific to reach a
wide target audience of designers, architects, engineers, owners, operation and mainte-
nance personnel, and others in the heating, ventilating, air-conditioning, and refrigerating
(HVAC&R) industry. The first chapters of the Guide present general background infor-
mation and prescribed design frameworks, whereas the later chapters are more specific,
providing detailed design and application information. A primary benefit of this structure
is that many types of readers can use the Guide. Whereas an owner may only read the first
two chapters, an engineer may focus on the design chapters.
This new edition has been updated to reflect current standards and industry practices.
Web links to these standards and to additional laboratory-related resources have been
expanded. Many of the chapters have been significantly revised or rewritten.
This edition also contains two new chapters, one that covers sustainability and one
that covers computer modeling of ventilation effectiveness.
It is hoped that this revised edition of the Guide will be even more useful to the labo-
ratory designer, owner and operator, and anyone else involved in the design, construction,
and operation of laboratories.
F4_Preface.fm Page 2 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:40 AM
F5_Acknowledgments.fm Page xi Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:40 AM

Acknowledgments
~
This Design Guide is the product of many members of Technical Committee
(TC) 9.10, Laboratory Systems, as well as others in the laboratory and HVAC community.
Special thanks go to the chapter leaders and contributors:
• Pete Gardner was the leader and a contributor for Chapters 2 and 7.
• John Varley and Erik Eaves were the leaders and contributors to the revision of
Chapter 3.
• John Castelvecchi was the leader for the significantly revised Chapter 5. In addi-
tion to John, George Sestak, Kurt Rindoks, and Bill Peters also were contribu-
tors to this chapter. John also was the leader for Chapter 11, which is a totally
rewritten and expanded chapter. In addition to John, Jim Coogan and Gordon
Sharp were contributors. John also was the leader and a contributor for
Chapter 14.
• Carl Crow was the leader and a contributor to Chapter 6.
• Charles Henck was the leader and a contributor for Chapter 8.
• Brad Cochran was the leader and a contributor for Chapter 9.
• Roland Charneux was the leader and a contributor for Chapters 10 and 18. He
authored Chapter 18, which is a new chapter to the Design Guide, with John
Varley as a contributor.
• Mike Ratcliff was the leader and primary author for Chapter 17, which is a new
chapter. Gordon Sharp and Bob Weidner were also contributors.
• As the leader and a contributor for Chapters 1, 4, 12, 13, 15, and the totally rewrit-
ten Chapter 16, I worked with Carl Crow as a major contributor to Chapter 1, with
John Varley on Chapter 4, with Tom Smith and Jeff Traylor on Chapter 13, and
with Chris Kiley, David Duthu, and Carl Crow as major contributors to Chapter 16.

Also, much thanks goes to the chapter reviewers, who in most cases reviewed multi-
ple chapters and whose comments have greatly improved this edition of the Design
Guide: Mike Brueggeroff, Hwakong Cheng, Bob Cochran, Jim Coogan, Carl Crow, Brent
Eubanks, Mary Foutz, Dan Frasier, Pete Gardner, Kevin Gilkison, Traci Hanegan, Nathan
Ho, Mark Hydeman, Chris Kiley, Ken Kuntz, Guy Perreault, Mike Ratcliff, David
Rausch, Scott Rusk, George Sestak, Gordon Sharp, Tom Smith, John Varley, Mike Walsh,
Bob Weidner, Ron Wendorski, and myself.
F5_Acknowledgments.fm Page xii Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:40 AM

Shinji Sunohara did a great service in providing the SI units for the Guide. Thanks
also to So-Yeng Chen for coordinating this effort.
Roland Charneux was the FTP site manager for the editing process and provided
much logistical support.
David Rausch assisted the chapter leaders with obtaining permissions.
The members of the TC 9.10 Laboratory Design Guide Subcommittee also provided
much support and guidance during this process.
In addition to the members already mentioned above, I would like to acknowledge the
following: Leon Alevantis, Adam Bare, Patrick Carpenter, Charles Coward, Wade Con-
lan, Kelley Cramm, Carol Donovan, Andrew Dymek, Carl Lawson, Lloyd Le, Gaylon
Richardson, Tony Rossi, and Mitch Swann.

As this second edition relied on the first edition for the basis of many of the chapters,
additional thanks go to all those who contributed to the first edition of this book, which
was prepared under ASHRAE Research Project 969 and authored by Ian B.D. McIntosh,
Chad B. Dorgan, and Charles E. Dorgan. The Project Monitoring Subcommittee for the
first edition was chaired by John Mentzer and included Pete Gardner, John Varley, Bob
Weidner, and Randall Lacey. Jack Wunder performed a detailed review of the draft of the
first edition, and the following key people supplied input that contributed to the success of
the first edition: Todd Hardwick, Otto Van Geet, Victor Neuman, Carl Lawson, Greg De
Luga, Geoffrey Bell, Luis Solarte, Daniel Ghidoni, Patrick Chudecke, Edward Fiance,
Robert Haugen, Tom Begley, Bob Parsons, and Gary Butler. The authors of the first edi-
tion also recognized the following Dorgan Associates’ staff members for their contribu-
tions: Svein Morner and Zachary Obert for writing various sections and reviewing
background material to help ensure technical accuracy, Chad Grindle for creating and
editing the graphics, Joan Dorgan for proofreading, and Suzanne Bowen for word pro-
cessing and proofreading.

Many individuals worked on this Design Guide. Acknowledging those who contrib-
uted to and supported this effort involves the risk of omitting some of these individuals. I
apologize if this is the case.

Henry Hays
Chair, TC 9.10 Laboratory Design Guide Subcommittee

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Abbreviations
and Acronyms

ACGIH
~
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
ach, ACH air changes per hour
AHU air-handling unit
AIHA American Industrial Hygiene Association
AMCA Air Movement and Control Association International
APR air pressure resistant
BMBL Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories
BOD Basis of Design
BSC biological safety cabinet
BSL biosafety level
CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CFD computational fluid dynamics
cfm cubic feet per minute
CPVC chlorinated polyvinyl chloride
EDS effluent decontamination system
EMCS energy management and control system
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
fpm feet per minute
FRP fiber reinforced plastic
HEPA high-efficiency particulate air
IAQ indoor air quality
L/s litres per second
LCCA life-cycle cost analysis
LEL lower explosive limit
m/s metres per second
NIBS National Institute of Building Sciences
NIH National Institutes of Health
NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
O&M operation and maintenance
OPR Owner’s Project Requirements
F6_AbbreviationsAcronyms.fm Page xiv Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:40 AM

PVC polyvinyl chloride

rpm, RPM revolutions per minute
SHGC solar heat gain coefficient
SMACNA Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association
TAB testing, adjusting, and balancing
TLV threshold limit value
UPS uninteruptible power supply
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
USGBC U.S. Green Building Council
VAV variable air volume
VFD variable-frequency drive
VSD variable-speed drive

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Introduction

OVERVIEW
1
Laboratories come in various types and configurations. A laboratory may be a few
rooms in a building or it may be a large, multistory facility. Laboratories range from con-
taining relatively low-risk materials to containing extremely high-risk biological patho-
gens. Each laboratory has unique requirements, especially in regard to the ventilation and
exhaust systems. In addition, the realization that laboratories are energy intensive has
resulted in design and control strategies for reducing the energy footprint while providing
acceptable ventilation levels. This Design Guide is intended to be a comprehensive refer-
ence manual for the planning and design of laboratories.
To improve the comprehension of the material for those unfamiliar with laboratory
design, this Guide is organized around a typical project, progressing through the basic
steps of planning, design, construction, and operation and maintenance (O&M). The
Guide’s 18 chapters are discussed in detail in the following section.

ORGANIZATION

Chapter 2, “Background,” provides basic background information on laboratories,

including their various types and the typical equipment found in them. The intent of this
chapter is to provide a basic understanding of laboratories and their importance as well as
their different functions and needs.
Chapter 3, “Design Process,” outlines the design process with guidance provided to
designers and engineers on the key steps in meeting or exceeding the owner’s design
intent. Also included in this chapter is a review of special space design considerations for
the different HVAC system types encountered in a laboratory.
Chapter 4, “Laboratory Planning,” describes the many important issues that are
addressed during the planning phase of a laboratory project. At the very core of this phase
is the need to provide utmost safety for laboratory occupants via risk assessment and haz-
ard analyses while achieving experimental integrity, good comfort and indoor air quality,
capacity to meet operating loads, and successful integration of architectural and engineer-
ing systems. These various important considerations are then carefully documented in the
Owner’s Project Requirements (OPR) and the owner’s design intent.
[Link] Page 2 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:39 AM

Chapter 5, “Exhaust Hoods,” details the operability, types, applications, selection,

testing and monitoring of fume exhaust hoods.
Chapter 6, “Primary Air Systems,” describes the many HVAC system options avail-
able for conditioning and contaminant removal, including supply systems, room or space
air diffusion, exhaust systems, duct construction, and energy efficiency.
Chapter 7, “Process Cooling,” examines the different system options available to
meet supplementary process cooling needs. This includes the types of water-cooled loads
found in laboratories, water treatment and quality, temperature and pressure require-
ments, and pumping system configurations.
Chapter 8, “Air Treatment,” presents several methods of treating exhaust and makeup
air as it is either expelled to the outside environment or drawn into the laboratory space
from the outside.
Chapter 9, “Exhaust Stack Design,” deals with the final outlet through which air is
discharged into the environment—exhaust stacks. Required elements for good exhaust
stack design, in addition to modeling techniques available for design verification, are
described.
Chapter 10, “Energy Recovery,” addresses the ability to realize economic savings via
the recovery of the temperature and/or humidity content of the exhaust air or other
sources of energy that would otherwise be wasted. The two main energy recovery tech-
nologies discussed are air-to-air and water-to-air heat exchange. In addition, key parame-
ters used to properly select energy recovery options are presented.
Chapter 11, “Controls,” discusses controls for constant-volume fume hoods, variable-
air-volume (VAV) fume hoods, and other exhaust equipment. Room control discussion
includes the theory of room control, outdoor air needs, minimum ventilation air changes
per hour, control stability, constant-volume and VAV strategies, control of critical spaces,
and building pressurization.
Chapter 12, “Airflow Patterns and Testing Procedures,” provides an understanding of
airflow patterns throughout the laboratory environment and how they need to be main-
tained in a specific direction and velocity to protect against pollutants or contamination.
This is followed by descriptions of proper air and hydronic balancing and testing proce-
dures.
Chapter 13, “O&M for Ventilation and Exhaust Systems,” details how to properly
operate and maintain laboratory systems for the continual safety of occupants, integrity of
laboratory experiments, and efficiency of HVAC systems and laboratory operations. To
this end, this chapter discusses the training needed for O&M personnel and laboratory
users. In addition, operating costs and the importance of periodic fume hood and biologi-
cal safety cabinet (BSC) testing and certification are also addressed.
Chapter 14, “Laboratory Commissioning Process,” introduces the quality assurance
procedure known as the commissioning process, which commences during the planning
phase and follows through to the design, construction, acceptance, turnover, and occu-
pancy and operations phases of a building project. The commissioning process ensures
that the diverse requirements for the laboratory and the owner’s design intent are met.
Chapter 15, “HVAC System Economics,” covers both the initial costs (costs associ-
ated with planning, design, and construction) and life-cycle costs (costs associated with
operation and maintenance) of a laboratory facility. Although initial costs are usually
given more emphasis because of budgetary constraints, this chapter also discusses the
life-cycle costs in designing the laboratory. This is important because a substantial invest-
ment is required to effectively operate and maintain laboratory systems and equipment
over a life span of 15 to 30 years.

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Chapter 16, “Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories,” provides specific infor-

mation about laboratories that specialize in biological containment and that house
research animals. Because of the importance of containing and controlling biohazards and
product protection within these special laboratories, issues such as system reliability,
redundancy, proper space pressurization, envelope design, and sanitation are addressed.
Chapter 17, “CFD Modeling of Laboratory Ventilation,” provides information regard-
ing evaluating airflow patterns and contaminant concentrations using computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) computer modeling. The results of the modeling can help the designer
address issues including supply and exhaust device type and location, fume hood place-
ment, control of heat or contaminant sources, and occupational safety. This chapter also
presents guidelines on using CFD for analyzing laboratory ventilation.
Chapter 18, “Sustainable Design,” addresses the opportunities to incorporate high-perfor-
mance building design concepts into the design process. Laboratory facilities present unique
challenges and opportunities for sustainability. This chapter provides an overview and pres-
ents examples of the use of these opportunities.
This Guide is also accompanied by supplemental information that can be found at
[Link]/LabDG. Included are short videos illustrating concepts presented in the
text, sample room data sheets in PDF format, a laboratory sustainability checklist for
reviewing opportunities to enhance laboratory sustainability and a sample room schedule
in Microsoft® Excel® format, PDFs of articles on laboratory HVAC published in
ASHRAE Journal and ASHRAE Transactions that provide case studies and practical
application information, recordings of related seminars presented at ASHRAE Confer-
ences, and the program DilutionCalc for calculating downwind dilutions/concentrations
from an exhaust stack. If the files or information at the link are not accessible, please con-
tact the publisher.

REFERENCE SOURCES

There are many laboratory-related resources available that may be helpful to engi-
neers, owners, and system operators. These resources include professional associations
and societies, research institutions, government offices and regulators, design forums and
publications, and ASHRAE committees.

PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS AND SOCIETIES

AAALAC—Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal
Care International
The Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care Inter-
national (AAALAC) is a private, nonprofit organization that promotes the humane treat-
ment of animals in science through voluntary accreditation and assessment programs.
[Link]

AALAS—American Association for Laboratory Animal Science

The American Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AALAS) is a member-
ship association of professionals employed around the world in academia, government,
and private industry who are dedicated to the humane care and treatment of laboratory
animals as well as the quality research that leads to scientific gains that benefit people and
animals.
[Link]

1 · Introduction 3
[Link] Page 4 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:39 AM

ABSA—American Biological Safety Association

The American Biological Safety Association (ABSA) was founded in 1984 to pro-
mote biosafety as a scientific discipline and serve the growing needs of biosafety profes-
sionals throughout the world. The Association’s goals are to provide a professional
association that represents the interests and needs of practitioners of biological safety and
to provide a forum for the continued and timely exchange of biosafety information.
[Link]

ACGIH—American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists

The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) is a
member-based organization that advances occupational and environmental health.
[Link]

ACS—American Chemical Society

The American Chemical Society (ACS) is a scientific society based in the United
States that supports scientific inquiry in the field of chemistry. Founded in 1876 at New
York University, ACS currently has more than 163,000 members at all degree levels and
in all fields of chemistry, chemical engineering, and related fields. It is the world’s largest
scientific society and one of the leading sources of authoritative scientific information.
[Link]

AESP—Association of Energy Services Professionals

The Association of Energy Services Professionals (AESP) is a member-based associ-
ation dedicated to improving the delivery and implementation of energy efficiency,
energy management, and distributed renewable resources.
[Link]

AIA—The American Institute of Architects

The American Institute of Architects (AIA) is a professional organization for archi-
tects in the United States. Headquartered in Washington, DC, AIA offers education, gov-
ernment advocacy, community redevelopment, and public outreach to support the
architecture profession and improve its public image. AIA also works with other mem-
bers of the design and construction team to help coordinate the building industry.
[Link]

AIHA—American Industrial Hygiene Association

Founded in 1939, the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) is a nonprofit
organization devoted to achieving and maintaining the highest professional standards for
its members. AIHA administers comprehensive education programs that keep occupa-
tional and environmental health and safety (OEHS) professionals current in the field of
industrial hygiene. AIHA is one of the largest international associations serving OEHS
professionals practicing industrial hygiene and is a resource for those in large corpora-
tions, small businesses and who work independently as consultants.
[Link]

AHRI—Air Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute

The Air Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute (AHRI), formed in 2008
by a merger of the Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI) and the Gas Appli-
ance Manufacturers Association (GAMA), is a North American trade association of man-
ufacturers of air conditioning, heating, and commercial refrigeration equipment. The
organization performs political advocacy on behalf of its member industries, maintains

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[Link] Page 5 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:39 AM

technical standards, certifies products, shares data, conducts research, and awards schol-
arships.
[Link]

ANSI—American National Standards Institute

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a private nonprofit organization
that oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services,
processes, systems, and personnel in the United States. The organization also coordinates
U.S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used world-
wide.
[Link]

ASCE—American Society of Civil Engineers

The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) is a tax-exempt professional body
founded in 1852 to represent members of the civil engineering profession worldwide.
Based in Reston, Virginia, it is the oldest national engineering society in the United
States.
[Link]

ASHE—American Society for Healthcare Engineering

Chicago-based American Society for Healthcare Engineering (ASHE) is a member-
ship group of the American Hospital Association, with more than 10,000 members
focused on optimizing the healthcare physical environment.
[Link]

ASHRAE
ASHRAE, founded in 1894, is a global society advancing human well-being through
sustainable technology for the built environment. The Society and its members focus on
building systems, energy efficiency, indoor air quality, refrigeration and sustainability
within the industry. Through research, standards writing, publishing and continuing edu-
cation, ASHRAE shapes tomorrow’s built environment today.
[Link]

ASME—American Society of Mechanical Engineers

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) is a professional associa-
tion that promotes the art, science, and practice of multidisciplinary engineering and
allied sciences around the globe via continuing education, training and professional
development, codes and standards, research, conferences and publications, government
relations, and other forms of outreach.
[Link]

ASPE—American Society of Plumbing Engineers

The American Society of Plumbing Engineers (ASPE) is a nonprofit association for
the advancement and development of plumbing engineering and related professions.
[Link]

ASSE—American Society of Safety Engineers

Founded in 1911, the American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE) sets the stan-
dards for excellence and ethics for the occupational safety, health, and environmental
community. ASSE is a global association of occupational safety professionals represent-
ing more than 36,000 members worldwide who create safer work environments by pre-
venting workplace fatalities, injuries, and illnesses. ASSE has taken over as the

1 · Introduction 5
[Link] Page 6 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:39 AM

Secretariat of ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5, Laboratory Ventilation (AIHA 2012), published

by the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA).
[Link]

CETA—Controlled Environment Testing Association

The Controlled Environment Testing Association (CETA) was established in 1992. It
was developed to promote quality assurance in controlled environments through the
exchange and dissemination of information on certification issues. Controlled environ-
ments include cleanrooms, laminar flow devices, sterile ovens, tunnels, dryers, biological
safety cabinets (BSCs), fume hoods, containment suites, and other similar environments
that require precision testing and certification.
[Link]

CIBSE—The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) received its Royal
Charter in 1976. It is the professional body that exists to promote the career of building
services engineers by accrediting courses of study in further and higher education, by
approving work-based training programs and providing routes to full professional regis-
tration and membership, including Chartered Engineer, Incorporated Engineer, and Engi-
neering Technician.
[Link]

GBCI—Green Building Certification Institute

The Green Building Certification Institute (GBCI) is a third-party organization that
provides independent oversight of professional credentialing and project certification pro-
grams related to green building. Established in 2008 to administer certifications and pro-
fessional designations within the framework of the U.S. Green Building Council
(USGBC) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design® (LEED®) Green Building
Rating System.
[Link]

IEST—Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology

The Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST), founded in 1953 as
a nonprofit organization, is an international society focused on contamination control and
publishes recommended practices for testing cleanrooms, HEPA/ULPA filters, and clean-
air filtration systems.
[Link]

ILAR—Institute for Laboratory Animal Research

The Institute for Laboratory Animal Research (ILAR) is a unit in the Division on
Earth and Life Studies of the National Research Council of the National Academies of
Science. It has been a national leader in the research, publication, and collection of infor-
mation pertinent to animal care and use in the laboratory setting since 1952. Its mission is
to evaluate and report on the scientific, technological, and ethical use of animals and their
related biological resources and of non-animal alternatives in research, testing, education,
and the production of pharmaceuticals.
[Link]/ilar

ICC—International Code Council

The International Code Council (ICC) is a member-focused association dedicated to
helping the building safety community and construction industry provide safe, sustain-

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[Link] Page 7 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:39 AM

able, and affordable construction through the development of codes and standards used in
the design, build, and compliance process.
[Link]

ISPE—International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering

Founded in 1980, the International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering (ISPE) is
a nonprofit industry trade group for pharmaceutical science and manufacturing profes-
sionals. It has 25,000 members in more than 90 countries.
[Link]

I2SL—International Institute for Sustainable Laboratories

The International Institute for Sustainable Laboratories (I2SL) is devoted to the prin-
ciples of sustainable laboratories, from design to engineering to practice. Through world-
wide partnerships and the exchange of technical information, I2SL helps produce high-
technology facilities that address the rapid pace of science, medicine, research, and devel-
opment in an ever-changing and dynamic world.
[Link]

NFPA—National Fire Protection Association

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) is an international leader in fire
prevention and public safety. This nonprofit member association was founded in 1896 to
develop consensus codes and standards as well as training, research, and education in fire
and other hazard protections in various buildings. NFPA has over 67,000 members and is
associated with 80 national and professional organizations from across the globe.
[Link]

NIBS—National Institute of Building Sciences

The National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) is a nonprofit, nongovernmental
organization that brings together representatives of government, the professions, industry,
labor and consumer interests, and regulatory agencies to focus on the identification and
resolution of problems and potential problems that hamper the construction of safe,
affordable structures for housing, commerce, and industry throughout the United States.
The Institute’s mission to serve the public interest is accomplished by supporting
advances in building sciences and technologies for the purpose of improving the perfor-
mance of buildings while reducing waste and conserving energy and resources.
[Link]

NSF International
NSF International, formerly the National Sanitation Foundation, was founded in 1944
and has been committed to public health, safety, and protection of the environment by
developing standards, product testing, and conformity assessments. Most relevant to bio-
safety, NSF International has developed a biological safety cabinet (BSC) standard.
[Link]

NSPE—National Society of Professional Engineers

The National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) is an American professional
engineering organization representing the voice of licensed engineers and advocates for
all related disciplines. The society concerns itself with a variety of issues relating to engi-
neering, including licensure and ethics, the image of the engineer, the rights of engineers

1 · Introduction 7
[Link] Page 8 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:39 AM

at the national and state levels, news of the profession, and continuing education opportu-
nities.
[Link]

SEFA—The Scientific Equipment and Furniture Association

The Scientific Equipment and Furniture Association (SEFA) was organized in 1988
by laboratory equipment manufacturers to enhance individual member company perfor-
mance and improve the quality of laboratory facilities. SEFA accomplishes these goals by
establishing industry standards for laboratory equipment, installation, and testing.
[Link]

USGBC—U.S. Green Building Council

The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), founded in 1993, is a private, member-
ship-based nonprofit organization that promotes sustainability in how buildings are
designed, built, and operated. USGBC is best known for its development of the Leader-
ship in Energy and Environmental Design® (LEED®) Green Building Rating System.
[Link]

RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS
CDC—Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is a federal institution whose pri-
mary goal and pledge is to promote health and quality of life by preventing and control-
ling disease, injury, and disability. To achieve this pledge, the CDC uses federal and
private funding for research and development in several fields and sciences at its 11 dif-
ferent laboratories and locations.
[Link]

LBNL—Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) is a U.S. Department of Energy
National Laboratory managed by the University of California. The Environmental Energy
Technologies Division, established in 1973, develops technology that uses, converts, and
stores energy more efficiently and with less environmental impact. To better identify and
prioritize the many research activities necessary to achieve this goal, LBNL prepared
research and development roadmaps for cleanrooms and laboratories as well as for data
centers.
[Link]

NIH—National Institutes of Health

National Institutes of Health (NIH) is an agency of the U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services and is the primary agency of the United States government responsi-
ble for biomedical and health-related research. Founded in 1887, NIH funds national and
international research in numerous medical fields to accomplish this dedication to health.
It comprises 27 separate institutes, centers, and offices.
[Link]

NREL—National Renewable Energy Laboratory

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) is the U.S. Department of
Energy’s primary national laboratory for renewable energy and energy efficiency research
and development.
[Link]

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NRC—National Research Council

The National Research Council (NRC) was formed by the National Academies of
Science in 1916 to bridge the gap between the science and technology communities and
the federal government. Today, the NRC continues this initiative by supplying reports and
advice to federal and public sectors on the current issues and advances in science and
technology that shape policies, inform public opinion, and advance the pursuit of science,
engineering, and medicine.
[Link]/nrc

GOVERNMENT OFFICES AND REGULATORS

CCOHS—Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety
Established in 1978, the Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety
(CCOHS) promotes the total well-being—physical, psychosocial and mental health—of
working Canadians by providing information, training, education, management systems,
and solutions that support health, safety, and wellness programs. A nonprofit federal
department corporation, CCOHS is governed by a tripartite Council—representing gov-
ernment, employers, and labor—to ensure a balanced approach to workplace health and
safety issues.
[Link]

FDA—U.S. Food and Drug Administration

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is an agency of the U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments.
The FDA is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the regulation
and supervision of food safety, tobacco products, dietary supplements, prescription and
over-the-counter pharmaceutical drugs (medications), vaccines, biopharmaceuticals,
blood transfusions, medical devices, electromagnetic radiation emitting devices (EREDs),
and veterinary products.
[Link]

HHS—U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) is the federal administra-
tion primarily in charge of funding and developing programs, research, and education that
benefit and protect the health of Americans. Some of the agencies that fall under the
supervision or funding of the HHS include Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC), U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and Health Resources and Services
Administration (HRSA).
[Link]

Labs21—Laboratories for the 21st Century

Laboratories for the 21st Century (Labs21) was a joint initiative between U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE) and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and was
a voluntary partnership program dedicated to improving the environmental performance
of U.S. laboratories. Although Labs21 is no longer an active organization, the nongovern-
mental organization International Institute for Sustainable Laboratories (I2SL) has taken
over many Labs21 functions and maintains online access to many of the Labs21 publica-
tions. (See the information for I2SL in the Professional Associations and Societies section
of this chapter.)
[Link]

1 · Introduction 9
[Link] Page 10 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:39 AM

NIOSH—The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is part of the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services. NIOSH is an agency established to help ensure safe and healthful work-
ing conditions for working men and women by providing research, information, educa-
tion, and training in the field of occupational safety and health. Information pertaining to
the specific responsibilities of NIOSH is found in Section 22 of the Occupational Safety
and Health Act of 1970 (29 CFR § 671).
[Link]/niosh

NRC—U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) was created as an independent
agency by Congress in 1974 to ensure the safe use of radioactive materials for beneficial
civilian purposes while protecting people and the environment. The NRC regulates com-
mercial nuclear power plants and other uses of nuclear materials, such as in nuclear med-
icine, through licensing, inspection, and enforcement of its requirements.
[Link]

OSHA—Occupational Safety and Health Administration

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is a federal body whose
primary purpose is to protect and save the lives of American workers through the devel-
opment and implementation of various standards and regulations related to the work envi-
ronment. Currently OSHA employs over 2100 inspectors at 200 nationwide locations to
cover the ever-increasing workforce of over 100 million in the United States.
[Link]

DESIGN FORUMS AND PUBLICATIONS

Design forums, newsletters, and trade journals such as the following often include
articles covering technical and design-related issues that pertain to laboratory design.

ALN Magazine
[Link]
Applied Biosafety: Journal of the American Biological Safety Association (ABSA)
[Link]/[Link]
ASHRAE Journal
[Link]/ASHRAEjournal
Consulting-Specifying Engineer
[Link]
Controlled Environments
[Link]
Engineered Systems
[Link]
FacilitiesNet
[Link]
HPAC Engineering
[Link]
ILAR Journal
[Link]
Journal of Mechanical Design (ASME)
[Link]

10 ASHRAE Laboratory Design Guide, Second Edition

[Link] Page 11 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:39 AM

Journal of the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science

[Link]/publications/jaalas
Laboratory Animal Science Professional
[Link]/publications/las-pro
Laboratory Design Newsletter
[Link]
Plumbing Engineer
[Link]
PM Engineer Magazine
[Link]/publications/3
R&D Magazine
[Link]
Sustainable Laboratory Times
[Link]/resources/[Link]
The NEWS
[Link]/publications/3
The NEWS HVACR Directory & Source Guide
[Link]
Tradeline Industry News
[Link]/news
University Research Theses and Papers
Universities are a primary source of information on specific details of laboratory
design. Individual university libraries and organizations can be accessed to assist in locat-
ing information on specific topics.
Guidelines for Laboratory Design and Safety
A Design Guide for Energy-Efficient Research Laboratories (LBNL 2008)
[Link]
Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL), 5th Edition
(CDC 2009)
[Link]/biosafety/publications/bmbl5
Chapter 16, “Laboratories,” of ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications
(ASHRAE 2015)
Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, 8th Edition (ILAR 2011)
[Link]
-[Link]
Labs21 Tool Kit
[Link]/resources/[Link]
NIH Design Policy and Guidelines (NIH 2013)
[Link]
FacilitiesDesignPoliciesandGuidelines/Pages/[Link]
“Primary Containment for Biohazards: Selection, Installation, and Use of Biological
Safety Cabinets” (Currently published as Appendix A of BMBL but planned as a
future separate publication)
[Link]/biosafety/publications/bmbl5/BMBL5_appendixA.pdf
Section on Research Facilities in Whole Building Design Guide (NIBS 2010)
[Link]/design/[Link]

1 · Introduction 11
[Link] Page 12 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 1:27 PM

RELATED ASHRAE TECHNICAL COMMITTEES (TCs)

TC 2.2, Plant and Animal Environment
[Link]
TC 4.3, Ventilation Requirements and Infiltration
[Link]
TC 9.6, Healthcare Facilities
[Link]
TC 9.10, Laboratory Systems
[Link]
TC 9.11, Clean Spaces
[Link]

REFERENCES
ASHRAE. 2015. Chapter 16, Laboratories. In ASHRAE handbook—HVAC applications.
Atlanta: ASHRAE.
CDC. 2009. Biosafety in microbiological and biomedical laboratories (BMBL), 5th Edi-
tion. DHHS Publication No. (CDC) 21-1112. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. [Link]/biosafety
/publications/bmbl5.
ILAR. 2011. Guide for the care and use of laboratory animals, 8th ed. Washington, DC:
Institute for Laboratory Animal Research, Division on Earth and Life Studies,
National Research Council, National Academies Press. [Link]
olaw/[Link].
LBNL. 2008. A design guide for energy-efficient research laboratories, Version 4.0.
Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. [Link]
Guide.
NIBS. 2010. Research Facilities. Whole Building Design Guide. Washington, DC:
National Institute of Building Sciences. [Link]/design/[Link].
NIH. 2013. NIH design policy and guidelines. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of
Health. [Link]
FacilitiesDesignPoliciesandGuidelines/Pages/[Link].

12 ASHRAE Laboratory Design Guide, Second Edition

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Background

OVERVIEW
2
This chapter provides a brief summary of the following information that helps form a
common framework for the terminology and systems in this Guide:
• Laboratory types
• Laboratory equipment

This discussion is of laboratory types and equipment typically encountered in labora-

tory facilities and does not address all available types and equipment.

LABORATORY TYPES
Because there are numerous types of laboratories, there are numerous potential appli-
cations for capturing pollutants to minimize adverse impacts on occupant health. The
more common laboratory types and nonlaboratory spaces are as follows:
• Biological laboratories
• Animal laboratories
• Biological containment laboratories using infectious agents
• Hospital laboratories
• Chemical laboratories
• Synthesis laboratories
• Analytical laboratories
• Radiochemistry laboratories
• Teaching laboratories
• Physical laboratories
• Cleanrooms
• Materials testing laboratories
• Nanotechnology/electronics/instrumentation laboratories
• Support spaces

BIOLOGICAL LABORATORIES
Biological laboratories are used to work with biologically active materials or involve
chemical or physical manipulation of these materials. Laboratory types include biochem-
istry, microbiology, genomics, immunology, botany, pharmacology, and toxicology.
[Link] Page 14 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:41 AM

Animal Laboratories
Animal laboratories need to maintain clean and humane conditions for animals and
provide safe separation of the animals from laboratory personnel. Design of animal labo-
ratories should be performed with close interaction with veterinarians and researchers
who will be working in the laboratory. There are numerous standards for animal laborato-
ries that must be followed, such as those of the Association for Assessment and Accredi-
tation of Laboratory Animal Care International (AAALAC), which follows National
Institutes of Health (NIH) and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) guid-
ance. Animal research facilities are often referred to as vivariums. Vivariums often con-
tain animal holding rooms, procedure rooms, and some biological laboratories.
Biological Containment Laboratories
Some biological laboratory work is with infectious agents that are characterized as
being in biosafety levels (BSLs) 1 through 4, as described in Biosafety in Microbiological
and Biomedical Laboratories (CDC 2009). This reference addresses both biological labo-
ratory and animal laboratory design and operation.
Hospital or Clinical Laboratories
Hospital laboratories provide chemical and biological testing of specimens associated
with patient care. These laboratories do not use large quantities of dangerous materials
and typically do not perform general research. Although it depends on the specific type of
hospital, these laboratories usually contain chemical fume hoods, local exhaust, and
vented Class II biological safety cabinets (BSCs).

CHEMICAL LABORATORIES
Synthesis Laboratories
A synthesis laboratory is used for organic or inorganic reactions and analytical instru-
mentation for a wide variety of chemicals. Synthesis laboratories are generally not used
for extremely hazardous materials such as potent compounds or large quantities of explo-
sive materials. There are typically few specialized built-in equipment needs for synthesis
laboratories beyond chemical fume hoods and limited direct equipment exhaust.
Analytical Laboratories
Analytical laboratories often contain a high density of analytical equipment such as
gas or liquid chromatographs. Localized exhaust may be included to capture emissions
for analytical processes. There is usually a need for sample preparation space and areas to
manage the samples as they are analyzed.
Radiochemistry Laboratories
A radiochemistry laboratory is often similar to a synthesis laboratory, with additional
design requirements to contain direct radiation and prevent the release of radioactive
chemicals and materials. Laboratories that use radioactive materials have strict require-
ments that are determined by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), Occupa-
tional Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA).
Teaching Laboratories
Teaching laboratories are designed to provide a safe learning environment for large
groups (usually 30, sometimes more) of high school and undergraduate college students.
Teaching laboratories typically use the same types of materials as synthesis laboratories,

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although in much smaller quantities. Graduate student work is typically associated with
research laboratories, which are not considered teaching laboratories. The primary needs
of teaching laboratories are for the instructor to maintain eye contact with all students and
to have quick access to the controls of the laboratory equipment to prevent hazards.
PHYSICAL LABORATORIES
A wide range of research activities, including work with lasers, computer chip devel-
opment, and nanotechnology, are performed in physical laboratories.
Cleanrooms
Cleanrooms are designed to provide a working environment with minimal airborne
particulate materials and constant temperature, humidity, air pressure, and airflow pat-
terns. Their environments require controlled atmospheres to regulate gases, negative and
positive ions, and the use of robotics. The most current standards are ISO 14644-1, Clean-
rooms and associated controlled environments—Part 1: Classification of air cleanliness
(ISO 1999), and ISO 14644-2, Cleanrooms and associated controlled environments—
Part 2: Specifications for testing and monitoring to prove continued compliance with ISO
14644-1 (ISO 2000). These two standards, issued by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), are components of a 10-part series of standards that cover more
cleanroom environmental parameters and practices than the earlier Federal Standard 209E,
Airborne Particulate Cleanliness Classes in Clean Rooms and Clean Zones (IES 1992).
Materials Testing Laboratories
Materials testing laboratories are used for physical experimentation with materials,
such as wear and strength testing. The types of equipment needed for a materials labora-
tory depend largely on the types of testing performed. Materials laboratories usually have
some process cooling requirements and may have limited chemical exhaust requirements
similar to a general chemistry laboratory.
Nanotechnology/Electronics/Instrumentation Laboratories
Nanotechnology laboratories can be similar to a cleanroom in that low levels of air-
borne particulates and precise control of temperature, humidity, and airflow are needed.
Electronics laboratories, such as those that produce electronic chips and semiconductor
wafers, often need to prevent the release of hazardous chemicals by using local exhaust
while still maintaining a positive room pressure. There can be toxic gases for fabrication
activities that require a specialized exhaust system. There may also be scanning electron
microscopes that may have special vibration and airflow velocity requirements.
SUPPORT SPACES
Laboratory support spaces contribute to research and experimentation activities by
providing general laboratory maintenance, material and chemical storage, and equipment
and material preparation. Support spaces may require special exhaust for chemical stor-
age or heat rejection from equipment such as ice machines and packaged environmental
chambers and laboratory exhaust equipment, such as fume hoods and BSCs, depending
on the type of support provided.

LABORATORY EQUIPMENT
The design of a laboratory depends largely on the type of equipment needed to safely
protect the laboratory personnel. The most common types of equipment include fume
hoods, BSCs, and storage cabinets. These are discussed in further detail in Chapter 5.

2 · Background 15
[Link] Page 16 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:41 AM

FUME HOODS
Fume hoods are used in a variety of laboratory types to protect personnel performing
general chemistry research or testing. They provide protection by maintaining inward air-
flow to the opening of a hood, which contains and exhausts the airborne materials gener-
ated during experimentation, if used properly. Fume hoods should be performance tested
annually.
BIOLOGICAL SAFETY CABINETS
Biological safety cabinets (BSCs) are used to control the release of toxic particulates
and infectious biological aerosols. They operate similarly to fume hoods in that they pro-
vide protection by maintaining an inward flow of air, but they also make use of various
levels of filtered supply and exhaust air to protect the materials in the cabinet and to pre-
vent the release of the materials to the atmosphere. BSCs should also be performance
tested annually.
FLAMMABLE AND SOLVENT STORAGE CABINETS
Storage cabinets are used to contain fumes from large quantities of flammable materi-
als, prevent excessive internal temperatures in the presence of fire, and contain spilled
flammable liquids to prevent the spread of fire. Proper construction, correct venting (if
required), conspicuous labeling, and storage of materials at or below the maximum per-
missible limits will ensure a cabinet’s safe use and function.

REFERENCES
CDC. 2009. Biosafety in microbiological and biomedical laboratories (BMBL), 5th
Edition. DHHS Publication No. (CDC) 21-1112. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Con-
trol and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. [Link]
/biosafety/publications/bmbl5.
IES. 1992. Federal Standard 209E, Airborne particulate cleanliness classes in clean-
rooms and clean zones. Revision approved by the U.S. General Services Administra-
tion. Mount Prospect, Illinois: Institute of Environmental Sciences.
ISO. 1999. ISO 14644-1:1999, Cleanrooms and associated controlled environments—
Part 1: Classification of air cleanliness. Geneva: International Organization for Stan-
dardization.
ISO. 2000. ISO 14644-2:2000, Cleanrooms and associated controlled environments—
Part 2: Specifications for testing and monitoring to prove continued compliance with
ISO 14644-1. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization.

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Design
Process

OVERVIEW
3
The goal of the design process is to create a practical model of the Owner’s Project
Requirements (OPR) that translates into a successful building. Essential to achieving the
OPR is the creation of the Basis of Design (BOD), which stipulates the technical require-
ments for the project. Whereas the OPR stipulates the broad requirements that the owner
seeks, such as a safe and comfortable work environment, the BOD records the technical
assumptions, calculations, code review, equipment selection, and system layout assump-
tions that were created to satisfy the OPR (Slum 2002).
A typical project design approach schedule is as follows (Hayter and Torcellini
1999):
1. Predesign Steps
a. Simulate a base-case building model and establish energy use targets.
b. Complete parametric analysis.
c. Brainstorm solutions with all design team members.
d. Perform simulations on base-case variants considering economic criteria.
2. Design Steps
a. Prepare preliminary architectural drawings.
b. Design the HVAC and lighting systems.
c. Finalize plans and specifications.
3. Construction/Occupation Steps
a. Rerun simulations before making construction design changes.
b. Commission all equipment and controls. Educate building operators to make
sure that they operate the building as intended.

One method of discovering and documenting the OPR is to conduct a charrette with
the owner and users. A charrette is a work session with all of the users of the space and
the design team. This meeting would occur very early in the conceptual design phase of
the project. Some of the information collected during the charrette process is provided in
the following list:
• Space usage
• Work flow
• Laboratory equipment with utility requirements
• Required pressure relationships between spaces (positive, neutral, negative)
[Link] Page 18 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:42 AM

• Chemicals used or stored

• Redundancy requirements
• User protocols or process requirements
• Space temperature requirements, particularly if unusually tight temperature con-
trol is necessary
• Vibration limitations, if applicable (e.g., for optical equipment)
• Air velocity limitations and airflow uniformity requirements if applicable (e.g.,
for cleanrooms)
• Special control requirements, if any

Throughout the design process, the OPR is continuously refined and the changes are
documented. The requirements recorded in the OPR are determined by the owner, but it is
the mechanical engineer’s responsibility (in conjunction with the architect and other
members of the design team) to guide owners through this process and help them define
their needs. This ensures that the OPR has all the necessary information to support the
development of the BOD.
As the BOD is derived from the OPR, it must also be reviewed and updated, as neces-
sary, throughout the project. Unlike the OPR, which is defined by the owner with the help
of the design team, the BOD is entirely the responsibility of the mechanical engineer.
The BOD should be developed from the OPR early in the project, before the start of
the predesign phase. This ensures that the BOD will guide design decisions from the very
start. Also, the process of developing the BOD often exposes limitations or gaps in the
OPR, which allows the designer to correct or clarify the owner’s needs before misunder-
stood requirements are “baked into” the design. See Tables 3-1 and 3-2, which can serve
as templates for collecting the information needed in the BOD.

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
For a laboratory facility, the BOD associated with the mechanical design defines the
following requirements, which are discussed in the subsections that follow and are cov-
ered more exhaustively in the chapters noted in parentheses following each item:
• Code compliance and industry standards (Chapter 4)
• Risk assessment (Chapter 4)
• Indoor air quality (IAQ) requirements
• System sizing (Chapter 6)
• System selection (Chapters 5, 6, and 7)
• Vibration, acoustical, and seismic requirements
• Air treatment (Chapter 8)
• Stack design criteria (Chapter 9)
• Energy recovery options (Chapter 10)
• Control strategies (Chapter 11)
• Testing, adjusting, and balancing (TAB) and certification requirements
(Chapter 12)
• Operation and maintenance (O&M) requirements (Chapter 13)
• Commissioning integration (Chapter 14)
• Economic evaluation (Chapter 15)
• Special requirements for microbiological and biomedical laboratories
(Chapter 16)
• Assessing ventilation effectiveness (Chapter 17)
• Sustainability goals and strategies (Chapter 18)

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Although it is presented as a linear process, the design of a laboratory system is itera-

tive due to the interrelationships between the different systems and their respective abili-
ties to meet the OPR. Therefore, it is important to evaluate how the design assumptions
impact the owner’s design intent at each step in the design process.

CODE COMPLIANCE AND INDUSTRY STANDARDS

The foundational requirements are the legal requirements and industry standards that
establish the level of care for the design. These are described in Chapter 4 and should be
clearly documented in the BOD narrative.

RISK ASSESSMENT
A hazard is anything that can cause harm. Risk is the probability that the hazard will
cause harm. In laboratory projects, hazards are inherent in the processes of the laborato-
ries, but risks can be mitigated through engineering controls. Risk assessment plays a crit-
ical role in developing the design basis for managing the hazards in a laboratory. A risk
assessment is performed in the conceptual design phase of the project. A good starting
part in understanding the risk assessment process is ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5, Laboratory
Ventilation (AIHA 2012). The use of the techniques discussed therein is critical in provid-
ing a systematic assessment of the hazards and risks of the project while identifying strat-
egies to reduce them.

IAQ REQUIREMENTS
IAQ requirements are established early in the project and are defined in the OPR.
These are usually identified during the risk assessment of the project, which outlines the
following related to the indoor environment:
• Code requirements
• Contaminant control strategy
• Zones from which recirculated air is acceptable versus zones that must be 100%
exhausted to the outdoors
• Ventilation rate
• Local capture devices
During the risk analysis for the laboratory, the hazards in the laboratory are deter-
mined along with the required exhaust airflow pressurization (positive or negative). This
information is included in the BOD narrative. A sample format for this information is
shown in Table 3-1. The recirculated air column in Table 3-1 is included for nonlaboratory
spaces and for those laboratories where recirculation of the air is acceptable and allowable
by the governing codes and standards (e.g., cleanrooms). For most laboratories handling
hazardous chemicals, 100% of the air is exhausted, with none being recirculated.

SYSTEM SIZING
Using the assumptions and guidelines on occupancy rates, loads, and construction
materials developed during the conceptual design phase, the sizes of the systems required
for maintaining the interior environment are calculated. This process is summarized with
the following steps:
1. Confirm interior and exterior design criteria.
2. Establish ventilation requirements.
3. Document room pressure relationships.
4. Define internal loads.
5. Calculate thermal loads.

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Table 3-1
Sample Format for Documenting Airflow Requirements
Exhaust, Pressure Supply, Recirculated,
Room Data
cfm (L/s) Relationship cfm (L/s) cfm (L/s)

Air
Room
Exchange
No. Use Volume, Required Hood General +/– % Source* Required Required
Rate,
ft3 (m3)
ach

*Source is either clean (e.g., hallway or anteroom) or dirty (e.g., adjacent laboratory space).

Completion of these steps will establish the capacity requirements for the laboratory’s
HVAC system. A critical step in preparing for calculating loads is to gather and document
the key system criteria and assumptions made in transforming the owner’s requirements
into a physical design. This documentation not only provides a checklist for the designer
to make sure that key items are not missed but also provides the O&M staff with key
information on the limitations of these systems and their intended operation. It is recom-
mended that the assumptions be documented according to a format similar to that shown
in Table 3-2, where the assumptions not only include the occupancy rates, equipment
loading, and diversities but also include references to codes and standards that were used
as the bases for the assumptions. Since most laboratories have multiple types of spaces,
Table 3-2 can easily be modified to contain a column for each use type for information
that changes from space to space.
In addition to the example shown in Table 3-2, the designer should clearly document
the loads in each space, including the following:
• Envelope
• Occupants
• Lighting
• Computers
• Equipment
• Process

Calculating Loads for Comfort

Estimating the envelope, occupant, lighting, computers, and equipment load of a lab-
oratory is not so different from estimating the load for a typical building. If the load is in
the space or is transferred across the envelope, then the load is included in the calculation.
However, if the load does not directly impact the space (i.e., it is contained within an
exhaust hood), then it is not included as a load on the central system. Figure 3-1 details
the various loads within a laboratory space. The gray items in Figure 3-1 are considered
internal loads that must be handled by a central or local cooling/heating system. The other
items’ loads are removed from the space and thus do not impact the conditioning system
for the space. The one unique load in laboratory spaces is the process load created by lab-
oratory equipment and processes.

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Figure 3-1
Laboratory
Equipment
Loads

Within a laboratory, a mix of equipment is available for use by the occupants depend-
ing upon the specific experiment being conducted. Because it is rare, if not impossible, to
use all of the equipment at one time, care must be taken in estimating the loads and diver-
sity of specified equipment for the design of the systems.
One of the first tasks in estimation of equipment loads is a thorough understanding of
the energy consumption of each type of equipment. Typically, this requires contacting
manufacturers for the rated energy consumption for each piece of equipment or, if neces-
sary, researching and testing the actual equipment. With these energy consumption data,
standard load calculations as described in Chapter 16 of ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC
Applications (ASHRAE 2015) can be used. Proper estimation of loads is crucial in creat-
ing acceptable conditions for personnel and experiments. In calculating the specific load
for a piece of equipment, it is critical to designate where the load is being rejected to. The
rejection media can be the surrounding air, domestic water, process water, or the outdoor
air. Depending upon the source of rejection, the cooling load may or may not affect the
central system’s size requirements.
The hood use diversity factor should be estimated for the laboratory. However, cau-
tion in the use of this factor should be stressed, particularly in its use for hoods. Although
the use of this factor can greatly reduce unnecessary energy consumption and first costs,
careful design of the interaction of the type of controls this system uses and the main sys-
tem controls must be accomplished. Also, diversity factors that lower system exhaust vol-
umes below 75% of the sum of peak zone exhaust (without diversification) should be
extensively checked and verified.
Equipment used in laboratories, including but not limited to autoclaves, cryocoolers,
centrifuges, growth chambers, standard freezers, –80°C freezers, and refrigerators are
available in a wide range of efficiencies. In planning for the loads in equipment rooms
there are a number of energy efficiency opportunities that can save both energy and
installed costs. Committing to best of class or top 30 percentile equipment can reduce the
costs of electrical and cooling systems.
In planning for equipment loads many engineers use the full-load data for sizing of
the electrical and HVAC equipment. Plug load studies in laboratory equipment rooms
have shown that there is a lot of diversity in the equipment loads in practice. Typical
equipment rooms run between 20% and 30% of nameplate ratings. Obviously the number
and types of equipment should be considered in selecting the diversity.
Equipment with high heat output, such as autoclaves, should be designed with hoods
over them to directly capture the steam and heat when the doors are open. An energy-
efficient design for autoclaves is to design the system for a low air change for normal

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Table 3-2 Project Information

Basis of Design Designer/Engineer:
Documentation
Company:
Project:
Date:
Unit system: I-P SI
Design Criteria Value Reference/Comment
Latitude/longitude
Elevation
Clearness value
[Link] outdoor air design dry bulb/wet bulb
Winter outdoor air design dry bulb
Ground reflectance
Cooling load methodology
Cooling setpoint, dry bulb/relative humidity
Heating setpoint, dry bulb/relative humidity
Cooling/heating setback temperatures
Roof construction type
Wall construction type
Ceiling U-factor
Overall roof U-factor
Glass U-factor
Glass solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC)
Overall wall U-factor
Overall building U-factor
People sensible/latent heat generation
Lighting density
Outdoor air ventilation rate
Infiltration rate
Cooling air change rate
Reheat minimum value
Supply air temperature
Duct heat gain
Duct leakage
Maximum duct noise level/ceiling effect
Air distribution system diversity
Number of occupants at peak load
Fan heat gain
Equipment loads
Expected utility costs
Hazard types and levels

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conditions with a push button or spring-wound timer that is used to increase the ventila-
tion when the doors are open. A heat or moisture sensor in the hood could also be used to
automatically step up the ventilation.
Calculating Loads for Safety
The comfort loads correspond to the minimum supply air required to maintain the
space at acceptable conditions. These minimum airflows must conform with the require-
ments for the minimum air exchange rate if it is stipulated by the BOD. Therefore, the
exhaust airflow requirements for each space are compared to the supply airflow required
for comfort to determine the increase in supply airflow required to maintain the required
ventilation rates and/or pressure relationship. Table 3-1 is ideal for this purpose. Zones
that contain chemicals and/or fume hoods frequently have process airflow requirements
that exceed comfort conditioning requirements.
With the supply, return, and exhaust airflows determined for each space, the next step
is the development of a pressure map for the entire facility. A pressure map graphically
depicts the airflows within and between each room. The intent is to make sure that the
pressure relationships documented during the planning phase are achieved.
For each room/space, the supply (primary and auxiliary), return (if any), and exhaust
(general and hood) airflows are listed. If active pressure control is to be used, the required
pressure differentials should also be listed. Once all room airflows are detailed, the direc-
tional airflow between the rooms is shown with arrows and values. Figure 3-2 provides an
example of this process.
Though Figure 3-2 indicates air transfer between rooms occurring at discrete points,
in reality the air transfer will occur at the lowest pressure loss. This can be at an open

Figure 3-2
Pressure-
Mapping
Process

3 · Design Process 23
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door, exterior wall/window, or interior partition. Therefore, close attention to detail on

wall, window, and door construction must be taken to minimize unwanted air movement,
particularly in projects that use active pressure control. It may be necessary to coordinate
with the contractor and the envelope commissioning authority to make certain that the
final construction can support the required pressure differentials. As the severity of haz-
ards within a space increases, greater attention to detail is required.

SYSTEM SELECTION
With the design load and airflow values calculated for each space, the next step in the
design process is to evaluate the different system options to meet these loads. Chapters 5,
6, and 7 cover the selection, design, and layout of systems in detail. Chapter 18 covers
sustainability, which should be incorporated into the system design where possible. In
general, the decisions to be made during this phase of the design process include the fol-
lowing:
• Type of exhaust system
• General exhaust/hood requirements
• Type of system
• Constant volume
• Constant volume (low face velocity)
• Constant volume (ductless hoods)
• Variable air volume
• Auxiliary air
• Special process loads
• Space heating needs
• Division of systems/areas
• Central versus local air systems

Chapter 5 details the options available for exhaust hoods and provides guidance on
their selection and application. Due to the critical nature of the exhaust systems, these
typically take precedence when determining the type and location of central systems. This
is followed by the design of the supply air systems. The interrelationships between the
different systems and rooms makes this a critical step in the design process. The Zone Air
Distribution section of Chapter 6 explains these interactions. Finally, Chapter 7 provides
details on process system layout and application. Division of systems/areas is similar to a
normal HVAC design process, where the division is done based on functionality of the
areas, location of areas for mechanical equipment, room for ductwork, etc.
Central Supply Systems
By sizing the central air system to handle the worst-case scenario for cooling, it is
possible to eliminate the need for any local systems. Variable-speed fans in conjunction
with variable-air-volume (VAV) boxes are required to handle the large variability in space
load. The control of this system is complicated if room pressurization is to be maintained.
Local Supply Systems (Fan-Coils)
Local air systems have their own fan, heating coil, and cooling coil. There is individ-
ual control of each unit, and the control systems are less complicated than those with one
central air system and can in many cases be designed to have a higher performance than
comparable central air systems. These systems typically take less building space for pip-
ing and ducting than a central air system. The disadvantages of these systems are that they
require more extensive maintenance due to the many components; can cause more noise

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because of the relatively closer location of the fans, compressors, pumps, and motors to
the conditioned space; and require many penetrations of the building envelope.
Hybrid Supply Systems
This system uses a central fan to distribute air to the zones but performs all condition-
ing (except preheat, if required by the climate) at the terminal units via hydronic coils.
These may be either a four-pipe system that uses two coils or a changeover system in
which a single coil is used for heating or cooling depending on mode. This system type is
more expensive to construct due to the additional piping, but it can be substantially more
energy efficient than a conventional central system by eliminating the reheat penalty. At
the high airflows often required for laboratories, this reheat savings may justify the addi-
tional cost, particularly if sustainability goals impose energy use intensity (EUI) or other
performance targets.
After System Selection
Upon selection of the equipment, the layout of the equipment and the distribution of
services to their point of use can begin. This step in the design process, while often taken
for granted, is one of the most critical. If done improperly, contaminants may not be prop-
erly contained, increasing the risk of exposure to the hazards for laboratory users; thermal
loads will be unmanageable; and the system can be very costly to construct and operate.
Chapter 6 addresses the many challenges in designing air-moving systems in laboratories.

VIBRATION, ACOUSTICAL, AND SEISMIC REQUIREMENTS

The evaluation of vibration, acoustical, and seismic requirements for the project
should not be overlooked. Detailed design information is not provided for these issues in
this Design Guide, but the reader is encouraged to consult Chapter 8 of ASHRAE Hand-
book—Fundamentals (ASHRAE 2013) for guidance on sound and vibration design and
Chapters 48 and 55 of ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications (ASHRAE 2015) for
guidance on seismic design.

AIR TREATMENT
An important aspect of the air systems is their impact on the indoor and outdoor air
quality. Therefore, the treatment of the supply and exhaust airstreams must be determined
so that the indoor air quality is adequate for the comfort and safety of the occupants and
the experiments and that the exhaust air is not a danger or nuisance to nearby people and
buildings. Chapter 8 provides details on the technologies available and requirements for
air treatment. In general, the following should be accomplished:
• Document acceptable ambient pollutant levels.
• Identify treatment options.
• Select and size treatment system.

It is important to recognize that, depending on the quality of the ambient outdoor air,
the supply air in some instances may require extensive treatment prior to use.

STACK DESIGN CRITERIA

There is a strong correlation between the level of pollutants in the exhaust air and the
design of the exhaust stack. As the concentration and hazards of the contaminants in the
exhaust increase, the dilution accomplished by the exhaust discharge design must
increase. Therefore, exhaust stacks are designed to reduce the concentration of pollutants
at receptor points below recommended or allowable levels. This can be a challenging pro-

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cess because of aesthetic considerations, climatic conditions (wind), and location of

stacks away from air intakes. The design of exhaust stacks is detailed in Chapter 9.

ENERGY RECOVERY OPTIONS

Laboratory facilities are high consumers of energy because of the large volume of
outdoor air that must be conditioned only to be exhausted. To minimize the energy
required to condition the supply air, energy can be recovered from the exhaust air and
transferred to the supply air. The savings from using an energy recovery system can be as
high as 80% for some conditions. However, care must be taken to avoid cross-contamina-
tion of the incoming airstream by the exhaust. Chapter 10 details the options and their
application for laboratory energy recovery systems.

CONTROL STRATEGIES
The HVAC systems are sized and selected for peak design conditions. However, these
conditions occur rarely. During nonpeak periods, the system must be actively controlled
to efficiently maintain space comfort and safety conditions. Therefore, control strategies
must be developed that maintain the following:
• Space temperature control
• Space pressurization
• Building pressurization
• Occupied/unoccupied periods
• Emergency situations

Chapter 11 provides detailed guidance on control strategies for laboratory systems.

TAB AND CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS

To make sure that systems can be properly started and operated, it is important to
identify and ensure during the design phase that sufficient locations throughout the sys-
tem can be accessed for the purpose of balancing the systems. This includes measurement
ports on both sides of the valves and coils, straight runs of ductwork and piping, accessi-
bility to dampers, and proper documentation on what is expected of the TAB firm.
Therefore, the design developed by the architect and engineer should, as a minimum,
include the following:
• Typically six duct diameters of straight duct for measuring supply airflow and
test instrument ports. Verify the requirements for each device.
• Typically six duct diameters of straight duct for measuring exhaust airflow for
exhaust fans and ventilated workstations. Verify the requirements for each
device.
• Measurement ports on both sides of valves, air-handling unit coils, energy
recovery coils, and terminal reheat coils.
• Fan inlet and outlet ports for static pressure measurements.

As a minimum, the TAB and certification should

• balance all systems to design conditions,
• verify proper airflow direction/pressurization,
• verify system operation under part-load conditions (75%, 50%, 25%, and mini-
mum),
• perform face velocity tests,

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• calibrate airflow and direction monitors for all fume hoods, and
• certify all clean-air and biological safety cabinet (BSC) workstations.

Details on determining the TAB requirements for laboratories are contained in

Chapter 12.

O&M REQUIREMENTS
During the development of the construction documents (drawings and specification)
it is critical to identify those items necessary for the proper lifetime operation of the labo-
ratory systems. These include the following:
• Training requirements, including a video
• System documentation, including computer-aided design (CAD) drawings and
all control software
• Involvement of O&M personnel throughout the construction

Chapter 13 provides guidelines for the development of these O&M requirements,

with specific emphasis on the O&M manual.

COMMISSIONING INTEGRATION
Commissioning is a quality process an owner elects to use for planning, designing,
constructing, and operating the facility. The key characteristics of the commissioning pro-
cess, as with any quality process, are as follows:
• Work is accomplished correctly the first time.
• The individual worker determines the level of quality.
• What constitutes a “successful” project is clearly defined.

Several commissioning tools/tasks can be integrated into an owner’s current process.

Specifically, the following should be completed:
• Develop owner’s design intent.
• Develop commissioning plan.
• Accomplish design reviews.
• Develop Basis of Design.
• Integrate quality requirements into specifications.
• Verify installation and calibration.
• Accomplish functional performance test on installation.
• Make sure warranties are maintained.
• Have a “lessons learned” meeting.

Chapter 14 provides a detailed overview of the commissioning process relative to lab-

oratory facilities.

ECONOMIC EVALUATION
The final step in the design process is an economic evaluation of the system. This
evaluation should be based on a life-cycle cost for a typical 20- or 30-year period. Details
on accomplishing a life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) for a laboratory are in Chapter 15.

SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR

MICROBIOLOGICAL AND BIOMEDICAL LABORATORIES
Many laboratories work with infectious biological materials. The primary factor in
designing a biocontainment laboratory is protection of laboratory workers, the environ-
ment, and the public from accidental exposure to potentially biohazardous agents. Under-

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standing the user’s protocols and requirements is essential. Information regarding

biocontainment and user requirements for these laboratories is found in Chapter 16.
ASSESSING VENTILATION EFFECTIVENESS
The laboratory ventilation system is the primary means for the removal of airborne
contaminants generated within the laboratory. The system’s ability to remove the contam-
inants from the laboratory space is defined as the ventilation effectiveness. As designers
consider reducing ventilation rates to make the laboratory more energy efficient, model-
ing the ventilation effectiveness becomes a critical design issue. Chapter 17 describes
methods to model air flow patterns within the laboratory.
SUSTAINABILITY GOALS AND STRATEGIES
Very early in the design, the team identifies the sustainability goals. Among these
goals may be certifying the building under a sustainable rating system. This Guide offers
the reader many strategies that can be used to earn points for a rating system and also
offers guidance that moves the designer toward a sustainable design through a proper and
well-documented design process. Strategies that can be used to satisfy sustainability goals
are summarized in Chapter 18.

REFERENCES
AIHA. 2012. ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5-2012, Laboratory ventilation. Falls Church, VA:
American Industrial Hygiene Association.
ASHRAE. 2013. ASHRAE handbook—Fundamentals. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2015. ASHRAE handbook—HVAC applications. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
Hayter, S.J., and P. Torcellini. 1999. Low-energy building design—The process and a
case study: Keys to success. ASHRAE Transactions 105(2):802–10.
Slum, K. 2002. Design intent and Basis of Design: Clarification of terms, structure and
use. ASHRAE Transactions 108(2):1184–85.

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Laboratory
Planning

OVERVIEW
4
Laboratory spaces and buildings are unique compared to other types of spaces and
buildings because of the distinctive requirements to maintain the health, comfort, safety,
and productivity of the various entities within. Therefore, the successful design, construc-
tion, and operation and maintenance (O&M) of a laboratory facility are achieved when
sufficient planning is accomplished before undertaking the project. This chapter provides
the critical information and guidance needed for the following planning considerations
for a laboratory building project:
• Risk assessment
• Environmental requirements
• Appliances and occupancy
• Pressure relationships
• Ventilation and indoor air quality (IAQ)
• Laboratory codes, standards, and references
• Integration of architecture and engineered systems
• Development of planning documents

The goal of this chapter is to present and discuss the pertinent issues that must be
considered and documented when planning a new or renovated laboratory facility. The
fundamental concepts and principles presented in this chapter are the foundation for the
remaining Guide. A good understanding of this information is critical for the success of a
laboratory design and a delivered laboratory that is functional.

RISK ASSESSMENT
As mentioned in Chapter 3, a risk assessment is performed early in the design pro-
cess. The purpose of a risk assessment is to address the safety issues related to the acqui-
sition, handling, usage, storage, transportation, and waste disposal of hazardous
materials. The completion of a risk assessment involves the identification and understand-
ing of the various hazards present in each laboratory and the application of appropriate
hazard analysis methods to assess the risks. In addition, the responsibilities of key indi-
viduals must be clearly defined, and adequate documentation must be available to handle
all foreseeable situations.
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ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
Laboratories have special environmental requirements, such as personnel comfort and
experimental quality, that must be identified in the planning phase to ensure the labora-
tory can be designed and constructed to meet them. Also, the potential for changes in lab-
oratory use should be identified so that the heating, cooling, ventilating, and exhaust
systems can be designed to meet both current and future environmental requirements
without substantial modifications.
Unfortunately, laboratory environmental conditions are often inhomogeneous
because of the variation in the needs of the different types of occupants and functions. For
example, persons that work in an animal laboratory will have very different thermal and
ventilation comfort needs from the rodents being bred for a particular experiment in the
same room.
To maintain the integrity of experiments, the temperature, humidity, air quality, and
vibration of the environment must be considered priorities. There are two environments
that should be considered: the macroenvironment, which is the actual interior space of the
laboratory that surrounds the researcher, and the microenvironment, which is a localized
experimental space that has its own unique requirements.

TEMPERATURE
For all laboratories, considerations must be made to avoid major swings in the room
and laboratory hood temperatures. Highly sensitive experiments also typically need to
avoid relatively minor temperature fluctuations, which can disrupt the controlled environ-
ment of the experiment. Exposure to direct heat or sunlight can also affect experiments
conducted in the macroenvironment. For example, experiments using temperature-sensitive
equipment should not be exposed to direct solar radiation. The automatic control system,
laboratory layout (including the location of heat-producing equipment, windows, etc.),
and air distribution methods should be properly planned so that the temperature in a labo-
ratory is maintained to appropriate tolerances.
For experiments conducted in microenvironments, which are often subjected to
extremely low temperatures, extremely high temperatures, or precisely controlled temper-
atures, considerations need to be made so that the required temperatures can be main-
tained. For example, appropriate temperature control and interlocks should be available to
avoid heating or cooling experiments beyond desired limits.

HUMIDITY
As with temperature, conditions that may affect the desired humidity must be consid-
ered and counteracted to maintain experimental quality. Equipment that produces large
amounts of moisture (usually due to heating/boiling of liquids) should be properly
vented. Reliable automatic humidity control in addition to vapor barriers in partition
walls, floors, and the ceiling that minimize loss of water vapor will help ensure a stable
environment.
During planning, the necessary limits on humidity should be determined and the
HVAC system planned accordingly. This may require the addition of dehumidification
equipment for summer operation and the addition of a humidification system for winter
operation. Cleanrooms for electronics research or manufacturing and laboratories with
sensitive electronic instruments may have special minimum humidity requirements to
prevent static electricity from damaging experiments and equipment.

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AIR QUALITY
To maintain good air quality in laboratory spaces, planning should focus on potential
sources of pollutants and contaminants and develop design intent items that minimize
them. These include the following:
• Effective exhaust systems to expel and contain malicious fumes
• Proper pressure relationships between adjacent spaces
• Low-velocity diffusers that do not interfere with fume hood and biological
safety cabinet (BSC) containment
• Properly sealed ductwork and envelope
• Specific pollutant sensors to maintain regulated levels
Air quality concerns related to experimental quality are often present in animal labo-
ratories. Proper ventilation and air quality are needed to provide assurance that the results
of experiments are accurate and not due to poor IAQ. Air quality can also be a concern in
adjacent laboratories of different functional uses, as the contaminants from one experi-
ment may affect the work in the adjacent laboratory.
VIBRATION
Vibration can originate from within or outside a laboratory. Interior vibration from
mechanical and electrical equipment (e.g., fans, blowers, pumps, chillers, and transform-
ers), by laboratory equipment (e.g., centrifuges and fume hoods), and pedestrians can
cause interference with sensitive equipment in the laboratory. Correct balancing of
mechanical equipment, using vibration isolators for both mechanical equipment and sen-
sitive instruments, and making the building as stiff as possible can minimize these vibra-
tions. Exterior vibrations can be caused by traffic, construction work in nearby buildings,
wind, and seismic disturbances. Because this type of vibration is hard to control, selection
of the location for the laboratory during the planning phase is important for minimizing
possible external sources of vibration. Special vibration isolation measures may also need
to be considered for exterior vibrations.

APPLIANCES AND OCCUPANCY

While the overwhelming cooling and heating load for any laboratory building is typi-
cally the conditioning of the supply air that is exhausted through the hoods, a significant
amount of heat and moisture originates from appliances, lighting, and the occupants that
occupy the internal laboratory environment.
APPLIANCE LOADS
The equipment used in laboratories creates sensible and latent heat gains that must be
removed by the HVAC system to maintain comfortable conditions. These heat gains are
released into the room and influence the thermal environment in the room. While exhaust
hoods located above primary heat-generating equipment can remove most of the heat
generated by that piece of equipment without influencing the temperature of that room,
exhaust hoods are not always feasible. In such cases, snorkel-type exhausts, which pro-
vide localized exhaust, may be an option.
LIGHTING
In addition to the cooling load resulting from various laboratory equipment, lighting
generates heat that adds to the cooling load and must be addressed by the HVAC system.
The lighting levels required vary depending on the tasks performed in the area, with the
lighting power depending on the types of ballasts and fixtures used and other strategies

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such as daylighting. Task lights are often used for specific requirements such as experi-
mental operations that have small, detailed work. Ambient lighting ensures that the over-
all level of lighting satisfies the need of the most common tasks performed in that area.

OCCUPANTS
The occupants (people and animals) contribute to the cooling load of the space.
Occupant densities, diversities, activity levels, and scheduling are the key criteria in deter-
mining the occupant load requirements.

PRESSURE RELATIONSHIPS
Maintaining proper pressure relationships between adjacent spaces in a laboratory
building is critical to ensure airflow is in the proper direction, from clean areas to dirty
areas. Therefore, pressure relationships must be determined during the planning phase.
Planning includes the identification of individual pressure zones and the development of a
preliminary pressure map. A primary problem with the design, construction, and opera-
tion of laboratory facilities is that air moves from space to space based on simple pressure
relationships—from higher-pressure areas to lower-pressure areas. Since there is no such
thing as “smart air” that follows the arrows on drawings, special attention must be paid to
the layout and design of the HVAC systems and to wall construction.
There are three primary problem areas that are often overlooked when developing
pressure maps. First, the outdoor wind direction places a positive pressure on the
upstream wall and a negative pressure on the roof and downstream wall. Second, due to
stack effect, as one moves upward in a building, the relative pressure from indoors to out-
doors goes from negative to positive, resulting in air entering the lower floors and exiting
the top floors. Finally, all buildings are composed of compartments (rooms) and chases
(elevators and stairs), which allow air to quickly move from one location to another loca-
tion in a building. Therefore, proper sealing of spaces and accounting for external forces
are required in the proper layout of a system in laboratory facilities. To simplify the plan-
ning process, the need for negative, positive, and neutral pressure rooms; anterooms (air
locks); and transfer air should be discussed. Figure 4-1 details each of these graphically.

NEGATIVE PRESSURE ROOM

A negative pressure room is at a lower pressure compared to adjacent spaces and,
therefore, the net flow of air is into the room. For this to happen, the volume flow rate of
the supply air must be less than that of the combined exhaust flow rates from all general
and equipment exhausts. Laboratories that use hazardous chemicals and materials need to

Figure 4-1
Pressure
Relationship
Terminology

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be maintained at a negative pressure so that fumes, particulates, odors, and other by-prod-
ucts of experiments do not migrate from the experiment to adjacent occupied spaces.
POSITIVE PRESSURE ROOM
A positive pressure room is at a higher pressure compared to adjacent spaces and,
therefore, the net airflow is out of the room. The volume flow rate of the supply air must
be greater than that of the combined exhaust flow rates from all general and equipment
exhausts for a room to maintain a positive pressure. Cleanrooms and sterile facilities are
examples of laboratories that need positive pressurization to prevent infiltration that could
compromise experimental requirements for cleanliness. If hazardous materials must be
used in a positively pressurized laboratory, such as an electronics manufacturing labora-
tory, exhaust equipment must be designed and used carefully so that it removes all haz-
ardous fumes. More commonly, an air lock or other buffer zone can provide a negative
containment area around a positive pressure room that contains hazardous material.

NEUTRAL PRESSURE ROOM

A neutral pressure room has no specific pressurization requirements. Typically, non-
laboratory spaces such as office areas and corridors are maintained at a neutral pressure.
Some rooms that have no pressurization requirements of their own must be maintained at
either positive or negative pressure so that the pressure requirements for adjacent rooms
are satisfied and airflow from clean to dirty is maintained. These rooms are identified
when creating a pressure map.

ANTEROOM
An anteroom is a transition room between areas of substantially different pressures or
that is used to gain access to a room that must maintain its pressure even during distur-
bances such as a door opening. The use of anterooms provides assurance that pressure
relationships are constantly maintained and air remains flowing from clean to dirty, and
they reduce the need for the HVAC control system to respond to large disturbances.

TRANSFER AIR
Transfer air moves from one space to an adjacent space through a transfer grille or
other air distribution outlet device. Transferring air should only be done between spaces
that have a similar level of cleanliness or from clean areas to those of lesser cleanliness.
Typically, transfer air is used between subdivided rooms in a common area to prevent
large pressure differences as the supply and exhaust airflows on either side change.

VENTILATION AND IAQ

During planning, careful consideration of ventilation and IAQ is needed because of
the hazardous nature of the materials used in laboratories and the need to provide a safe
working environment for laboratory personnel. Various codes and standards identify the
ventilation requirements for laboratories. The differences in ventilation requirements
from occupied to unoccupied modes should also be considered during planning, along
with determining how to satisfy both the cooling load and the air change requirements for
a laboratory.

SUPPLY AIR/EXHAUST AIR TREATMENT REQUIREMENTS

Because most laboratory environments are inherently hazardous, pollutants and their
sources cannot be completely eradicated. Therefore, air treatment may be needed to pro-

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vide the desired air quality by either preventing contaminants from leaving the laboratory
and entering the environment (e.g., biological laboratories) or preventing pollutants in the
environment from entering the laboratory (e.g., cleanrooms). During planning, the work
to be performed in the laboratory should be evaluated for supply or exhaust air treatment
needs, including the use of filtration, scrubbing, condensing, and oxidation technologies.
Details on the various air treatment applications and technologies available can be found
in Chapter 8.

LABORATORY CODES, STANDARDS,

AND REFERENCES
In additional to the usual federal, state, and local requirements, the codes, standards,
and references listed in Table 4-1 provide a starting point for laboratories. The owner’s
design standards, funding sources, research program, or certification requirements may
result in additional requirements.
For more information on these organizations and additional laboratory-related organi-
zations and resources, refer to Chapter 1.

INTEGRATION OF ARCHITECTURE AND

ENGINEERED SYSTEMS
For the organization of the internal laboratory spaces, the architect and engineer must
generate and coordinate various concepts to efficiently integrate architecture and engi-
neered systems. This coordination effort has the objective of developing systems that
complement each other while providing a safe and healthy environment at a reasonable
cost. The main items that require integration between architects and engineers are build-
ing concepts, utility distribution, laboratory layout approaches, specific layout issues such
as fume hood location, and budgeting. The locations of positively and negatively pressur-
ized areas and levels of cleanliness should be planned to minimize controls and ducting.
BUILDING CONCEPT
Building concept issues include basic choices about the laboratory building layout
that will affect later design and system opportunities. These issues include choosing the
air intake locations to avoid contamination, selecting dedicated or manifolded supply and
exhaust air systems, and considering O&M requirements.
Air Intake Location
The location of outdoor air intakes needs to be coordinated between the architects and
engineers to minimize the possibility of reentrainment of contaminants from the labora-
tory exhaust discharge, loading docks, cooling tower discharge, vehicular traffic, and adja-
cent property pollution into the outdoor air intakes. Selection of air intake locations should
consider issues such as the prevailing wind direction and seasonal events such as trees los-
ing their leaves or snow, which may clog the air intake. The choice of air intake locations
will affect later planning decisions, such as the location of mechanical rooms, the location
and layout of utility corridors, and the exterior aesthetics of the laboratory building.
Adequate exit velocities, height, placement, and types of exhaust stacks and fans
must also be considered along with the selection of outdoor air intake locations. State and
local codes may specify a minimum separation distance between exhaust discharge and
supply air intakes. For additional details on air intake locations relative to exhaust sys-
tems, see Chapter 9.

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Table 4-1 Name Reference Summary of Purpose

Summary of
Establishes minimum requirements and
Codes, procedures for the design and operation of
Standards, ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5,
(AIHA 2012) laboratory ventilation systems used to protect
Laboratory Ventilation
and personnel from overexposure to harmful or
References potentially harmful contaminants.
Pertaining to
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard Forms the basis for the minimum outdoor air
Laboratories 62.1, Ventilation for (ASHRAE requirements for most spaces and stipulates
Acceptable Indoor 2013) when treatment of outdoor air and exhaust air is
Air Quality necessary.

ASHRAE Handbook—
(ASHRAE Provides a condensed version of the information
HVAC Applications,
2015) provided in the chapters of this Guide.
Chapter 16, Laboratories

Provides biosafety level (BSL) 1 to 4 procedures

and guidelines for the manipulations of etiologic
Biosafety in agents in laboratory settings and animal
Microbiological and facilities. The four levels of control that are
(CDC 2009)
Biomedical Laboratories defined range from safely dealing with
(BMBL) microorganisms that pose no risk of disease for
normal healthy individuals to dealing with the
high risk of life-threatening diseases.

Assists institutions in caring for and using

Guide for the Care and Use
(ILAR 2011) animals in ways judged to be scientifically,
of Laboratory Animals
technically, and humanely appropriate.

Addresses all the construction, protection, and

NFPA 101: occupancy features needed to minimize danger
(NFPA 2015a)
Life Safety Code® to life from fire, smoke, and panic. Forms the
basis for law in many national jurisdictions.

Provides the most up-to-date requirements for

dealing with flammable and combustible liquids
NFPA 30: Flammable and
(NFPA 2015b) and is therefore useful to design engineers,
Combustible Liquids Code
enforcing officials, insurers, and laboratory
workers.

Provides the minimum fire protection

NFPA 45: Standard on Fire
requirements for fire-safe design and operation
Protection for Laboratories (NFPA 2015c)
in educational and industrial laboratories using
Using Chemicals
chemicals.

Identifies guidelines for decreasing the risk of

NFPA 801: Facilities explosion or fire and the severity of
Handling Radioactive (NFPA 2014) contamination from a fire or explosion at
Materials facilities that handle materials that are
radioactive (except nuclear reactors).

Provides comprehensive information and

NSF/ANSI 49, Biosafety
guidance on the principles and applications of
Cabinetry: Design,
(NSF 2014) air filtration, which supplies the level of
Construction, Performance,
particulate cleanliness required by HVAC
and Field Certification
systems.

Recommends several prudent practices that

Prudent Practices in the
stimulate a culture of safety for chemical
Laboratory: Handling
(NRC 2011) laboratory operations. Provides information and
and Management of
cross-references on how to handle compounds
Chemical Hazards
that pose special hazardous risks.

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Dedicated and Manifolded Air Systems

The supply air to the laboratories, adjoining office spaces, storage areas, and corri-
dors can be provided by a central system that serves all these areas or via separate (dis-
tributed) systems dedicated exclusively for either laboratory or nonlaboratory use.
Similarly, exhaust air from laboratory and other spaces can be expelled through either
dedicated or manifolded exhaust systems, although separate exhaust systems for labora-
tory and nonlaboratory systems are almost always used. The choice of either dedicated or
manifolded air systems will determine later planning and design choices, such as the
space needed for utility corridors and shafts and their locations.
There are advantages and disadvantages to using either dedicated or manifolded sys-
tems, all of which must be weighed carefully before a selection is made. Dedicated
exhaust systems should be considered where different exhaust streams may be incompati-
ble. Perchloric acid exhaust, for example, must have a separate exhaust system. Also,
dedicated exhaust systems may have simpler control and balancing requirements than
manifolded exhaust systems. Manifolded systems, however, have lower initial cost and
maintenance requirements because of the reduced number of fans and stacks that are
needed, and they have better atmospheric dispersion due to the momentum of the large air
mass. They also are better for energy recovery applications and easier for installing
backup fans.
O&M Issues
O&M issues, such as required clearances and access locations for HVAC and labora-
tory equipment, must be thoroughly planned. Laboratories may need to sustain design
performance conditions for extended periods of time to protect the laboratory personnel
and experiments and therefore need systems and equipment that can be sufficiently main-
tained. The continued reliability of the equipment and systems in a laboratory can be
increased if they are selected and installed with consideration of accessibility and main-
tainability. Coordination between architects and engineers is needed to ensure that suffi-
cient space is allowed for various HVAC and laboratory equipment and other building
systems.

UTILITY DISTRIBUTION
Various infrastructure distribution components, such as supply and exhaust ductwork,
piping (HVAC, plumbing, gas), mechanical equipment technology, fire protection, and
electrical conduits, must be distributed throughout the building to various laboratories,
offices, and other spaces. During the planning phase, architects and engineers must coor-
dinate the distribution of these services to fit within the available space yet remain main-
tainable. Methods of utility distribution for architects and engineers include utility
corridors, multiple interior shafts, multiple exterior shafts, corridor ceiling distribution,
and interstitial space.
Utility Corridors
A utility corridor is a separate hallway that provides space for piping, ductwork, con-
duit, and other components to enable access to the systems between equipment rooms.
Utility corridors are a horizontal layout method, with very few vertical shafts used for
multistory laboratory buildings. The use of utility corridors has the advantage of allowing
O&M staff to maintain laboratory equipment from an adjacent service corridor rather
than routinely having to enter the laboratory. This also allows the utilities to be placed
away from public access hallways so that they can be maintained without disrupting

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building occupants and when building occupant access to the critical systems that serve
laboratories is limited.
Multiple Interior Shafts
Multiple interior shafts are a second method of utility distribution that uses a primar-
ily vertical layout with horizontal runs to individual equipment. Typically, multiple inte-
rior shafts only require a short horizontal run of ductwork, which is desirable for exhaust
from fume hoods and other laboratory equipment. Depending on the building layout, inte-
rior shafts can be accessed either through a service corridor or a public corridor or from
within the laboratory. A possible downside of this layout is that multiple shafts can
occupy a significant portion of the floor area in high-rise laboratories.
Multiple Exterior Shafts
Multiple exterior shafts are similar to interior shafts except that they are located on
the exterior wall of the building rather than in the interior of a building. As with interior
shafts, exterior shafts typically only require short horizontal runs of ductwork. Exterior
utility shafts are typically accessed from the laboratory or from the building exterior.
Corridor Ceiling Distribution
Corridor ceiling distribution uses the space above a dropped ceiling (sometimes no
dropped ceiling) to contain ductwork and piping in a corridor just outside of a laboratory.
This method of utility distribution requires a higher floor-to-floor height, as 3 to 4 ft
(0.91 to 1.22 m) above the dropped ceiling is required for the various utilities. While this
type of system can be more difficult to maintain because of the need to move ceiling pan-
els around to find equipment, it does provide increased usable floor area compared to
multiple interior shafts or a separate corridor for utilities. Typically, ceiling distribution is
confined to corridors and is not used above laboratory spaces, as the need to remove ceil-
ing panels to maintain equipment could interfere with laboratory activities (e.g., cause
dust to fall on sensitive laboratory equipment or experiments).
Interstitial Space
Interstitial spaces are dedicated mechanical and electrical equipment floors located
between each occupied floor. Ductwork, piping, and conduit are routed through this space
to connect to the floors above and/or below. The benefits of placing systems in interstitial
spaces are ease of accessibility and the ability to modify the layout of the various systems
quickly without disturbing laboratory operations. However, this type of utility distribution
is inherently expensive due to the need for additional floors in the laboratory building.
Some laboratories and medical research facilities have been laid out with vertical util-
ity spaces that are 4 to 8 ft (1.22 to 2.44 m) wide. This is not a conventional layout and
requires careful planning and coordination by the owner and the design team. It does pro-
vide sidewall utility access (versus ceiling and floor access), which is especially useful in
laboratories that require frequent utility changes to meet use changes.

LABORATORY LAYOUT APPROACHES

Architects and engineers must coordinate to develop a plan for the internal organiza-
tion of a laboratory and adjacent building spaces. The approaches to laboratory layouts
include modular designs and workstation layouts based on specific functions.
Modular Design
A laboratory module is a basic work area, usually for one or two persons, that is used
as a general building block in planning the complete floor plan. Each module can be con-

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tained in a separate room or combined into groups and used in larger rooms. The layout of
modules should be carefully coordinated with the utility distribution layout. For labora-
tory buildings that house different types of work, multiple modules, one for each distinct
type of laboratory work, may be chosen and used as appropriate.
Workstation Layouts Based on Specific Functions
The processes, materials, and waste products that are to be contained at a particular
workstation need to be considered with regard to how they affect the function or pose a
hazard to the functions of other workstations. As a result, their placement can be critical
in order to avoid potential conflicts. Workstations should be located in low-traffic areas of
the laboratory.

SPECIFIC LAYOUT ISSUES

Once the general building concepts, method of utility distribution, and approach to
laboratory layout have been planned, the specific layout issues for laboratory areas should
be determined. Specific layout issues for laboratories include the separation of laboratory
and nonlaboratory areas, primary and secondary barriers, directional airflow, and work-
station placement.
Separation of Laboratory and Nonlaboratory Areas
For the layout of support offices, storage rooms, and mechanical rooms associated
with laboratory buildings, the following physical separation issues must be addressed dur-
ing planning:
• The separation distance needed between laboratory areas and nonlaboratory
areas
• The location of nonlaboratory areas, such as offices for laboratory workers, to
determine if they should be placed within laboratories, across the hall, or in
another part of the building
• Whether the location of administrative offices should reflect the organization’s
hierarchical structure, if one is in place
• The materials and construction methods required for the envelope that separates
laboratory and nonlaboratory areas

Primary and Secondary Containment Barriers

Laboratories typically use a primary barrier and a secondary barrier to control the
spread of contaminants. The primary barrier is usually a piece of laboratory equipment,
such as a fume hood or BSC, which is intended to capture the hazardous materials used in
the laboratory most of the time. A secondary barrier typically consists of a more passive
measure, such as a negative pressure differential for a room or a laboratory that is com-
pletely sealed off by an air lock. The secondary barrier captures general laboratory emis-
sions, spills, and contaminants pulled out of the workstation by moving into and out of an
open-face station.
Directional Airflow
Maintaining pressure differentials between areas of different uses provides direc-
tional airflow from clean to dirty to ensure that contaminants from a laboratory are not
spread throughout the building. Therefore, selection of pressure differentials (i.e., creat-
ing a pressure map) is needed, which requires coordination between mechanical and
architectural systems to ensure that the chosen pressure differential can be maintained.
Also, the requirements for the materials necessary to maintain the proper pressure differ-

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entials (and thus directional airflows) must be coordinated, such as any needs for tight-
sealing doors, anterooms, sealed plumbing penetrations, and electrical conduits.
Workstation Placement
As one moves within a laboratory space from the exterior wall toward the primary
access door and public corridor, equipment should be placed according to its decreasing
hazard potential. Therefore, fume hoods and BSCs for conducting hazardous experiments
should be located away from the primary access doors and pathways. In addition, locating
hoods and cabinets in this manner reduces occupant traffic past them, which can nega-
tively affect the performance. Coordination of functionality and aesthetics is needed in
selecting supply air diffusers because laboratory areas need diffusers that can introduce
large volumes of air at low speeds to prevent turbulence, which can disrupt airflow to
open workstations, such as those with fume hoods and BSCs, as well as clean air stations.

DEVELOPMENT OF
PLANNING DOCUMENTS
The Owner’s Project Requirements (OPR) and the Basis of Design (BOD) are the two
main planning documents used in the procurement of the laboratory facility. This section
describes these programming documents and offers guidance for their development.
The OPR is not as detailed as the BOD and is used to record specific room types;
their quantities and areas; the number and type of personnel who will occupy the labora-
tory; the types of research, teaching, or industrial functions; and an estimate of construc-
tion costs.
The BOD provides a more detailed explanation of the information provided by the
OPR by describing the laboratory’s functional needs; intended levels and quality of envi-
ronmental requirements and control; and basic mechanical, electrical, and plumbing sys-
tems. Producing a clear design intent is very critical to defining a benchmark to be used to
judge the true success of the project of constructing a laboratory facility. This document is
dynamic in nature, and any changes to the design intent should be documented, reviewed,
and approved by the owner. The following is a basic outline of the BOD:
• General project description
• Objectives
• Functional uses
• General quality of materials and construction
• Occupancy requirements
• Indoor environmental quality (IEQ) requirements
• Performance criteria

REFERENCES
AIHA. 2012. ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5-2012, Laboratory ventilation. Falls Church, VA:
American Industrial Hygiene Association.
ASHRAE. 2013. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2013, Ventilation for acceptable indoor
air quality. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2015. Chapter 16, Laboratories. In ASHRAE handbook—HVAC applications.
Atlanta: ASHRAE.
CDC. 2009. Biosafety in microbiological and biomedical laboratories (BMBL), 5th Edi-
tion. DHHS Publication No. (CDC) 21-1112. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control

4 · Laboratory Planning 39
[Link] Page 40 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 1:27 PM

and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. [Link]/bio

safety/publications/bmbl5.
ILAR. 2011. Guide for the care and use of laboratory animals, 8th ed. Washington, DC:
Institute for Laboratory Animal Research, Division on Earth and Life Studies,
National Research Council, National Academies Press. [Link]
olaw/[Link].
NFPA. 2014. NFPA 801: Standard for fire protection for facilities handling radioactive
materials. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association.
NFPA. 2015a. NFPA 101: Life safety code®. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Asso-
ciation.
NFPA. 2015b. NFPA 30: Flammable and combustible liquids code. Quincy, MA:
National Fire Protection Association.
NFPA. 2015c. NFPA 45: Standard on fire protection for laboratories using chemicals.
Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association.
NRC. 2011. Prudent practices in the laboratory: Handling and management of chemical
hazards. 2011. Washington, DC: National Research Council, National Academies
Press. [Link]/[Link]?record_id=12654.
NSF. 2014. NSF/ANSI 49-2014, Biosafety cabinetry: Design, construction, performance,
and field certification. Ann Arbor, MI: NSF International.

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Exhaust
Hoods

OVERVIEW
5
Detailed knowledge of exhaust hoods, including the types of hoods available and
their features, limitations, and design and operational requirements, is crucial to ensure
the proper design and application of laboratory HVAC systems. While safety is the pri-
mary objective, energy conservation should be a secondary objective. Achieving both
safety and energy conservation requires an understanding of the different types and pur-
poses of the exhaust hoods. To provide information for the proper application of the
hoods (described in the later chapters of this Guide), this chapter discusses the types of
hoods as well as hood selection and proper certification and monitoring:
• Types of exhaust hoods
• Chemical fume hoods
• Biological safety cabinets
• Other exhaust devices
• Selection of exhaust hoods
• Hood performance verification and continuous monitoring

Exhaust hoods are the most visible component of a laboratory HVAC system. They
are the primary safety devices used in laboratories to capture chemical fumes. An under-
standing of how to optimize the use of these devices with the ventilation system for
proper temperature control and dilution is needed for managing energy conservation.
Oversimplification leads to inefficiency. It may be easy to design a laboratory to operate
with 6 to 12 air changes per hour (ach) and a constant-volume fume hood designed for a
face velocity of 100 fpm (0.51 m/s), but however safe this has proven to be, this method
may waste energy.
Historically, the general consensus has been to operate a fume hood at a face velocity
of 100 fpm (0.51 m/s). Although face velocity is a not a direct measure of hood perfor-
mance, it does serve as a good diagnostic tool to observe air patterns and help to resolve
containment failures. The tradition of operating a hood at 100 fpm (0.51 m/s) has been
challenged by some manufacturers who have developed fume hood products that operate
at face velocities as low as 60 fpm (0.30 m/s). The norm has been to target 100 fpm
(0.51 m/s) because at this face velocity most hoods seem to provide adequate containment
and minimize turbulence. Too high a velocity can result in greater turbulence and lead to
containment failure. Too low a face velocity could fail to overcome disturbances gener-
[Link] Page 42 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:44 AM

ated outside of the hood (such as cross drafts due to personnel walking past the hood or
supply air from ceiling diffusers). A challenge to this paradigm requires knowledge of
fume hood systems, control of the laboratory environment, and the test of time.

DEFINING EXHAUST HOODS

For a more detailed discussion of fume hoods, see the latest edition of SEFA 1, Rec-
ommended Practices for Laboratory Fume Hoods, from The Scientific Equipment and
Furniture Association (SEFA) (2010a). SEFA is an international trade association com-
posed of manufacturers of laboratory furniture, casework, and fume hoods, as well as
design and installation professionals. The purpose of SEFA 1 is to provide architects,
engineers, planners, specifiers, manufacturers, and end users with industry standard prac-
tices. These recommended practices cover the design, construction, installation, testing,
maintenance, and safe use of laboratory fume hoods, including benchtop, distillation,
floor-mounted, auxiliary air, radioisotope, and perchloric acid hoods. SEFA 1 defines a
laboratory fume hood as “a safety device specifically designed to carry undesirable efflu-
ents (generated within the hood during a laboratory procedure) away from laboratory per-
sonnel and out of the building, when connected to a properly designed laboratory
ventilation system” (SEFA 2010a, p. 48).
From this definition, all other exhaust hoods can be segregated. Other hoods may not
function as well as a laboratory fume hood for general chemistry but may provide excel-
lent containment for their specific purposes. Examples of other devices include demon-
stration hoods, California hoods, ventilated enclosures, local exhaust ventilation, laminar
flow hoods, biological safety cabinets, and ductless hoods. These hoods may be appropri-
ate for specific laboratories, and readers should refer to SEFA 1 for more information in
such cases.
SEFA 1 covers three categories: as manufactured, as installed, and as used. “As man-
ufactured” includes hood components and recommend testing at the factory. “As
installed” discusses locating the hoods, safety considerations, field testing, and trouble-
shooting. “As used” describes safe work practices, plans for conducting experiments, per-
sonal protection, work practices and responsibilities, and providing proper hood
performance.

TYPES OF EXHAUST HOODS

CHEMICAL FUME HOODS

A common type of exhaust hood found in almost all laboratory facilities is the chem-
ical fume hood. These hoods are designed to contain general odorous, toxic, or otherwise
harmful chemical substances that are used in a wide range of laboratory activities, includ-
ing research, demonstration, and numerous laboratory processes and experiments. In lab-
oratories where the primary work of the occupants involves handling chemicals, it is
recommended by the American Chemical Society (ACS) and others that there be at least
one fume hood per two workers and that each worker should have at least 2.5 linear feet
(0.76 m) of working space at the face of the fume hood (ACS 1991). During the labora-
tory planning stage, the number of hoods required should be determined. Energy savings
is achieved through reducing the number of hoods in the laboratory space, but the number
should not be reduced below what is needed for safe operations.
The type of chemical fume hood chosen depends upon the process being accom-
plished within the hood, safety requirements for the intended processes, usage patterns,
and energy efficiency.

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In general, chemical fume hoods have several components in common, including the
following:
• Work surface
• Light
• Services (sink cup, sink, water, gas, vacuum, etc.)
• Monitor
• Exterior shell
• Interior liner
• Hood baffle
• Hood exhaust collar
• Hood bypass
• Hood sash

Figure 5-1 illustrates some of these typical components of a fume hood.

The hood work surface is the horizontal surface used for setting up experiments. Typ-
ically a chemical- and heat-resistant material is used for the work surface. It is typically
recessed slightly in the center to contain minor spills within the hood.
Hoods usually provide some type of light within the hood to illuminate the work sur-
face, with a safety glass panel typically separating the lights from the hood interior.
Hood services can include a variety of utilities that may be needed in the hood or at
the entrance to the hood. Typical services include water, air, vacuum, natural or propane
gas, specialty gases, fire suppression systems, and electricity.

Figure 5-1
Typical
Components
of a Fume Hood

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A fume hood monitor must be provided for all hoods. The monitor verifies either face
velocity or exhaust flow and provides a clear indication of proper hood operation.
The hood exterior can be constructed from a variety of materials, but it is usually
coated steel. The exterior forms the shell to hold the remainder of the components. The
front of the hood is typically contoured with an airfoil sill to allow smooth airflow pat-
terns entering the hood through the sash.
The interior of the hood is constructed of materials that are resistant to the chemicals
being used in the hood. Typically, the interior is made from fiber-reinforced epoxy and
polyester composite, phenolic resins, stainless steel, or other corrosion and/or chemically
resistant materials.
The hood baffle at the rear of the hood is designed to control the airflow pattern
within the hood. Slots are typically provided at the bottom and middle of the back and at
the middle of the top of the hood to evenly distribute the exhaust flow throughout the
hood.
The exhaust collar is typically located at the top of the hood behind the baffle. This
provides the connection from the hood to the exhaust duct serving the hood. The collar
shape and size can affect the performance of the hood. Bell-mouth collars provide a
smoother transition and reduce noise and turbulence.
A hood bypass may be located above the sash and allows air to bypass the sash open-
ing as the hood sash is closed. This prevents high face velocities on constant-volume
hoods when the hood is partially closed. The sash typically covers the bypass opening as
it is raised, forcing the air to come through the sash opening instead of the bypass. The
bypass can be either an open bypass or a restricted bypass. Open bypasses are designed to
limit the face velocity to no more than three times the design face velocity, when the sash
is open from 6 in. (152 mm) to fully open. A restricted bypass is smaller and is usually
shorter. A restricted bypass is used with variable-air-volume (VAV) hoods to reduce
energy usage.
Hood sashes are the movable panel(s) on the front of the hood. They are typically
transparent and made of some type of safety glass. They provide a barrier between the
worker and the experiments. Sashes can be vertical moving, horizontal moving, or a com-
bination of vertical and horizontal sashes. Figure 5-2 shows some of the typical sash
arrangements.
Because of the range of requirements, many configurations of chemical fume hoods
have been developed, including the following:
• Benchtop hood
• Distillation hood
• Floor-mounted hood
• Auxiliary air hood
• Radioisotope hood
• Perchloric acid hood

Benchtop hoods are designed to sit on top of a work bench or storage cabinet. The
hoods come in a variety of widths and sash types. They typically are used for small to
moderate quantities of low to highly toxic chemicals.
Distillation hoods are similar to benchtop hoods but have a taller working area for the
taller distillation apparatus. The hoods typically have two vertical sashes or horizontal
panels.
Floor-mounted hoods are similar to distillation hoods. A floor-mounted hood extends
to the floor and typically has two vertical sashes or multiple horizontal panels. With floor-
mounted fume hoods, the worker is only inside the hood to set up the experiment and not

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Figure 5-2
Typical Sash
Configurations

5 · Exhaust Hoods 45
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actually in the hood while the experiment is being conducted or hazardous materials are
being released.
Auxiliary air hoods are similar to benchtop hoods except that makeup air is intro-
duced at the exterior of the hood to be drawn into the hood when the sashes are open.
Makeup air should be tempered to prevent cold or hot drafts at the face of the hood.
Unconditioned air entering the hood may affect the results of the experiments. The auxil-
iary air can also affect the room temperature and humidity. Auxiliary air hoods are not
commonly used in today’s market.
Radioisotope hoods are similar to benchtop hoods. The hoods are designed for use
with beta and gamma radiation. The interior of the hood is constructed from Type 304L
stainless steel with welded seams for cleaning and decontamination. These hoods are typi-
cally provided with vertical sashes only. The work surface must be able to support the
shielded containers in which the radioactive material is transported. The recommended
face velocity for radioisotope fume hoods is between 100 and 125 fpm (0.51 and 0.64 m/s),
since radioisotopes usually have a low permissible exposure limit (PEL). It is recom-
mended that the exhaust duct material be 18 gage (1.27 mm) 316 stainless steel (DiBerar-
dinis et al. 2013) welded. In some instances, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
(NRC) regulations require further safety features, such as high-efficiency particulate air
(HEPA) filtration, activated charcoal absorption for exhaust air, and continuous radioactiv-
ity monitoring of the exhaust airstream. VAV control is not recommended for radioisotope
fume hoods due to the potential need for air filtration and because emissions from radioiso-
tope hoods are based on the concentration of radioactive materials, which will increase
when airflow is reduced by a VAV fume hood.
Perchloric acid hoods are designed specifically for use with perchloric acid. They are
similar to benchtop hoods with a seamless liner of stainless steel, chlorinated polyvinyl
chloride (CPVC), or polypropylene. The hoods, exhaust system, and fans must have a
washdown system to remove perchlorates from the surfaces after use. Perchlorate salts
are explosive. The hoods should have a dedicated exhaust system. These hoods are typi-
cally constant-volume hoods (benchtop with full bypass).

BIOLOGICAL SAFETY CABINETS

In biological laboratories and clinics, the typical exhaust hood, which simply
exhausts its contents to the atmosphere for dilution, is not sufficient to properly handle the
materials used within the laboratory. In these instances, biological safety cabinets (BSCs)
are needed to provide a more secure environment. These cabinets are designed to specifi-
cally handle organisms, infectious agents, processes, and particles that can potentially
contaminate and harm other projects, personnel, or the environment. They also protect the
product from cross-contamination. Therefore, all BSCs require filtration of exhaust air,
and some require filtration of supply air, depending on the classification type of the hood.
Because HEPA filters and prescribed airflows provide the protective envelope, these
devices should be annually certified according to field test protocols described in NSF
International Standard NSF/ANSI 49 (NSF 2014).
BSCs are divided into Classes I, II, and III, with Class II cabinets being divided fur-
ther into four types depending on the percentage of exhaust air recirculation within the
hood and typical face velocities used. The classification system is specified by NSF/
ANSI 49 (NSF 2014). The three classes of BSCs should not be confused with the four
biosafety levels (BSLs), which deal with the general level of infection and risk associated
with a laboratory and are described in Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Lab-
oratories (BMBL) (CDC 2009). Selection of a BSC should be made by a qualified safety
professional by performing a risk assessment of the BSC use. The results should then be

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applied to BSC classification type, exhaust requirements, and installation site assessment
for proper location within the laboratory.
Class I
The Class I BSC provides personnel and environmental protection only. Class I cabi-
nets do not use supply filtration or recirculation of supply air, but all of the exhaust air is
HEPA filtered. The Class I BSC has the unfiltered room airflow drawn inward past the
operator and across the work surface. Due to this airflow arrangement, Class I BSCs do
not provide protection for the products used in the cabinet, as the room airflow can con-
taminate work materials on the work surface. The typical minimum face velocity for a
Class I cabinet is between 75 and 100 fpm (0.38 and 0.51 m/s). Figure 5-3 is a schematic
of a Class I BSC. Class I BSCs are typically vented out of doors with negative-pressure
ductwork inside the building.
Class II
The Class II BSC provides personnel, product, and environmental protection. It also
protects laboratory workers by maintaining inward unfiltered room airflow with the addi-
tion of filtered vertical unidirectional airflow using HEPA filters for the supply and
exhaust airflow. Because of the vertical unidirectional flow pattern in the cabinet’s work
area, this class of BSC protects work materials from the inward unfiltered room airflows
as well as work-area cross-contamination.
The requirement for HEPA filtration of both the supply and exhaust airflows is due to
the processes intended for use in the BSCs requiring clean and controlled environments.
Further, Class II cabinets contain type differences within this classification according to
face velocities and exhaust recirculation percentages. The subtypes of Class II cabinets
are Type A1, Type A2, Type B1, and Type B2.

Figure 5-3
Class I BSC

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All Class II cabinets are designed for work involving procedures assigned to BSL-1,
BSL-2, or BSL-3. Class II BSCs may be used with procedures requiring BSL-4 contain-
ment if used in a BSL-4 suit laboratory by a worker wearing a positive protective suit.
All work procedures involving volatile chemicals and radionuclides should be reviewed
by a certified industrial hygienist and a chemical hygiene plan developed for both service
and use.

Type A1
The Class II Type A1 BSC provides HEPA-filtered vertical unidirectional airflow
within the work area from a common plenum, where a portion of the air is exhausted and
a portion is supplied to the work area. Class II Type A1 BSCs use approximately 70%
recirculated air from this common plenum and exhaust the remaining 30% equal to the
cabinet’s inflow volume. Class II Type A1 BSCs have a minimum required face velocity
of 75 fpm (0.38 m/s) and are not intended for experiments using volatile chemicals or
radionuclide. The exhaust air may be relieved to the space or connected to an exhaust sys-
tem through a thimble connection. Figure 5-4 is a schematic of a Class II Type A1 BSC.

Type A2
The Class II Type A2 BSC provides HEPA-filtered vertical unidirectional airflow
within the work area from a common plenum, where a portion of the air is exhausted and
a portion is supplied to the work area of the cabinet. Class II Type A2 BSCs use approxi-

Figure 5-4
Class II
Type A1
BSC

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mately 70% recirculated air from the common plenum and exhaust the remaining 30%
equal to the cabinet’s inflow volume. Class II Type A2 BSCs have minimum inward
velocity of 100 fpm (0.51 m/s) and can be used for work with volatile chemicals and
radionuclide required as an adjunct to microbiological studies if exhausted through a
properly functioning exhaust canopy with an exhaust monitor. Figure 5.5 is a schematic
of a Class II Type A2 BSC.
Class II Type A1 and Type A2 BSCs may recirculate the air into the laboratory space
since the air is particulate free, having passed through a HEPA filter. When recirculating
the air to the space, volatile chemicals cannot be used. These BSCs can be connected to a
ducted exhaust system through a thimble or canopy arrangement. They should not be hard
ducted, as the pressure fluctuations will affect the airflow in the cabinet. The flow through
the canopy or thimble connection should be 10% to 20% greater than the exhaust from
the BSC. Figure 5-6 is a schematic of a typical thimble connection.

Type B1

The Class II Type B1 BSC provides HEPA-filtered vertical unidirectional airflow

within the work area from the unfiltered inflow volume and 30% of the recirculation air-
flow. The remaining 70% of the HEPA-filtered vertical unidirectional airflow is
exhausted through the work area rear grille to a direct-connected exhaust system. This
type of cabinet requires that all exhaust ductwork and plenums be maintained at negative
pressure or be contained in a negatively pressurized duct or plenum.

Figure 5-5
Class II
Type A2
BSC

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Figure 5-6
Thimble
Connection
for Class II
Type A1 and A2
BSCs

Additional features and requirements of Type B1 BSCs are that they

• provide a dedicated exhaust through the work area rear grille,
• can be used with volatile materials as determined by a risk analysis if working
behind a work-area split line,
• require an exhaust system designed to maintain cabinet exhaust airflow under
increased static pressure of up to 50%, and
• require an airflow monitor interlocked to the supply fan.

Figure 5-7 is a schematic of a Class II Type B1 BSC.

Type B2
The Class II Type B2 BSC provides HEPA-filtered vertical unidirectional airflow
within the work area taken directly from the room as well as the unfiltered room inflow
volume. For this reason, Class II Type B2 BSCs are referred to as “total exhaust” cabi-
nets, since they exhaust 100% of both the supply air and inflow air. This type of cabinet
requires that all exhaust ductwork and plenums be maintained at a negative pressure or be
contained in a negatively pressurized duct or plenum.
Additional features and requirements of Type B2 BSCs are that they
• provide total exhaust of the work area,
• can use small amounts of volatile materials,
• require their exhaust system to be designed for a 50% increase in static pressure
for less than a 5% decrease in airflow due to the high and variable pressure drop
through the BSC, and
• require an exhaust airflow monitor interlocked to the supply fan.

Figure 5-8 is a schematic of a Class II Type B2 BSC.

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Figure 5-7
Class II Type B1
BSC

Class III
The Class III BSC is used for processes and biological agents that pose the greatest
hazard risk, namely, for those designated as BSL-3 and BSL-4. These cabinets are of air-
tight construction and have attached rubber gloves for handling the materials within the
hood. Double-door autoclaves and chemical dunk tanks may be used, depending on the
owner’s requirements, to pass materials in and out of a Class III cabinet. To contain all
contaminates within the cabinet, a minimum negative pressure of 0.5 in. w.g. (120 Pa)
must be maintained at the required airflow rate. These BSCs require pressure monitors,
decontamination ports, and gastight shutoff dampers.
Class III cabinets use single HEPA filters for supply air, use double HEPA filters in
series or single HEPA filtration and incineration for all exhaust air from the cabinet, and
do not recirculate any air within the cabinet. This class of cabinet requires that exhaust
ductwork be under negative pressure, with the exhaust typically being separate from other
exhaust systems serving the laboratory. Class III safety cabinets are only required in very
specialized laboratories and are not commonly used, compared to the other classes and
types of BSCs. However, this type of cabinet is the preferred method of containment
when a high level of personnel and community protection is needed. Figure 5-9 shows an
example of a Class III BSC.

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Figure 5-8
Class II Type B2
BSC

OTHER HOOD TYPES

In addition to chemical fume hoods and biological safety cabinets, there are numer-
ous other types of primary containment devices that are available to control airborne con-
taminants in laboratories, including the following:
• Ventilated balance enclosure (weighing station)
• Slot hood
• Canopy hood and dedicated equipment exhaust
• Snorkels and spot exhausts
• Laminar flow clean air station
• Glove box
• Student demonstration hood
• Ventilated enclosure

Ventilated Balance Enclosure (Weighing Station)

A ventilated balance enclosure (VBE) is designed to house instrumentation and con-
tain and exhaust hazardous materials (potent compounds) during measurement and
weighing operations. Due to the hazardous nature of some materials, it is necessary to
protect people from exposure to the materials when measuring and weighing the materi-
als. However, typical fume hoods can make accurate measurements difficult due to turbu-
lence from relatively high airflow velocities within the fume hood. Therefore, VBEs are

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Figure 5-9
Class III BSC

used to provide a ventilated space with low airflow velocities for measuring and weighing
hazardous materials. The containment requirements are determined and verified by
appropriate test methods.
Slot Hood
Slot hoods are used to capture hazardous materials close to their source when the use
of chemical fume hoods is not practical or necessary. The primary advantage of a slot
hood is that it does not enclose the process but relies only on capture velocity to remove
materials away from the researcher.
A slot hood works by drawing materials through small, high-velocity exhaust slots in
a plenum located near the contaminant source. Slot hoods are not as effective in protect-
ing laboratory personnel as chemical fume hoods and should not be used as a substitute
when materials need to be handled in an enclosed or partially enclosed fume hood. Typi-
cally the laboratory operations where slot hoods are applicable include specimen prepara-
tion, mixing, and weighing operations. The orientation of the slot hood with respect to the
user can be critical to reduce potential for exposure. The aspect ratio of the slot and the
slot velocity are typically in the range of 500 to 2000 fpm (2.5 to 10.2 m/s), with the slots
and plenum being located not more than 12 in. (305 mm) from the generation source. Fig-
ure 5-10 shows a slot hood.
Canopy Hood and Dedicated Equipment Exhaust
Canopy hoods are defined as “receiving hoods” and are used for removal of heat,
steam, or exhaust of materials of negligible hazard generated from equipment such as
ovens, autoclaves, and sterilizers. This type of hood is usually used in cases where efflu-
ents are at high temperatures or are directed upward; thus, the hoods are suspended over

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Figure 5-10
Slot Hood

(Courtesy of
Monoxivent)

the equipment for which they are intended to provide exhaust. Exhaust velocities for can-
opy hoods should be based on the velocity necessary to receive and capture the rising
plume. The flow, inflow velocity, and location must be carefully planned and appropriate
for the generation source. The effectiveness of a canopy hood is dependent largely on the
contour and structure of the opening used. For more information on the contour and struc-
ture impacts of canopy hoods, and exhaust hoods in general, consult Chapter 3, Local
Exhaust Hoods, of Industrial Ventilation: A Manual of Recommended Practice for Design
from the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH 2013).
As with slot hoods, canopy hoods should be placed as close to the source as possible
and should not be used as a substitute when laboratory processes require chemical fume
hoods. Figure 5-11 shows a canopy hood.
Snorkels and Spot Exhausts
Local exhaust snorkels and spot exhausts perform similarly. Snorkels are typically
movable, whereas spot exhausts are typically fixed, small exhaust capture hoods, but both
are intended to provide exhaust for small point sources. Snorkels and spot exhausts are
designed to contain low-hazard airborne contaminants produced by specific processes
and equipment not suited for locating within an enclosure. Both are used to remove heat
or nontoxic particles that may be generated from benchtop research equipment.
Snorkels are usually funnel-shaped inlet cones connected to 3 to 6 in. (75 to 150 mm)
diameter flexible or semiflexible ductwork extending from the ceiling to above the bench-
top level. Snorkel exhaust dampers are typically closed when not in use. Figure 5-12
shows a typical snorkel.
Laminar Flow Clean Air Station
Laminar flow clean air stations provide product protection by design. Unidirectional
air can be introduced vertically or horizontally depending on design. Some stations are

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Figure 5-11
Canopy Hood

(Courtesy of
Kewaunee
Scientific
Corporation)

Figure 5-12
Snorkel

(Courtesy of
Monoxivent)

designed to be vented either partially or 100% depending on the requirements of the

experimental protocol. These units are designed to meet class 100 (ISO 1999) cleanliness
standards.
Glove Box
A glove box is used in cases where the toxicity or radioactivity of the airborne con-
taminants is too high to be handled by a chemical fume hood and in cases where the sub-
stance being handled reacts with air. In these instances, the glove box completely isolates
the experiment from the surroundings of the laboratory. To accomplish this, the glove box

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is usually of airtight construction and is made of stainless steel and safety glass with
smooth finishes. Also, as the name suggests, full-length rubber gloves are attached to the
side of the box and are used for handling the materials within the box. The glove box
depth should be 24 in. (610 mm) or less to prevent glove damage.
Glove boxes are maintained under a relatively high negative pressure of 0.25 to 0.5 in.
w.g. (0.06 to 0.12 kPa). Depending on the material handling requirements of the glove
box, the following may also be used: HEPA filtration of supply air, HEPA filtration of the
exhaust air for toxic and infectious materials, activated charcoal filter absorption for vola-
tile chemicals, or air locks for introduction of items into the box. When HEPA or acti-
vated charcoal filtration is used, a prefilter for removing particulate matter is
recommended.
Glove boxes that are used to contain substances that react with air use an inert gas or
one that does not react with the substance. When inert gas is used, the bypass opening for
the glove box is replaced with a connection to an inert gas supply. Inert gas glove boxes
may or may not be ducted to the outdoors, depending on the hazards to laboratory person-
nel associated with the materials that will be used in the glove box.
Student Demonstration Hood
Demonstration hoods, or pass-through hoods, are special fume hoods with viewing
glass or sashes on multiple sides. They are used to allow students to view experiments
being conducted in the hood. Demonstration hoods with sashes or viewing windows on
the side opposite the main sash often eliminate the baffle that helps keep the inflow of air
uniform across the sash opening. The hoods are designed to operate with only one sash
open at a time. Typically these are constant-volume bypass hoods, but they can be oper-
ated as VAV.
Ventilated Enclosure
A ventilated enclosure is intended to contain equipment that may generate small con-
centrations of effluent. A ventilated enclosure typically has an opening to allow access
and is sometimes equipped with a baffle at the back of the hood. Such enclosures are used
to enclose low-risk applications. The front and sides are typically glass or clear plastic.

SELECTION OF EXHAUST HOODS

The selection of exhaust hoods is an important step in the design of a laboratory and
can greatly impact the health and safety of the laboratory workers, the results of the labora-
tory experiments, and the life-cycle cost of owning and operating the laboratory. To begin
the selection process, a clear understanding of the current and future types of work that are
to be conducted in the laboratory needs to be researched and documented. The hazards
associated with the current and future work in the laboratory are then identified, and the
applicable codes, standards, and laws that regulate the anticipated types of work and asso-
ciated hazards need to be located and followed. Once the hazards and applicable regula-
tions have been identified, the appropriate types of exhaust hoods for the laboratory
processes can be chosen. Figure 5-13 shows a matrix of the exhaust hood selection process.
In some cases, there are no options for the type of hood to use. If perchloric acid is to
be used, a perchloric acid fume hood is required and other types of hoods cannot be sub-
stituted. The same is true for regular work with radioisotopes—only a radioisotope fume
hood should be used. Biological safety cabinets allow some flexibility in the type to use,
as long as the appropriate level of protection is achieved. Refer to Figure 5-13 for a dia-
gram of laboratory hoods and their potential applications.

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Figure 5-13
Exhaust Hood Selection Matrix

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CONSTANT VOLUME VERSUS VARIABLE AIR VOLUME

Chemical fume hoods can be either constant volume or variable air volume (VAV).
Constant-volume fume hoods have the benefit of being less expensive initially, require a
less complex supply and exhaust system, and are generally easier to maintain. However,
constant-volume fume hoods can waste substantial amounts of energy if the laboratory is
occupied infrequently. VAV fume hoods have the benefit of saving substantial amounts of
energy over their lifespan if the laboratory is used periodically, and they can provide con-
tinuous monitoring to document that the required face velocity of the hood is being met.
VAV hoods require a more complex supply and exhaust system, require additional con-
trols, and can be more difficult to maintain, as it is essential that their performance be
checked regularly.
The choice of a constant-volume or VAV fume hood is made in conjunction with the
selection of the type of primary air system that is to be used in the laboratory. (Primary air
systems are discussed in Chapter 6.) Also made in conjunction with the choice of con-
stant-volume or VAV is the choice of dedicated or manifolded exhaust air systems. Gener-
ally, manifolded exhaust systems should be grouped into areas of similar hazards.
The compatibility of materials used and the layout of the laboratory building influ-
ence choosing dedicated or manifolded exhausts systems. The choice of dedicated or
manifolded exhaust systems is also closely tied to whether constant-volume or VAV fume
hoods are selected. VAV systems are generally more economical when a manifolded
exhaust system is used, as a dedicated system would require a separate, costly variable-
frequency drive (VFD) for each fume hood fan motor. A manifolded system would only
require a less expensive air control device for each fume hood and one VFD per mani-
folded system. The choice of dedicated or manifolded exhaust for constant-volume fume
hoods is generally determined by the compatibility of the materials used and the cost dif-
ference between numerous individual runs of ductwork for a dedicated system and a few
long runs of ductwork to create a manifolded system.
The choice of constant-volume or VAV fume hoods and dedicated or manifolded lab-
oratory exhaust systems can be an iterative process. Also, a laboratory building does not
need to be exclusively constant volume or exclusively VAV, exclusively dedicated exhaust
or exclusively manifolded exhaust. Similar areas of work and associated hazards can be
grouped together to use one or the other type of system without the whole building neces-
sarily being the same.
VAV laboratories and the hoods designed to operate in these laboratories (constant-
volume fume hoods with partially restricted bypass) can have substantial energy savings
over constant-volume laboratories with constant-volume fume hoods. VAV fume hoods
can reduce energy consumption (regardless of the fume hood velocity setpoint as
described in the Overview section of this chapter) by reducing the volume of exhaust flow
and laboratory supply air when the hood sash is closed or the hood is not in use, depend-
ing on the design of the VAV controls. The amount of energy savings depends on the
reduction in fan power and reduction of conditioned air required for makeup.
VAV fume exhaust hoods can be benchtop, distillation, or floor-mounted types. What
makes these hoods VAV versus constant volume is the size of the bypass opening. A
restricted bypass or no bypass allows the exhaust air volume to vary according to the sash
position to maintain a constant face velocity. The energy savings are a result of reduced
energy for conditioning the supply air as well as reduced fan energy for both the supply
and exhaust air when the fume hood sash is partially or fully closed. To achieve energy
savings with VAV fume hoods, there must be times when either the laboratory is unoccu-
pied or the fume hoods are not being used, and the laboratory occupants must be educated

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to keep fume hood sashes closed when the hoods are not in use. VAV fume hoods typi-
cally make use of a small bypass opening (airfoil sill) to ensure that a minimum amount
of air continues to enter the fume hood even when the sash is completely closed. This
bypass makes sure that any contaminant concentrations generated inside the hood are
diluted and exhausted when the sash is closed. Chemicals should not be stored in the
fume hoods but in chemical storage rooms or cabinets.
While there are significant operating cost savings with VAV hoods, they generally
have higher initial costs due to the control systems cost for the hood and primary air sys-
tem that modulate flow and achieve desired space pressurization. VAV fume hoods, like
other fume hoods in general, require periodic maintenance and testing to ensure that the
fume hood is operating properly and maintaining the required flow and face velocity. The
operation and maintenance (O&M) personnel should be knowledgeable about the unique-
ness of VAV systems compared to their constant-volume counterparts. Therefore, the
ability to provide maintenance to a VAV fume hood through adequate training should be
an important hood selection criterion.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY
A low-exhaust-volume (LEV) fume hood can operate safely at lower volumetric air
requirements. This is achieved in one of two ways: restricted opening (low flow) or lower
face velocity (low velocity). Sash restriction is achieved by reducing the sash opening
(either vertically or horizontally) while maintaining a face velocity to the setpoint (usu-
ally 100 fpm [0.51 m/s]). The reduced opening requires less air overall and the energy
associated with it. Another solution requires a fume hood designed specifically to operate
at a lower face velocity (as low as 60 fpm [0.30 m/s]). The lower velocity of air equates to
less volumetric air per hood and therefore results in less energy lost. No energy will be
saved, however, if the room air change rate determined for the laboratory requires more
cubic feet per minute (litres per second) than the hood exhausts. Energy savings through a
reduction of airflow is only sensible when the hood demands more exhausted air than the
room necessitates.
Even more savings can be achieved when combining a VAV system with a LEV fume
hood. In either case (VAV with a modified constant-volume fume hood or VAV with an
LEV fume hood), the energy savings from a VAV system only occurs if the sash is low-
ered or closed whenever possible. This can be enhanced with an automated sash-closing
device that lowers the sash when an operator is not present.
Another solution for energy savings in the laboratory is to use a ductless fume hood.
In certain applications, this special-purpose hood can provide a safe working environment
while exhausting no air from the laboratory at all. In the case of a ductless hood, all the air
exhausted from the room is through the normal room ventilation system (and should be
part of the energy analysis). The hood captures the dangerous fumes in the activated car-
bon filter system and returns cleaned air to the room. The most thorough standard
explaining the application of a ductless fume hood is SEFA 9, Recommended Practices
for Ductless Enclosures (SEFA 2010b). Ductless hoods require that the user have more
knowledge of the chemicals being used, be aware of the flammability of the filter media
and the implications associated with a fire in a ductless hood, and caution the use of evap-
orating excessive amounts of liquid (even water vapor will consume filter media quickly).
Ductless hoods require continual monitoring, filter maintenance, and user knowledge.
Ductless hoods have a high first cost (although this is offset by reducing the cost of the
entire ventilation system needed for each fume hood) and require a plan for filter replace-
ment and disposal.

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On the supply side energy savings are possible, as well. Traditionally, laboratories
have used a guideline of 6 to 12 ach to provide adequate air turn to reduce exposure to
chemical vapors while also managing heat loads and minimizing viral exposure. This air
change rate was meant to accommodate the equipment and number of people working in
one room for comfort and personnel health. Like the tradition that a fume hood should
operate at 100 fpm (0.51 m/s), the 6 to 12 ach tradition is also being challenged. Lower air
change rates are possible if there are fewer or no people in the room or if the room has
fewer chemicals present.

HOOD PERFORMANCE VERIFICATION

AND CONTINUOUS MONITORING
One of the key issues in ensuring proper protection for laboratory workers is the test-
ing and monitoring of all types of exhaust hoods. Fume hoods are typically tested under
ASHRAE Standard 110 (ASHRAE 1995). Usually BSCs are initially certified by NSF
International and include proof of certification, then, upon installation, the cabinets are
field-certified according to NSF/ANSI 49 (NSF 2014). This certification should be
repeated on a regular, ongoing basis (typically yearly), whenever the hood is relocated,
and if occupant complaints arise about the performance of the hood.
The following sections cover the sources of information for testing and monitoring
exhaust hoods.

ASHRAE STANDARD 110

ASHRAE Standard 110, Method of Testing Performance of Laboratory Fume Hoods
(ASHRAE 1995), specifies the test methodology that qualifies the performance of a labo-
ratory fume hood. There are many factors to consider when evaluating a laboratory fume
hood. ASHRAE Standard 110 consists of three tests:
• Flow visualization
• Face velocity measurement
• Tracer gas containment

There are many important factors (cross drafts, work procedures, obstructions, etc.)
in the safe operation of a laboratory fume hood, and not all of them are covered by the
test. It is the responsibility of the user, the chemical hygiene officer, and the engineer to
understand the hood performance. The test standard defines three alternative ratings
based on the condition of the test: as manufactured, as installed, and as used.
The standard also defines the test equipment, calibration, test conditions, data
reported, and hood conditions. It provides information regarding smoke visualization
tests, what to do when a hood is installed with a VAV system, and sash movements. The
standard does not define acceptable criteria for passing the test. Acceptable criteria for
passing the test should be established with the assistance of the user, chemical hygiene
officer, and engineer.

ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5
Through the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA), the ANSI/AIHA
Z9.5 Subcommittee published ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5, Laboratory Ventilation (AIHA
2012), and the American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE) has taken over as the Secre-
tariat of this standard. The purpose of the standard is to establish minimum requirements
and best practices for laboratory ventilation systems to protect personnel from physical
harm and overexposure to harmful or potentially harmful airborne contaminants gener-

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ated within the laboratory. ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5 does not cover ventilation of all types
of laboratories; exceptions are listed in the standard.
Where ASHRAE Standard 110 establishes the test method, ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5
establishes acceptance criteria for fume hood containment. These criteria are widely
accepted in the industry. A control level for a five-minute average test at each location
conducted at a generation rate of 4 L/m is to be no greater than 0.05 ppm for an “as man-
ufactured” test (AM 0.05) and 0.10 ppm for “as installed” (AI 0.1). Additionally, the stan-
dard requires that the laboratory establish a chemical hygiene plan, identifies responsible
parties, and recommends that, among other things, a tracer gas containment “pass” crite-
ria (e.g., AI 0.5, AI 0.1, AI 0.05) be determined.
Once installed, it should be verified that the operation and performance of the fume
hood meets the acceptable containment performance criteria defined in ANSI/AIHA/
ASSE Z9.5. Once the fume hood meets the performance criteria, the operation of the
hood system can be verified during periodic routine tests. Routine tests may involve mea-
surement of air velocity for a range of sash openings, cross-draft velocities, VAV response
and stability, and airflow visualization as necessary to evaluate and verify proper opera-
tion and performance.
ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5 recommends a control limit of 0.05 ppm (for the manufac-
turer’s ideal conditions) to 0.1 ppm (for an operating laboratory) for tracer gas contain-
ment tests conducted at a generation rate of 4 L/min from the ASHRAE Standard 110
ejector located at prescribed locations inside the fume hood (AIHA 2012). However, the
control limits for allowable tracer gas escape are to be determined by the laboratory with
respect to the processes and materials used in the hood.
Another safety requirement for fume hoods is the use of appropriate continuous mon-
itoring devices. Monitors should be installed on all laboratory hoods used for protecting
people from overexposure while working with potentially hazardous materials. Monitors
can include measurement of flow, face velocity, or other parameters such as pressure that
indicate proper operation. The monitor can also include audible and visual alarms to alert
the user to suboptimal operation.
ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5 also provides some recommendations for energy efficiency
as it relates to laboratory ventilation, identifying acceptable solutions such as lowering
hood face velocity, using a VAV hood system, and using ductless hoods—although these
systems may require additional commissioning, testing, application analysis, and filter
management. Regarding alternative face velocities, the standard recognizes face veloci-
ties as low as 60 fpm (0.30 m/s) in some instances. A fume hood can achieve more
energy efficiency by exhausting less air in two ways: by reducing the face velocity or by
restricting the sash opening. To make use of these adjustments, it is important to deter-
mine the minimum allowable air changes per hour (ACH) of the fume hood, and ANSI/
AIHA/ASSE Z9.5 addresses this issue. While attempting to save energy in typical
higher-hood-density installations, minimum fume hood flow rates in the range of 150 to
375 ach have been used to control vapor concentrations inside hood interiors. Careful
consideration must be made to determine the appropriate exhaust flow rate for any indi-
vidual fume hood.
VAV fume hoods (as described in the Chemical Fume Hoods section of this chapter)
provide the opportunity to reduce energy consumption by reducing airflow when the sash
is closed. Exhaust flow for a fume hood can range from a minimum with the sash closed
to a maximum with the sash full open (100%). The flow (Q) when the sash is open is
equal to the design face velocity (Vf ) multiplied by the opening area (Ah). The exhaust
flow is reduced to a minimum flow and held constant when the sash is closed. The mini-
mum flow must be sufficient for satisfactory hood containment and must sufficiently

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dilute contaminants to prevent accumulation of unsafe concentrations within the fume

hood and exhaust duct.
Establishing the minimum flow for a fume hood is more complicated than using the
formula Q = Vf × Ah and achieving a minimum inflow face velocity. ANSI/AIHA/ASSE
Z9.5 recommends that minimum flow should be based on internal volume of the fume
hood and internal ACH, where a range of 375 ach to as low as 150 ach has been found to
be adequate in most cases (AIHA 2012). ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5 requires users to con-
sider the following when selecting an appropriate minimum air change rate and minimum
fume hood flow:
• The processes and materials generated within the hoods (maximum generation
rate)
• The lower explosive limit (LEL) and the safety factor (most facilities use 10% to
25% of the LEL)
• Hood containment and dilution of hazardous concentrations within the hood
• Potential for increased corrosion
• The ability to measure and control flow
• Effect on duct transport and stack discharge velocities

Using less than 375 ach requires some extra effort. A specialized fume hood dilution
investigation should be conducted to determine a safe minimum flow through VAV fume
hoods. The analysis should include the following tasks as a minimum:
• Collect and evaluate information about the fume hoods, VAV control systems,
and current operating specifications.
• Collect information about processes and materials used in VAV fume hoods to
consider the potential to reduce flow below current design standards.
• Establish minimum flow specifications by testing a representative sample of
fume hoods. The tests should include the following tasks:
• Determine the ability of the fume hoods to maintain containment of smoke
and tracer gas with the sash in the closed position.
• Maintain containment during VAV response and stability tests (i.e., sash
movement effect tests).
• Evaluate the capability of the VAV systems to provide accurate and stable
control of fume hood exhaust and laboratory supply at the reduced flow
setpoint.
• Determine the effects on duct transport velocity.
• Conduct tests to assess the potential for accumulation of unsafe airborne
concentrations within the fume hoods and exhaust duct.

The results of investigations on numerous fume hood types in various facilities indi-
cate that the specifications are hood, laboratory, and system dependent. Establishment
and application of a prescriptive specification for fume hood minimum flow without
proper due diligence is risky (Smith 2013).
Although ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5 recognizes energy savings by reducing the airflow
rate of the laboratory itself, this standard makes no recommendation for allowable room
air change rates. Instead, the standard states that the laboratory ventilation system is to be
designed to remove and dilute air contaminants in accordance with the Laboratory Venti-
lation Management Plan (AIHA 2012). Paradoxically, energy savings for a laboratory
cannot be calculated without this information. It is incorrect to propose that energy is
saved in the fume hood by reducing the air exhausted from the hood, when it may be nec-
essary to remove the same air to meet a safe air change rate for the laboratory.

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OTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION

International Mechanical Code (Section 510)
The International Mechanical Code® (IMC®) is published by the International Code
Council (ICC). The ICC was founded in 1994 from the merger of the regional code coun-
cils at the time to provide a common model code throughout the United States. The IMC
is used in a majority of the states as the basis of their codes and is updated every three
years.
Section 510 of the 2015 IMC deals with hazardous exhaust systems. In laboratories
this applies when concentrations of flammable vapors, gases, fumes, etc. exceed 25% of
the lower flammability limit at room temperature or have a health hazard rating of 1, 2, 3,
or 4 exceeding 1% of the median lethal concentration for acute inhalation toxicity (ICC
2015).
NFPA 45: Standard on Fire Protection for Laboratories Using Chemicals
Established in 1896, the international nonprofit National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) is the world’s leading advocate of fire prevention and an authoritative source on
public safety. NFPA publishes NFPA 45: Standard on Fire Protection for Laboratories
Using Chemicals, which provides basic requirements for the protection of life and prop-
erty through prevention and control of fires and explosions involving the use of chemicals
in laboratory-scale operations (NFPA 2015b). The standard covers such topics as labora-
tory unit hazard classifications, laboratory unit design and construction, fire protection,
explosion hazard protection, laboratory ventilating systems and hood requirements,
chemical storage, and more.
The section covering fume hoods provides safety guidelines for hood location in the
room, exhaust air discharge, duct construction, manifolds, duct velocity, and discharge.
Some information also addresses fume hood interiors, sash closures, and electrical
devices. NFPA 45 specifically recognizes that a fume hood is not designed to contain
explosions, and since it is common to have an open flame in a laboratory fume hood, the
materials that construct a fume hood are to have a flame spread of less than 25 per
ASTM E84, Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Mate-
rials (ASTM 2015). NFPA 45 also requires that minimum exhaust flow be sufficient to
prevent concentrations from approaching LELs inside the fume hood and exhaust duct
(NFPA 2015b). The maximum allowable concentration is typically 25% of the LEL,
though it is lower in some cases (e.g., 0% of the LEL) (Smith 2013).
Industrial Specialists
The goal of industrial hygienists is to keep workers, their families, and the commu-
nity healthy and safe. They play a vital part in ensuring that federal, state, and local laws
and regulations are followed in the work environment (AIHA 2013). They and industrial
ventilation experts, laboratory safety engineers, and the company’s in-house experts are
other sources of information for guidance on achieving as safe and efficient a working
environment as possible in the potentially hazardous field of working in a chemical labo-
ratory. These individuals are armed with their experience and education and information
pertinent to their own field, such as that found in Industrial Ventilation: A Manual of Rec-
ommended Practice for Design (ACGIH. 2013), ASHRAE Handbooks (ASHRAE 2015),
and Prudent Practices in the Laboratory: Handling and Management of Chemical Haz-
ards (NRC 2011). The skill to apply this knowledge and the appropriate application of
standards is critical to the safety and reliability of the product and application while con-
sideration is made to the responsibility to reduce energy consumption.

5 · Exhaust Hoods 63
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Decisions regarding the safety of an application and the tools used to conduct
research must be analyzed continuously. Researchers must consider the safety of each
application and call for help when necessary.
A properly trained laboratory safety engineer or industrial hygienist can provide
knowledge on subjects from chemical exposure limits, regional and local codes, safety
protocols, special handling and waste removal requirements, ventilation strategies, room
air balancing, filter capacities and capabilities, and maintenance issues. When it comes
time to select a new exhaust hood, these individuals provide the most valuable insight.

REFERENCES
ACS. 1991. Design of safe chemical laboratories: Suggested references, 2nd ed. Wash-
ington, DC: American Chemical Society, Committee on Chemical Safety.
ACGIH. 2013. Industrial ventilation: A manual of recommended practice for design, 28th
ed. Cincinnati, Ohio: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
AIHA. 2012. ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5-2012, Laboratory ventilation. Falls Church, VA:
American Industrial Hygiene Association.
AIHA. 2013. What is an industrial hygienist? Falls Church, VA: American Industrial Hygiene
Association. [Link]/about-aiha/Press/Documents/What%20is%[Link].
ASHRAE. 1995. ASHRAE Standard 110-1995, Method of testing performance of labo-
ratory fume hoods. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2015. Chapter 16, Laboratories. In ASHRAE handbook—HVAC applications.
Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASTM. 2015. ASTM E84-15, Standard test method for surface burning characteristics of
building materials. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
CDC. 2009. Biosafety in microbiological and biomedical laboratories (BMBL), 5th Edi-
tion. DHHS Publication No. (CDC) 21-1112. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. [Link]/bio
safety/publications/bmbl5.
DiBerardinis, L.J., J.S. Baum, M.W. First, G.T. Gatwood, and A.K. Seth. 2013. Guide-
lines for laboratory design: Health, safety, and environmental considerations, 4th ed.
New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. [Link]
9781118633816.
ICC. 2015. 2015 International mechanical code® (IMC®). Washington, DC: International
Code Council.
ISO. 1999. ISO 14644-1:1999, Cleanrooms and associated controlled environments Part 1:
Classification of air cleanliness. International Organization for Standardization.
NFPA. 2015a. About NFPA. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association.
[Link]/about-nfpa.
NFPA. 2015b. NFPA 45: Standard on fire protection for laboratories using chemicals.
Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association.
NRC. 2011. Prudent practices in the laboratory: Handling and management of chemical
hazards. 2011. Washington, DC: National Research Council, National Academies
Press. [Link]/[Link]?record_id=12654.
NSF. 2014. NSF/ANSI 49-2014, Biosafety cabinetry: Design, construction, performance,
and field certification. Ann Arbor: NSF International.
SEFA. 2010a. SEFA 1-2010, Recommended practices for laboratory fume hoods. Garden
City, NY: Scientific Equipment Furniture Association.
SEFA. 2010b. SEFA 9-2010, Recommended practices for ductless enclosures. Garden
City, NY: Scientific Equipment Furniture Association.
Smith, T. 2013. Minimum flow specifications for fume hoods. Seminar 60, presented at
the 2013 ASHRAE Winter Conference, Dallas, TX, January 26–30.

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Primary
Air Systems

OVERVIEW
6
Laboratories present a unique set of problems from an air distribution perspective.
Most laboratories require large volumes of supply air but must also maintain low room air
velocities for fume hoods to operate correctly and provide a comfortable environment for
laboratory occupants. The total airflow requirements for a laboratory are determined by
the most critical of the following criteria:
• Total amount of exhaust from containment and exhaust devices
• Cooling required to offset internal heat gains
• Minimum ventilation requirements

In the development of laboratory systems, the proper layout and design of the primary
supply and exhaust air systems is critical in ensuring the performance and safety of the
laboratory environment. When designing the primary air systems, complex and often con-
flicting system options must be evaluated. These include the type of fume exhaust hoods
used, special requirements for exhaust and supply duct systems, the locations and types of
air distribution devices, and the first and operating costs of any proposed system. A key
step in the layout and design of the laboratory system is the selection and sizing of the pri-
mary air systems. However, prior to the design of these components (air-handling units,
etc.), the zone air distribution and heating system must be determined.
The main reason the design of the primary air systems is started at the zone level is
that for these systems to perform properly and efficiently, the conditions in the occupied
space must first be met. Therefore, for the selection and design of the primary air systems,
the following should be evaluated in this order:
1. Zone air distribution
2. Zone heating
3. Exhaust air system
4. Supply air system
5. Duct construction
6. Energy efficiency
[Link] Page 66 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:49 AM

ZONE AIR DISTRIBUTION

The distribution (supply) of air into a laboratory, relative to the exhaust air require-
ments (based on fume hoods, snorkels, etc.), determines the integrity of hood containment
and ensures proper pressurization control (direction of airflow) with respect to adjacent
nonlaboratory (administrative) zones and spaces differing in cleanliness. Therefore, the
locations of diffusers, the discharge velocities, and the volume control of the exhaust and
supply air for a room are all critical to maintaining a safe and comfortable work environ-
ment. The quantities of supply and exhaust air, as well as the integrity of the room enve-
lope and the influence of outside forces (wind and stack effect), determine the air
movement between spaces.
Therefore, with the total supply (including auxiliary air) and exhaust air volumes
known for a space, the next question is how to properly supply and exhaust the air to
maintain safe and comfortable conditions within the space.
Special techniques and diffusers are often needed to introduce the large air quantities
required for a laboratory without creating disturbances on the laboratory benchtops and at
exhaust devices. The key to maintaining proper air movement within a laboratory is the
proper selection and location of supply, return, and exhaust air devices. When designing
laboratory air systems, it is important to make sure that the following are evaluated and
their interactions with one another are thoroughly understood:
• Room air velocities
• Relative device locations
• Device types
• Off-peak loads and balancing

ROOM AIR VELOCITIES

Air supplied to a laboratory must be distributed properly to keep temperature gradi-
ents and air currents to a minimum. Air outlets (preferably nonaspirating diffusers) must
not discharge into the face of a fume hood, a biological safety cabinet (BSC), an exhaust
device, or sensitive laboratory equipment. To ensure proper containment of pollutants
within a laboratory hood, it is necessary to maintain proper velocities at the entrance
(face) of the hood. Disturbances in the room air motion near the face of a hood can result
in entraining pollutants out of the laboratory hood into the occupied space. Therefore, it is
crucial that the supply, return (if any), and general exhaust systems do not adversely
affect the air velocities at laboratory hood faces.
The greatest adverse influence on air motion near a laboratory fume hood is from the
supply air system through the supply air diffusers. Because of the typical requirement of
100 fpm (0.51 m/s) face velocity for a laboratory fume hood, it is recommended that the
maximum supply air velocity within the occupied space, below approximately 7 ft.
(2.1 m) above the floor, be 50 fpm (0.25 m/s) (DiBerardinis et al. 2013). In general, a sup-
ply air velocity of 50% of the required hood face velocity should be maintained within the
occupied space. However, some experts recommend that within the frontal area of a fume
hood or BSC, the room supply air velocity should be no more than 20% of the required
hood velocity to maintain containment in the hood (Wunder 2000).

RELATIVE DEVICE LOCATIONS

The placement of supply air diffusers relative to laboratory fume hoods and to other
diffusers determines the airflow within the room. Typically, it is best practice to place dif-
fusers as far from hoods as possible. There are two primary reasons for this general rule.

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First, when a diffuser is located too close to a hood, it is likely that there will be insuffi-
cient distance between the diffuser discharge and hood face for the air velocity to reduce
to an acceptable value, thus creating drafts and compromising the containment of the
hoods. Second, if diffusers are located too near a laboratory fume hood, it is possible that
the ventilation of the general laboratory space will be hampered, as the supply air could
short-circuit and be exhausted out of the hood.
Air currents external to the fume hood can jeopardize the hood’s effectiveness and
expose the researcher to materials used in the hood. Detrimental air currents can be pro-
duced by
• air supply distribution patterns in the laboratory,
• movements of the researcher,
• people walking past the fume hood,
• thermal convection, and
• opening of doors and windows.

Caplan and Knutson (1977, 1978a, 1978b) conducted tests to determine the interac-
tions between room air motion and fume hood capture velocities with respect to the spill-
age of contaminants into the room. Their tests indicate that the effect of room air currents
is significant and of the same order of magnitude as the effect of the hood face velocity.
Consequently, improper design and/or installation of the replacement air supply can
lower the performance of the fume hood. Disturbance velocities at the face of the hood
should be no more than one-half and preferably one-fifth of the face velocity of the hood.
This is an especially critical factor in designs that use low face velocities. For example, a
fume hood with a face velocity of 100 fpm (0.51 m/s) could tolerate a maximum distur-
bance velocity of 50 fpm (0.25 m/s). If the design face velocity were 60 fpm (0.30 m/s),
the maximum disturbance velocity would be 30 fpm (0.15 m/s). To the extent possible,
the fume hood should be located so that traffic flow past the hood is minimal. Also, the
fume hood should be placed to avoid any air currents generated from the opening of win-
dows and doors. To ensure optimum placement of fume hoods, the HVAC system
designer must take an active role early in the design process.
Test results (Amon et al. 2007) indicate that good hood design, selection of appropri-
ate diffusers, and proper laboratory design are imperative for proper performance. The
results also indicate that numerous variables affecting performance are beyond our cur-
rent understanding. The data suggest that locating supply air diffusers to the side, rather
than directly in front of, fume hoods has the least impact on hood performance, confirm-
ing that cross drafts greater than 50% of the average face velocity can impair hood perfor-
mance.

DEVICE TYPES
The space velocity and diffuser location requirements make the selection and applica-
tion of the room supply air system the key to the safety and comfort of the occupants. Due
to the large volume of supply air being introduced, conventional outlets that typically dis-
charge the supply air at higher velocities and high throw may not be the best selection.
When air patterns from adjacent diffusers meet due to the relatively long throws at high
air volume, the pattern is deflected down into the occupied zone, causing draft and dis-
comfort. To understand what type of air distribution systems (diffusers) are commonly
used in laboratory systems, a basic knowledge of air distribution fundamentals is
required.

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With the introduction of a jet of air into a large, relatively stagnant space, the distur-
bance of the air jet is well defined. As shown in Figure 6-1, the jet enters at a high veloc-
ity and dissipates with distance. This is a result of the induction of room air into the jet.
The higher the jet velocity, the greater the induced air and turbulence in the space.
Conversely, the lower the velocity, the less the induced air and turbulence. However, there
is still the concern of occupant comfort. If the air velocity is too high, the occupants may
complain of drafts, and if too low, they may complain of stuffiness. Therefore, the proper
selection of supply air diffusers must address the velocity near hood faces, the general
mixing of room air and supply air, and the local velocity of room air. It is the combination
of these requirements with the number and type of diffusers that determines the final
room air motion.
From Figure 6-1 it is obvious that a diffuser producing the represented characteristic
of nondirectional flow is poor for laboratories because of its relatively turbulent nature.
To minimize the turbulence within the space, the diffuser supply velocity needs to be
reduced. This can be accomplished through the addition of multiple diffusers or the use of
a diffuser with multiple orifices. While each orifice has the same general performance
characteristics, having multiple orifices reduces the jet velocity and a more unidirectional
(laminar) flow is achieved. Figure 6-2 illustrates this principle.
To achieve the low-velocity, high-volume air requirements typical in most laborato-
ries, several laminar-flow air distribution systems have been developed:
• Perforated duct
• Perforated diffusers
• Perforated ceiling panels
• High-capacity radial

Figure 6-1
Generic Air Jet
Characteristics

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These options are shown in Figure 6-3. It is important to understand that the systems
shown in Figure 6-3 are specialized for critical environments and are separate product
lines from those of diffuser manufacturers. Though these types of supply systems offer
the best characteristics for safety and comfort in laboratories, they are not always practi-
cal due to cost limitations.
To select a system under these circumstances requires returning to basic air distribu-
tion principles. Figure 6-4 shows a typical sectional view of a laboratory, and Figure 6-5
presents a plan view with airflow patterns indicated.
The key to diffuser selection is that the throw of the diffuser where the velocity is
above 50 fpm (0.25 m/s), designated as T50, should not enter the area near the fume
hoods. Since most air distribution systems are laid out symmetrically, the T50 envelope
should not enter the occupied space. Although this criterion appears simple to meet, it is
complicated by the fact that sufficient velocities are required to thoroughly mix the room
air for comfort. Table 6-1 lists the T50 throw divided by diffuser characteristic length, L,
required for comfort.

Figure 6-2
Nondirectional
versus Laminar
Flow

Figure 6-3
Perforated Supply Systems

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Figure 6-4
Sectional
View

Figure 6-5
Plan View

Table 6-1 Diffuser Type T50/L Range

T50/L Ranges Sidewall 1.3 to 2.0
Ceiling—Round Pattern 0.6 to 1.2
Ceiling—Cross Pattern 1.0 to 2.0
Slot 0.5 to 3.3

For any diffuser, a T50/L greater than unity will result in the throw being greater than
50 fpm (0.25 m/s) at walls and within the occupied space. Therefore, the use of sidewall
and ceiling cross-pattern diffusers must be considered and evaluated carefully. Detailed
data on the specific diffusers to be used should be analyzed.
While T50/L addresses the horizontal direction, of more concern is how far down the
50 fpm (0.25 m/s) velocity profile extends into the occupied space. Unfortunately, most
manufacturers’ catalogs do not provide drop information for diffusers, which must either
be obtained from the manufacturer directly or be physically verified by testing prior to
selection of a diffuser. However, even if T50 falls within the occupied space, the diffuser

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Figure 6-6
Layout of
Laboratory
and Diffuser
Selection

Figure 6-7
Misapplication
of Diffuser
Layout

may still work. Figure 6-6 shows an example of one such instance. As Figure 6-6 illus-
trates, the diffuser can be used if the T50 line does not reach the hood face. Care must be
taken in these instances.
Other situations, such as that shown in Figure 6-7, must be avoided. In this instance,
the sidewall diffuser application results in higher-than-acceptable velocities and turbu-
lence near the hood face due to the vane position and the characteristics of the sidewall
diffuser.
One appropriate method for distributing air within laboratories uses radial-flow dif-
fusers, supplying air in multiple directions and flushing the room with large volumes of
low-velocity, clean, conditioned air. The low velocity and high volume of these diffusers
allows them to be located closer to fume hoods and exhaust devices than conventional dif-

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fusers. The low velocity and short throw of the discharge from these diffusers greatly
reduces the chance of the supply air disrupting the flow of air into the fume hoods and
exhaust devices in the laboratory. The short throw of the radial-flow diffuser also reduces
the possibility of creating drafts within the occupied zone.
Regardless of the type of diffuser or air distribution system chosen, substitutions must
NOT be allowed during construction without thorough analysis and approval of the
change. This must be accomplished for every laboratory space and every unique diffuser.
Finally, it is recommended that nonlocking adjustable louvers not be allowed on dif-
fusers. When designed properly, the louvers typically only provide proper air distribution
and safety in one position. However, if used, the positions of the adjustable louvers may
change due to occupant or operation and maintenance (O&M) personnel intervention,
usually resulting in more problems, not fewer.
Advanced laboratory modeling techniques, such as computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) simulations, are increasingly being used to help determine the laboratory’s airflow
characteristics in order to optimize the ventilation rate. CFD can be used to analyze vari-
ous dynamic scenarios within laboratories, including the modeling of spills and their
impact on fume hood containment, comparing the performance of different ventilation
schemes, and analyzing the performance of energy-efficient technologies such as active
or passive beams.

OFF-PEAK LOADS AND BALANCING

The final step in the design of a zone distribution system is to ensure that the room air
motion is maintained under all system conditions. The primary concern is with variable-
air-volume (VAV) systems. However, there are also fluctuations in constant-volume sys-
tems because of changes in processes and equipment. Therefore, the supply air diffuser
performance (throw and drop) must be verified for minimum flows.
The last consideration is to make sure adequate dampers and test ports are available
for balancing of the system. Of critical importance is the requirement for straight exhaust
duct from each laboratory hood at least 10 duct diameters downstream and 5 duct diame-
ters upstream of any obstruction. This is required so that accurate exhaust flow measure-
ments are possible during balancing.
Once installation of all air distribution systems has been completed, the system must
be properly balanced. This work should be accomplished by an independent contractor
with the aid of a commissioning authority to ensure that the balancing is done properly
and that any errors in the system are resolved. Air balancing must be completed to ensure
that the volume difference between supply and exhaust airflows is maintained at peak and
nonpeak conditions, that the specified airflow from diffusers is within acceptable volumes
and velocities, and that comfort conditions are maintained.
For more information on air distribution and balancing in laboratories, refer to
Chapter 12.

ZONE HEATING
Because the exhaust requirement in a laboratory often exceeds the volume of supply
air required for comfort, heating is often required all year. However, the need for heat
focuses on avoiding comfort problems from cold exterior walls during winter and not
overcooling the space during cooling periods.
It is important to understand two different heating loads. The first one, from heat loss
through the building envelope, is identical to any other building and is not unique to labo-

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ratories. It is important to recognize that this heating load only affects the perimeter and
not the interior zones. To meet this load, sufficient heat must be provided to the room to
offset the loss through the building envelope. This heat can be added to the supply air-
stream or provided through a separate system.
The second heating load (termed reheat), found in many VAV systems because excess
supply air is required, is magnified in laboratory systems due to higher air exchange rates.
Although the heat can be provided via a second system to meet this load, heating the sup-
ply system is often most economical and sensible.
The three main options for providing heat to individual spaces are as follows:
• Baseboard heating
• Radiant panel heating
• Supply air heating

The sources of heat for all of these options are hot water, steam, or electricity.
Figure 6-8 details these systems.
BASEBOARD HEATING
Baseboard heating is typically applied along exterior walls to offset the heat loss to
the outdoors during cooler periods. The primary advantages of baseboard heating are that
it is easily zoned and it has few moving parts to maintain. However, there are several dis-
advantages of using perimeter baseboard heaters within a laboratory. First, control of
space conditions may not be suitable for laboratory applications because of humidifica-
tion and temperature control issues. For instance, many laboratories require that the space
environment be maintained in a consistent state for experimentation consistency. Unfortu-
nately, the response time of perimeter baseboard heating is typically much slower than is
acceptable for laboratories, making it difficult to maintain the room temperature setpoint
within specified limits. Finally, maintenance and cleaning of these systems can be diffi-
cult and expensive when decontamination is necessary.
One consideration of perimeter baseboard heating systems is the relationship they
must have to laboratory casework and equipment. Generally, baseboard heating protrudes
approximately 2 in. (50.8 mm) from the wall and cannot be blocked by any objects to
ensure proper heating performance. Thus, use of this type of system requires careful plan-
ning and involves loss of perimeter space, which is very valuable in many laboratories.

Figure 6-8
Zone Heating Options

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RADIANT PANEL HEATING

The second option for zone heating is the use of radiant panels. Radiant panels gener-
ally come in five configurations:
• Metal ceiling panels
• Embedded piping
• Electric ceiling panels
• Electrically heated ceiling or floor
• Air-heated floor

Similar to perimeter baseboard systems, all of these configurations use the principle
of free convection, with the addition of radiant heating. These systems do not require any
laboratory floor space since they are integrated into the infrastructure of the laboratory.
The radiant panels are made of various materials with steam, hot-water piping, or electri-
cal resistance elements passed through them. These panels can then be located within
floors, walls, or ceilings. Unfortunately, with radiant panel systems, temperature control
is often slow when heavier materials such as concrete are used, due to the storage effect.
Another temperature-related problem for radiant panels is the uneven distribution of heat
around objects.

SUPPLY AIR HEATING

The final heating option involves the use of a central air distribution system to heat
the zones. Typically this option is the better choice in laboratory applications because of
its quick response times in temperature control and its even heating distribution.
In using electric heat for terminal reheat in the supply air, care must be used in select-
ing the heater size and the minimum turndown on the supply air quantity prior to activat-
ing the heat source. The heater must be sized to reheat all of the supply air when the
exhaust devices are at maximum flow in order to maintain the proper room pressure rela-
tive to the surrounding nonlaboratory space. Electric resistance heaters typically have a
minimum air velocity that must be maintained for a given power density in the duct to
avoid overheating, which would create a safety hazard. With the high reheat loads plus
heating loads to offset building envelope losses, the velocity requirements may limit how
low the supply can be turned down when the laboratory fume hoods are closed. Proper
lengths of straight duct before and after electric duct heaters must also be maintained to
provide uniform air distribution over the heating coil. Locating a duct branch take-off too
close to the heater can cause turbulent airflow at the heater and trip protective safeties.
Hot-water heating provides more flexibility in lowering the amount of supply air that
needs to be reheated and therefore saves energy.

EXHAUST AIR SYSTEM

With the room layouts completed and the exhaust airflow requirements known and
the fume exhaust hoods chosen (see Chapter 5), the primary exhaust air system can be
selected and sized. Because the exhaust system in a laboratory facility is often the most
critical system for ensuring the safety and health of the occupants, its design is accom-
plished first. Further, because most laboratories do not allow recirculation of air (100%
ventilation with outdoor air), the focus of this section is on 100% exhausted spaces. How-
ever, in cases where recirculation is allowed (e.g., adjacent nonlaboratory spaces), the
guidance for general exhaust can be followed.

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A plan view of a typical laboratory module is shown in Figure 6-9, and Figure 6-10
shows the supply and exhaust systems for a typical laboratory module. The air systems
within the typical laboratory module include the following:
• Dedicated hood exhaust
• Benchtop localized snorkel exhaust
• General exhaust
• Room supply
• Auxiliary supply

Exhaust systems are addressed in this section and supply systems in the following
section.

Figure 6-9
Typical
Laboratory
Module

(NIH 2013)

Figure 6-10
Air Systems
in a Typical
Laboratory

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The exhaust systems must remove air from the various containment devices and from
the laboratory itself. The exhaust systems must be controlled and operate in conjunction
with the supply system to maintain the required room pressure relationships with the sur-
rounding spaces and minimum air change rates within the laboratory. In a typical labora-
tory, seldom are all the exhaust devices in full operation at the same time. Energy
conservation and lower equipment capacities may be possible if the system can be sized
for the maximum simultaneous expected usage, allowing for some diversity. This can be
determined through consultations with the owner and research staff.
A laboratory space can have any combination of general (room and uncontaminated
exhaust sources) and contaminated air (hood, BSC, snorkel, glove box, etc.) exhaust:
• Only general exhaust
• Only contaminated air exhaust
• General and contaminated air exhaust

Application of the various exhaust points within a laboratory is dictated by the safety
and health codes and standards detailed in Chapter 4. As a review, fume hood exhaust is
typically required when dangerous, toxic, or carcinogenic materials are being handled or
used in such a manner as would be dangerous for human contact. BSCs are used for
safely working with materials contaminated with (or potentially contaminated with)
pathogens requiring a defined biosafety level (BSL) (BSLs are described in Biosafety in
Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories [CDC 2009]). Snorkels are used to remove
heat or nontoxic particles that may be generated from benchtop research equipment.
Unlike a chemical hood, a glove box is fully enclosed and is under negative or positive
pressure. Glove boxes are usually small units that have multiple openings in which arm-
length rubber gloves are mounted. The operator works inside the box by using these
gloves.
General exhaust is used for less toxic, less odorous substances and procedures, such
as chemical storage, experiment preparation, and cleanup. General exhaust is also used to
minimize the impact that heat-producing equipment (e.g., ovens) has on the occupant by
removing the heat prior to its introduction into the occupied space. Typically, canopy
hoods are used to remove heat or moisture generated by a specific research apparatus
(e.g., steam sterilizer) or process. Canopy hoods cannot contain hazardous fumes ade-
quately to protect the researcher.
The design and layout of an exhaust system for a laboratory facility is accomplished
through a series of steps:
1. Determine type of exhaust system.
2. Determine separation of exhaust system.
3. Accomplish duct layout and design.
4. Accomplish fume exhaust stack design.
5. Select fume exhaust fans.

DETERMINE TYPE OF EXHAUST SYSTEM

Criteria for fume hood control differ depending on the type of hood. The exhaust vol-
umetric flow is kept constant for standard, auxiliary air, and air-bypass fume hoods. In
VAV fume hoods, the exhaust flow is varied to maintain a constant face velocity as the
sash position changes. Selection of the fume hood control method should be made in con-
sultation with the health and safety officer.

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Constant air volume is required for specific systems (perchloric acid fume hoods,
radioisotope fume hoods, and Class 2 Type B BSCs) and is typically used in small instal-
lations with few hoods to simplify the installation and operation and to minimize the
required capital investment. These exhausts present unique challenges due to contamina-
tion control issues or large pressure drops across filters. It is standard practice to provide
separate hoods and ductwork for perchloric acid and radioisotope hoods. Biological con-
taminants are normally provided with a separate exhaust system due to high-efficiency
particulate air (HEPA) filtration requirements.
In the constant-volume exhaust system (see Figure 6-11), the volume of air exhausted
from a laboratory room or hood is constant regardless of sash position or activity within
the room. Typically, the constant airflow is an inherent characteristic of the exhaust hood.
Constant-volume fume hoods can be classified as either pressure-dependent or pres-
sure-independent systems. Although simple in configuration, the pressure-dependent sys-
tem is unable to adjust the damper position in response to any fluctuation in system
pressure across the exhaust damper. In a pressure-independent system, each exhaust
device is provided with an airflow control valve, or air valve. Figure 6-12 details the key
components of a generic airflow controller. See Chapter 11 for more information on con-
trol systems and components.
In larger systems and where operating costs need to be minimized, VAV systems are
applied (see Figure 6-13). Because the power required to exhaust the air is proportional to

Figure 6-11
Constant-
Volume
Laboratory
Ventilation
Control

(Courtesy of
Siemens Building
Technologies)

Figure 6-12
Generic
Airflow
Controller

(Courtesy of
Siemens Building
Technologies)

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Figure 6-13
VAV
Laboratory
Ventilation
Control

(Courtesy of
Siemens Building
Technologies)

the cube of the airflow (see Equation 6-1), it is often very economical to operate a VAV
exhaust system.

 Q new 3
P new = P old  ------------- (6-1)
 Q old 

where
P = fan power, hp (kW)
Q = fan flow rate, cfm (L/s)
new = new operating point
old = old operating point

The primary difference between constant-volume and VAV systems is that in the VAV
system each hood and space must have a flow controller attached to it and the fan must
have some form of flow control. Ideally, the fan flow control would be through the use of
a variable-speed drive (VSD) that is controlled to maintain a constant negative pressure at
some point in the exhaust ductwork (typically two-thirds of the way down the farthest
run). However, fans also have been installed to just “ride the fan curve.” While there will
be energy savings, the actual savings are approximately a third of what a VSD system
attains. To maintain required exhaust stack discharge velocities and effective stack height,
the controller may need to limit the speed reduction on the fan and open bypass dampers
at the fan intake plenum that allow outdoor air to mix with the building exhaust in order to
maintain.

DETERMINE SEPARATION OF EXHAUST SYSTEM

Exhaust systems within a building are separated for a number of reasons, including
the following:
• Incompatible or hazardous substances in the exhaust air
• Type of exhaust (constant versus variable)
• Location of exhaust requirements

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The key criterion for the separation of the exhaust systems is the types of substances
found in the exhaust air. Several exhaust sources can be combined if they are from similar
processes and classes of exhaust. For example, if all hoods within a facility are used for
the purpose of teaching general chemistry with similar levels and types of chemicals, then
the exhaust streams can be combined. However, the exhausts from BSL-1 and BSL-3 lab-
oratories, for example, should not be combined due to the different treatment and han-
dling procedures of the exhausts. A further consideration on whether two exhaust
airstreams can be mixed is if chemicals in the two streams will react with one another.
One such example is perchloric acid, a strong mineral acid commonly used as a labora-
tory reagent. Organic materials are highly likely to spontaneously combust if mixed with
or contacted by perchloric acid. Under some circumstances, perchloric acid vapors form
perchlorate salts in ductwork that can be flammable and highly explosive when subjected
to heat, impact, or reaction with other specific chemicals. If hot perchloric acid is used in
a vent system that does not have internal washdown capabilities, the salts can build up
over time in the hood, baffles, filters, fans, ducts, and exhaust stacks.
The second criterion, constant volume versus VAV, typically dictates the separation of
systems. The only time constant-volume and VAV exhaust streams are mixed is when the
constant-volume source has a flow controller installed in it. It is also common in larger
systems that the mixing of constant and variable airstreams is undesirable due to the use
of one or both of the streams in heat recovery or treatment prior to discharging from the
building.
The final criterion in determining the separation of exhaust systems is the physical
location of the exhaust points. As discussed in Chapter 4, the layout of service corridors,
or shafts, and mechanical rooms dictates which spaces and hoods can be physically
grouped together.
Fire codes typically require compartmentation of the laboratory into multiple “labora-
tory units” or “control areas” with fire separations between units to avoid exceeding the
limits on chemical storage and dispensing in excess of code limits on substances posing
physical and/or health hazards. Exhaust ducts from each laboratory unit must be sepa-
rately ducted to a point outside the building via fire-rated shafts. However, exhaust ducts
from laboratory hoods and other exhaust systems within the same laboratory unit may be
allowed to be combined within that laboratory unit.

ACCOMPLISH DUCT LAYOUT AND DESIGN

Typical Layouts
Fume hoods and BSCs can either be supplied with individual (dedicated) exhaust
fans or have their exhausts manifolded and connected to a central exhaust fan. Based on
the level of separation of systems, there are two typical layouts of exhaust systems in lab-
oratory facilities:
• Dedicated
• Manifolded

Dedicated Exhaust System

In a dedicated exhaust system, each hood is provided with a separate duct, exhaust
fan, and discharge stack (see Chapter 9). This type of exhaust system may be chosen due
to a requirement for special exhaust filtration or treatment systems for specific applica-
tions, special ductwork and exhaust fan corrosion control needs, provision for selected
emergency power backup, and simpler initial balancing.

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Several disadvantages associated with dedicated exhaust systems are notable. Main-
taining the correct flow at each exhaust fan requires periodic maintenance and balancing,
as well as consideration of the flow rates with the fume hood sash in various positions.
This arrangement also requires numerous roof penetrations and exhaust stacks, which can
result in higher initial and operating costs and may complicate design and space availabil-
ity in multistory applications. Also, a dedicated system can make the addition of hoods
and alteration of laboratories costly, both in initial installation and later renovations.
It is less complicated to apply dedicated exhaust systems to single-story laboratory
buildings. Exhaust fans dedicated to individual hoods are used to convey contaminated
exhaust directly to an exhaust stack on the roof of the laboratory building. Figure 6-14
shows an example of a single-story laboratory facility with multiple dedicated exhaust
systems.
In multistory buildings, the use of dedicated exhaust systems is more complicated since
each duct must end up discharging at the roof level. Therefore, mechanical chases (shafts)
must be provided to route the ductwork to the roof. Figure 6-15 details such a system.

Manifolded Exhaust System

The other option for the arrangement of hood exhaust is the use of manifolding. This
type of system works by joining several hood or BSC exhausts into a common exhaust
manifold, which is then routed to a single fan (or fan array) and discharge stack(s) on the
roof. This type of system typically has several advantages, including the following:
• Lower capital and operational costs
• Fewer exhaust stacks
• Lower redundancy costs
• Greater adaptability of design
• Simpler effluent treatment
• Dilution and momentum
• Reduction in total exhaust requirement due to diversity of fume hood use

Using the information previously presented on which hoods can be combined, the
layout of the exhaust system is simply a matter of convenience and location. Using the

Figure 6-14
Dedicated
Exhaust
Systems—
Single-Story
Building

(Reprinted with
permission from
Price Industries
[Price 2006])

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single-story and multistory examples from the dedicated system, Figures 6-16 and 6-17
detail the single-story and multistory layouts of a manifolded system.
A manifolded exhaust system can be classified as either pressure-dependent or pres-
sure-independent. Pressure-dependent systems (see Figure 6-18) must maintain a con-
stant exhaust volume by setting manual balancing dampers provided in the exhaust duct
connection to each exhaust device. A major disadvantage of this type of system is the
requirement to rebalance the entire system whenever an additional exhaust device is
added to the system.
The pressure-independent system (see Figure 6-19) may be constant volume, VAV, or
some combination of the two. Not only do pressure-independent systems have the flexi-
bility to add additional exhaust devices without rebalancing the entire system, but also
VAV control of the exhaust devices can be used and the exhaust fan size can be reduced
by accounting for some diversity of hood use.

Figure 6-15
Dedicated
Exhaust
Systems—
Multistory
Building

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Figure 6-16
Manifolded
Exhaust
System—
Pressure
Dependent

(Reprinted with
permission from
Price Industries
[Price 2006])

Figure 6-17
Manifolded
Exhaust
System—
Pressure
Independent

(Reprinted with
permission from
Price Industries
[Price 2006])

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Figure 6-18
Manifolded
Exhaust
System—
Single-Story
Building

(Labs21 2007)

Figure 6-19
Manifolded
Exhaust
System—
Multistory
Building

(Labs21 2007)

Duct Design
Duct Sizing
Laboratory exhaust duct airflow velocities and static pressures are dependent on
numerous aspects of the exhaust materials they are designed to handle. Higher levels of
pressure should be applied to laboratories that contain hazardous materials, such as BSL-2
and higher laboratories, to ensure containment. Lower levels of pressurization thus can be
used in such instances as teaching laboratories and low-level chemical laboratories. In

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terms of transport velocities within ducting, these are typically in the range of 1000 to
2000 fpm (5 to 10 m/s) depending on the need to ensure that deposits do not form. This is
particularly important in such applications as perchloric acid hood exhaust.
Duct Location
Duct mains should be located above the corridor outside the laboratory spaces, and
airflow control devices should be located as close to the corridor wall as practical within
the laboratory space being served when using volumetric offset control, in which the flow
measurement and control of the system takes place at the perimeter of the space. This
minimizes the exposure of the ducts upstream of the supply air terminals and downstream
of the exhaust air terminals for which leakage flow is not measured or controlled. When
both the supply and exhaust ducts cannot be located outside the laboratory space, locate
the supply duct outside the space and the exhaust duct above the space. This arrangement
allows exhaust duct leakage to help maintain the space under negative pressure. Other
ducts crossing through the ceiling space above the laboratory should be sealed to mini-
mize duct leakage, as this can affect space pressure relationships.
ACCOMPLISH FUME EXHAUST STACK DESIGN
Safe discharge of exhaust air that may contain harmful contaminants is a requirement
for all laboratory buildings. For adequate dilution of the exhaust, it must be discharged
either from a significant height or at a high vertical momentum. Detailed guidance on the
design of exhaust stacks is provided in Chapter 9.
The general characteristics of good fume exhaust stack design are as follows:
• Location away from outdoor air intakes, building entrances, and operable win-
dows
• Consideration of the prevailing and critical wind directions and wind speeds
(those likely to result in the highest concentrations at nearby intake locations)
• Sufficient plume rise

SELECT FUME EXHAUST FANS

With the fume exhaust ductwork and stack designed, the exhaust airflow and static
pressure losses can be calculated, and with these calculated, the exhaust fans can be
selected. However, the proper selection of fans for a specific application goes far beyond
just airflow and static pressure. Other items that must be considered include the follow-
ing:
• Location
• Construction
• Controls
• Reliability/Redundancy

Like the entire design process, the selection and application of an exhaust fan is an
iterative process, with each of the above criteria affecting one another.
Location
Although hazard levels vary within different types of laboratories, it is generally good
practice to locate the exhaust fan on the roof of the building or within a roof-mounted
penthouse enclosure. As is shown in Figure 6-20, the ductwork before the fume exhaust
fan inlet is negatively pressurized and after the exhaust fan discharge is positively pressur-
ized. Therefore, if the exhaust fan were to be located inside the building (below the roof
level), the primary concern would be the potential of exhaust air leaking from the posi-
tively pressurized discharge ductwork downstream of the exhaust fan.

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Figure 6-20
Exhaust Fan
Pressure
Relationships

Figure 6-21
Centrifugal Fan
Isometric

(ASHRAE
[2012a],
Chapter 21,
Figure 1)

Locating exhaust fans on the roof, however, has a direct impact on the type of fan that
can be used, because they must be able to withstand adverse weather conditions if located
outdoors. Noise (acoustic) problems should be considered if the fan is to be located inside
or outside the building.
Construction
The construction of a laboratory exhaust fan is dependent on several key criteria,
including the following:
• Fan type
• Pressure class
• Material composition
• Protective coating
• Special considerations

Fan Type
The three generally preferred types of laboratory fume exhaust fans used are centrifu-
gal, mixed-flow, and special-application fans. Centrifugal fans (see Figure 6-21) operate
by a centrifugal force that rotates the inlet air and moves it from inside to outside of an
impeller wheel. There is also kinetic energy imparted to the air by the virtue of the air’s
velocity leaving the impeller.

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Direct-drive, rather than belt-driven, fans are generally preferred for laboratory
exhaust systems because of their increased reliability, lower maintenance, and improved
energy efficiency. Belt failure is a major cause of failure of exhaust systems with belt-
drive fans. Major motor manufacturers’ rated fatigue life for bearings for belt-drive appli-
cations is a third of the life of a typical direct-drive fan (L-10 of 50,000 hours versus
150,000 hours), thereby decreasing reliability and increasing maintenance. ANSI/AIHA/
ASSE Z9.5 (AIHA 2012) requires stopping belt-drive fans on a monthly basis to check
belt tension, sheave wear, and belt wear. Belt-drive losses can be 3% to 8% for fans over
10 hp (7.46 kW) per AMCA Publication 203 (AMCA 2011). Because these fans typically
operate 24/7/365, the energy savings can be substantial for direct-drive fans.
For laboratory applications, centrifugal fans are very reliable, are easy to maintain,
can be applied to a wide range of requirements, and have good pressure-volume character-
istics. The three centrifugal fan types applied to laboratory systems are airfoil, backward
curved, and radial. Table 6-2 lists the application of each of these fans, and Figure 6-22
shows the general performance characteristics.
Mixed-flow fans can be provided for outdoor applications. Mixed-flow fans are often
used because the motor can be an integral part of the fan. Figure 6-23 shows a bifurcated
mixed-flow fan. In-line mixed-flow fans are more compact than side-inlet centrifugal
fans. A primary benefit of the mixed-flow fan is that it is located in line with the airstream
and is a more compact design. Additionally, this avoids the pressure losses of the 90° turn
required for centrifugal fans. The performance characteristics for a mixed-flow fan are
shown in Figure 6-24.
Special-application fans include laboratory induced draft fans and dilution fans.
Induced draft fans are used in perchloric acid fume hoods and other highly corrosive or
high-temperature applications to avoid damage to the fan components and facilitate main-
tenance. A perchloric acid exhaust fan system (see Figure 6-25) should be separate from
the laboratory’s fume hood exhaust system.
Dilution fans, which induce outdoor air and mix it with fume exhaust to dilute the
contaminants being exhausted, are designed as either centrifugal (Figure 6-26) or mixed-
flow (Figure 6-27). The fans have vertical discharge, are provided with a windband, and
may have a mixing intake plenum. [Link], a video showing how the air flows from
the building and mixes with outdoor air as it flows through an in-line mixed-flow induced
draft dilution fan, is available with this Guide at [Link]/LabDG courtesy of
Strobic Air Corporation. Because this type of fan is designed for outdoor application, the
ratio of outdoor air to indoor air is adjustable using a bypass air damper. These fans can
be designed in multiple sets and provided with sound attenuation. Fan exit velocities can
be as high as 7000 to 8000 fpm (35.6 to 40.6 m/s), creating greater plume rise than a con-
ventional fan operating at 3000 fpm (15.2 m/s), but this is done at the cost of higher
energy consumption.

Table 6-2 Fan Type Performance Characteristics Applications

Centrifugal Peak efficiency at 50% to 60% Low-, medium-, and high-pressure
Fan Type Airfoil maximum volume, with maximum applications with relatively clean
Application volume at peak efficiency exhaust air
Similar to but with lower efficiency Good for corrosive environment
(ASHRAE [2012a], Backward Curved
than airfoil design where airfoil could corrode
Chapter 21,
Table 1) Material handling with
Higher pressure characteristic high-pressure requirements—
Radial
but lower efficiencies rugged wheel is sometimes coated
and is simple to repair

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Figure 6-22
Centrifugal Fan
Performance
Characteristics
(Ptf = fan total
pressure, t =
mechanical
efficiency of Airfoil
fan, Wo =
power output
of fan)

(ASHRAE
[2012a],
Chapter 21,
Table 1)

Backward Curved

Radial

Figure 6-23
Direct-Drive In-
Line Bifurcated
Mixed-Flow Fan

(Courtesy of
Greenheck)

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Figure 6-24
Mixed-Flow
Fan
Performance

(ASHRAE [2012a],
Chapter 21,
Table 1)

Figure 6-25
Fan-Powered
Venturi
for Perchloric
Acid
Fume Hoods

(Reprinted with
permission from
MK Plastics
[2009])

Regardless of the fan type used, the fan must meet the requirements of the Air Move-
ment and Control Association International (AMCA) through ANSI/AMCA Standard
210|ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 51 (AMCA 2007) and those specified in NFPA 70:
National Electrical Code® (NFPA 2011). AMCA offers independent certified ratings for
fan performance (ANSI/AMCA Standard 210 [2007] and AMCA Publication 211
[2013a] for centrifugal and mixed-flow fans, ANSI/AMCA Standard 260 for dilution fans
[2013b], and ANSI/AMCA Standard 300 [2014] and AMCA Publication 311 [2010a] for
all fan type acoustics). AMCA certified ratings ensure independent third-party verifica-
tion of fan airflow and acoustic performance as well as fan energy consumption. Induced
Flow Fan Testing.mp4, a video that shows the operation of dilution fans as well as the
AMCA test methodology used to test and certify fan inlet airflows and total discharge air-
flows, is available with this Guide at [Link]/LabDG.

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Figure 6-26
Centrifugal
Induced Draft
Dilution Fan

(Reprinted with
permission from
Greenheck
[2012a])

Figure 6-27
In-Line
Mixed-Flow
Induced Draft
Dilution Fan

(Reprinted with
permission from
Greenheck
[2006])

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Pressure Class
The fan types previously discussed can easily be applied to low-, medium-, and high-
pressure exhaust systems. It is fairly common to have negative pressures in a laboratory
system ranging from –0.5 to –12 in. w.g. (0.13 to 3.0 kPa). As the negative pressure
increases, sturdier fans and ductwork are required. Higher system exhaust pressures and
flows require fans to be adequately constructed. This construction is categorized by fan
classes, which range from class I through class IV and are defined by AMCA standards.

Material Composition
The sturdiness of the exhaust fan and the corrosion resistance requirements determine
the material composition of the fan. To avoid corrosion problems from the contaminated
exhaust air or subsequent condensation, laboratory fans are often coated or constructed
using special materials, such as stainless steel, fiber reinforced plastic (FRP), polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), or chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC).

Protective Coating
In addition to the fan material, protective coatings are often added to increase the
fan’s service life and to reduce required maintenance and system downtime. In many
instances, the coatings are used on lower-cost fan materials (such as carbon steel) to avoid
the use of higher-cost materials (such as stainless steel).
If the exhaust has the potential to contain hazardous emissions, dispersion modeling
should be performed per ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5 (AIHA 2012) to avoid reentrainment
of pollutants into the building and to ensure the exhaust airstream is properly diluted prior
to reaching the ground, roof level, or other potentially occupied spaces. The dispersion
modeling can be used to identify the optimum stack placement, minimum stack height,
minimum exit velocity, and/or volume flow rate.

Special Considerations
There are additional construction considerations that are classified as “special”
because they are dependent upon each unique application. First is the use of a drainage
connection for the fan. Since the use of caps on exhaust stacks is not recommended due to
the adverse impact of the caps on dispersion of the exhaust air, the fan must have either an
integral drain installed in it or one installed in the discharge/suction of the fan (refer to
Chapter 45 of ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications [2015a]).
Second, in those cases where the lower explosive limit (LEL) of the exhaust airstream
is greater than 25%, nonsparking wheels and explosion-proof motors are required. The
AMCA spark-resistant standards, which depend upon the level of explosion hazard,
should be followed (AMCA 2010b). The fan construction requirements defined in these
standards are summarized as follows:
• Type A construction: Use of nonferrous material for all fan parts that are in con-
tact with the exhaust air. This is to ensure that any mechanical failure or move-
ment of the wheel will not cause a spark.
• Type B construction: Use of nonferrous material for the wheel and the ring that
the shaft of the fan passes through. This type of construction is suitable for most
applications.
• Type C construction: Construct fan in a manner so that any two ferrous parts of
the fan are unable to make contact. This type of construction is suggested for all
exhaust fan constructions for hoods.

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Note that FRP and PVC fans must include special graphite liners so that the fans can
be grounded (dissipate static charges) to meet the AMCA spark-resistant construction
standard (AMCA 2010b).
Third, the fan, fan housing, and exhaust stack must be designed and constructed to
withstand a wind load of at least 30 lb/ft2 (146 kg/m2). Good practice requires that the
exhaust stack be self-supported to avoid excessive loading on the fan housing (Wunder
2000). In hurricane-prone regions, the wind loads will be much higher and the fan com-
ponents exposed on the roof may also be required to resist the impact of wind-borne
debris. A licensed professional structural engineer should be consulted in such cases.
Serviceability of critical laboratory exhaust fans must be included in the design crite-
ria. The elimination of drive components such as couplings, belts, pillow block bearings,
and sheaves greatly reduces the maintenance service requirements of the equipment. In
addition, balancing the fan better than standard AMCA requirements will extend the life
of the motor bearings.
Side-inlet centrifugal fans used should be single width, single inlet (SWSI) AMCA
arrangement 1, 9, or 10 for belt drive and arrangement 8 or 4 for direct drive. In-line
mixed-flow fans should use bifurcated fan housings that isolate the fan drive components
from contaminated exhaust (AMCA arrangement 9 for belt drive and arrangement 2 or 4
for direct drive). These drive arrangements can aid in serviceability of drive components
without fan disassembly and access into a contaminated exhaust. AMCA arrangement 4
for centrifugal and mixed-flow fans direct-couples the fan wheel to the motor shaft, elim-
inating all other drive components, which adds to the reliability and life of the equipment,
greatly reduces maintenance cost, and reduces energy consumption (AMCA 2010c).

Controls

Although the hoods, ductwork, fans, and exhaust stacks are designed for peak operat-
ing conditions, it is the controls that maintain the safety and consistency of operation at
nonpeak conditions. For constant-volume systems, the controls turn equipment on and
off. There is no need for modulation of devices since the exhaust air volume is constant.
However, the need for proper controls is critical in VAV systems where the quantity
and velocity of exhaust air changes are based on fume hood sash position. For these sys-
tems, there are four key control loops that must be evaluated and integrated:
• Hood exhaust and other contaminated air
• General exhaust
• Fan control
• Exhaust stack velocity

Figure 6-28 shows a general control system layout for a VAV laboratory exhaust sys-
tem. The hood exhaust is controlled based on sash position to maintain a constant hood
face velocity. In the past, NFPA 45: Standard on Fire Protection for Laboratories Using
Chemicals (NFPA 2015) governed minimum hood flow requirements when the sash is
lowered and or closed. Since the 2011 edition, NFPA 45 refers to ANSI/AIHA/ASSE
Z9.5 as the sole guideline on hood minimum flow. In 2012, ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5
(AIHA 2012) was revised to change from a minimum airflow per unit length of hood
width or airflow per unit of bench area to a minimum hood flow rate related to the hood’s
volume and measured in terms of minimum hood air changes per hour (ACH). Although
no definitive rates are mentioned or required, a range of 150 to 375 ach (hood) is indi-
cated. For a typical 6 ft (1829 mm) bench type fume hood, these rates correspond to a
range of about 100 to 250 cfm (47 to 118 L/s).

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Figure 6-28
Typical
VAV Exhaust
Control
Components

(Reprinted with
permission from
Greenheck
[Rossi 2006])

Figure 6-29
Laboratory
Exhaust Fan
Bypass Air
Plenum

(Reprinted with
permission from
Greenheck
[Rossi 2006])

The general exhaust is controlled either to maintain a constant exhaust airflow quantity
or to track the hood exhaust flow. Typically, a constant volume is desired to maintain the
indoor air quality. The exhaust fan is controlled to maintain a constant negative pressure
within the exhaust air duct. This is required for the VAV controllers to function properly.
The final control component for many laboratory exhaust systems is the bypass air
damper on the exhaust fan system. With a constant-volume exhaust fan, the proper
amount of air feeding into the exhaust fan (see Figure 6-29) is maintained along with the
designed static pressure in the exhaust riser by opening and closing the bypass air damper

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Figure 6-30
Isolation and
Bypass
Dampers

(Reprinted with
permission from
Greenheck
[2012b])

as the laboratory exhaust air volume varies. With a VAV exhaust fan, the variability in the
laboratory exhaust air volumes is accounted for by similarly varying the speed of the
exhaust fans to maintain the design static pressure in the exhaust riser. When the labora-
tory exhaust volume flow rate is lower than the minimum required exhaust volume flow
rate for the exhaust stack, per code requirements or as determined by dispersion model-
ing, the bypass air dampers are then controlled to make up the difference. With either
exhaust fan system type, the location of the static pressure sensor is critical to preventing
the high velocities that are typically present in the exhaust air duct from disrupting the
static pressure measurement.
Another critical element is the proper sizing and selection of the bypass air damper to
avoid oversizing. In cases of multiple fans mounted on a common plenum (manifolded
exhaust), the bypass damper(s) must be sized to bypass the airflow capacity of the operat-
ing fan at the required static pressure of the system. The bypass damper is essentially
making up for the difference of airflow needed by the building and the requirements of
the fan to maintain exhaust outlet velocity and effective stack height. Due to acoustical
considerations internal and external to the building, the air velocity through the bypass
damper should be sized at a maximum of 3000 fpm (15.2 m/s) velocity at full bypass.
As with any VAV system, the sensors and controllers have a minimum airflow that is
required for stable and safe operation. This minimum flow is often described using the
turndown ratio defined in Equation 6-2:

minimum airflow
Turndown ratio = ------------------------------------------ 100 (6-2)
design airflow

A minimum turndown ratio of between 10% and 20% is recommended for most sys-
tems. For systems where precipitation of particles is a concern, the turndown ratio may be
as high as 50% to 80%.
Proper design and selection of the isolation and bypass air dampers is also critical for
system control and operation (refer to Figure 6-30). For more detailed information on the
control of laboratory HVAC systems see Chapter 11. For example, consider a two-fan lab-
oratory exhaust arrangement. With fan 1 running and fan 2 on standby and exhausting
laboratory effluent at 6 in. w.g. (1.5 kPa) static pressure, the differential pressure across
the closed isolation damper of fan 2 is 6 in. w.g. (1.5 kPa). Under a moderate to high dif-
ferential pressure, a commercial quality damper will have blades deflect, deform, and
bend, causing the damper to bind and not actuate properly. Additionally, there will be

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considerable air leakages across the damper and into the exhaust system, reducing con-
tainment and causing fan 2 (the standby fan) to spin backwards. With regard to isolation
damper control, the standby fan should be started and the damper actuator energized
simultaneously. Opening the isolation damper of fan 2 (the standby fan) without energiz-
ing fan 2 will reduce containment in the exhaust system, reduce the duct static pressure,
and potentially cause fan 2 (the de-energized fan) to spin backwards. If the fan is
equipped with a variable-frequency drive (VFD), the fan can be ramped up to a motor fre-
quency that is sufficient to maintain duct static pressure (but not so high as to damage the
isolation damper) prior to opening the isolation damper in order to minimize any disrup-
tion in the duct static pressure and avoid the possibility of the fan spinning backwards.
Isolation dampers should be designed and tested for operation at high differential pres-
sures (up to 15 in. w.g. [3.7 kPa]) and low leakage and corrosion-resistant construction.
Isolation dampers are typically parallel blade. Gravity backdraft dampers have high leak-
age rates at differential pressures and should not be used. An additional note about isola-
tion damper actuator power is that if the fans use soft starters or VFDs, the actuators
cannot be powered off the motor power wiring—separate actuator power must be pro-
vided.
Bypass dampers must be sized to bypass the required airflow equal to the laboratory
exhaust flow turndown (the variable laboratory exhaust volume) at design static and dif-
ferential pressures. If the bypass damper is too large, there will not be good flow modula-
tion control; if it is too small, the damper will not bypass the required air for turndown.
Additionally, since these dampers are sized for bypassing large volumes of air at a high
differential pressure, the dampers are typically small. The air velocities of bypass damp-
ers can be as high as 2000 fpm (10.2 m/s). Bypass air damper construction should be
equal to the isolation damper construction, but the bypass dampers should have opposed
blades for proper flow control.
Reliability/Redundancy
One of the more important issues in laboratory exhaust fan selection and design is the
reliability of the exhaust system. For the system to be 100% reliable, the system must be
operational 24 hours a day, every day of the year, per NFPA 45, which requires the labora-
tory to be ventilated whenever chemicals are present (NFPA 2015). Therefore, many crit-
ical laboratory facilities have redundant (backup) exhaust fans. ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5
requires at least two exhaust fans on manifolded systems (AIHA 2012). This provides
assurance of the safety and operability of the laboratory environment in case one or more
of the fans experiences a malfunction or requires maintenance. In such cases, fan down-
time can create an intake of outdoor air from the roof through the affected hoods’ exhaust
air ducts and cause great risks to personnel using those hoods.
Examples of fan system designs that improve reliability are direct-drive fans and mul-
tiple VFDs on direct-drive blowers. In terms of cost, redundancy and improved reliability
mean higher capital costs, particularly in cases where dedicated exhaust has been chosen
for the hoods. In addition, the redundant fan must be cycled into operation on a periodic
basis. Exhaust fans should not sit dormant for more than one month so that the fans will
be fully operational when required. In a VAV exhaust fan system, all fans, including the
redundant fan, can operate at reduced volume flow rates during normal operating condi-
tions as long as the system is designed such that there is sufficient capacity to meet the
laboratory airflow demand when one fan is off.
In addition to redundant fans, many laboratory facilities have backup power fuel-fired
engine generator sets so that the fans operate when electricity is not available from the
main utility grid. In general, as the hazard level increases, the need for a more reliable

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system increases. The higher reliability is achieved through better-quality materials and
equipment and the use of redundant components.

SUPPLY AIR SYSTEM

The primary role of the supply air system is to provide ventilation air to the labora-
tory space in sufficient quantities for the comfort and safety of the occupants, and in some
cases to meet environmental control requirements (pressure, temperature, and humidity)
of the particular type of research being conducted in the laboratory. It is the type of
exhaust air system (constant volume or VAV), the specific space pressure relationship
between the laboratory and adjacent spaces, the required indoor environmental condi-
tions, and the minimum “safe” air exchange rate that determine the type of supply air sys-
tem (constant volume or VAV) and the volume of supply air required.
With the exhaust system type already determined and the exhaust air duct system
designed, the design of the supply air system is simplified. It is common practice to match
the type of supply system with the exhaust system. Table 6-3 lists the possible arrange-
ments of exhaust and supply air systems that are commonly used.
Laying out the supply system is often a simple task, because it usually parallels the
exhaust system. As was determined during the planning phase (see Chapter 4), the distri-
bution option for ductwork layout is integral to the layout of both spaces and the building.
During the layout of ductwork, for both supply and exhaust, the primary concern is acces-
sibility for cleaning/decontamination and for maintenance of other systems (valves, pip-
ing, etc.).
With the type and layout determined, the design of the supply system focuses on the
central system and controls. The specific steps to follow are as follows:
1. Verify supply air quantity.
2. Select specific system type.
3. Evaluate need for auxiliary air supply.
4. Select air-handling unit (AHU).
5. Determine control strategy.

VERIFY SUPPLY AIR QUANTITY

Because laboratory hood exhaust air quantity is based on capture velocity and the
general exhaust air quantity is based on maintaining sufficient air exchange rates for
safety, the determination of the supply air quantity simply focuses on maintaining the
proper pressure (airflow direction) relationship. With a typical control error of ±5%, the
supply air quantity is often sized to be 10% greater than the exhaust air when the room
must be positively pressurized and 10% less than the exhaust air when the room must be

Table 6-3 Exhaust System Supply System Comments

Exhaust and Good combination—easily maintains pressure
Supply Air Constant volume
requirements but is energy intensive
Systems Constant volume Must be controlled to maintain pressure
VAV relationships; good for systems where exhaust
sources, such as fume hoods, are turned on and off
Excellent combination—supply controlled to
VAV
maintain pressure relationship
VAV
Do not use—will result in loss of pressure control
Constant volume
and serious problems

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negatively pressurized. In addition to the amount of air needed for controllability of offset
airflow, the engineer should evaluate the minimum amount of offset air required to main-
tain differential pressure across closed doors and other leakage paths into the space. In sit-
uations with poor construction and high levels of infiltration/exfiltration, this differential
may need to be increased to 15% or 20%. Thus, for pressure-controlled spaces, better air
conservation is achieved as the sealing of the room envelope is improved.
Once the supply air quantity for a laboratory space has been determined, its value
must be compared to the minimum ventilation rates. Minimum airflow rates for laborato-
ries are typically in the range of 6 to 10 ach; however, minimum airflow rates for some
spaces may be dictated by specific health and safety standards or internal facility policies.
This is especially critical for negatively pressurized spaces where the supply air volume is
less than the exhaust air volume. In these instances, if the air being drawn into the space is
not clean (from an adjacent laboratory), the supply and exhaust air volumes for the space
may need to be increased so that the proper ventilation air exchange rate is maintained.
The maximum airflow rate for the laboratory should be reviewed to ensure that the appro-
priate air delivery methods are chosen. A sample template that can be used to document
the proper exhaust and supply air rates is available in Chapter 3 as Table 3.1.

SELECT SPECIFIC SYSTEM TYPE

Depending on the distribution layout being used, the supply air system can either be
centrally located (central system) or can be located within the room (unitary system).
Either of these systems can be constant volume or VAV.
Central System
The specific type of central system selected is either constant volume or VAV. How-
ever, there are many options available in meeting the space requirements, including the
following:
• Constant-volume single-zone system
• Constant-volume multizone system
• Multispeed system
• VAV single-duct system
• VAV dual-duct system

The constant-volume system is the simplest system. A constant-volume single-zone

system serves a single space and produces hot or cold air from unit-mounted heating and
cooling coils as required to control the space temperature. A central multizone AHU serv-
ing multiple rooms or spaces supplies the same-temperature cool or neutral air to each
zone. Space temperature is then controlled using some form of reheat. Figure 6-31 details
a constant-volume terminal reheat system. This system produces chilled air at the AHU
and uses duct-mounted hot-water or electric reheat coils for zone control.
In an effort to reduce operating costs while still maintaining the capital-cost benefits
of a central system, multizone constant-volume systems are often used. These systems
divide the space into two or more zones (often called dual-zone systems or multizone sys-
tems, respectively). In a multizone system, the central AHU has two or more coil “decks”
where heating and cooling can be individually supplied to each zone. Figure 6-32 is a
schematic of a central multizone AHU with hot, cold, and neutral decks, and Figure 6-33
is a schematic of a system layout showing the zone air distribution.
Typically, a multizone system has a cooling and heating coil providing cool or heat.
Since it is very inefficient to mix mechanically cooled or heated air, the cooling coil is
turned off during the heating season and unconditioned air is bypassed through the cool-

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Figure 6-31
Constant-
Volume
Terminal
Reheat
System

(McDowall 2007)

Figure 6-32
Central
Triple-Deck
Multizone AHU

(Reprinted with
permission from
Texas A&M
University Energy
Systems
Laboratory
[Joo et al. 2008])

Figure 6-33
Multizone
Constant-
Volume
System

(Courtesy of
Johnson
Controls)

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ing coil. The heating coil is then turned off during the cooling season. A way to be able to
provide either cooling or heating to a space is to install a bypass section where either
cooled air and bypass air or heated air and bypass air is supplied to the space. However,
the main problem with multizone systems in laboratories is that any bypass air is uncondi-
tioned outdoor air. This results in poor comfort control in the occupied spaces due to lack
of humidity control. Therefore, care must be taken in the design and control of multizone
systems in laboratories. Additional information on the design and application of single-
zone and multizone systems can be found in Chapter 4 of ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC
Systems and Equipment (ASHRAE 2012a).
A hybrid between a constant-volume and a VAV system is a multispeed system. In
this system, the ductwork is the same as for a single-zone constant-volume system, with
the central fan having the ability to operate at multiple speeds/airflows. The supply fan is
typically controlled based on the status of the exhaust systems, decreasing its speed as the
exhaust systems shut down. With the cost of VSDs and systems decreasing, the use of
multispeed systems is infrequent.
Because of the superior energy performance and greater control flexibility, most labo-
ratory systems are designed as VAV systems. In VAV systems, the central system provides
and conditions air to all spaces. At each space is a terminal unit (air valve) that varies the
volume of air to the space to meet thermal comfort, pressurization, hood makeup, and
minimum ventilation requirements. When excess air must be provided to the space for
pressurization or ventilation requirements, the air must be reheated to maintain comfort.
Figure 6-34 shows a schematic of a typical laboratory VAV system.
The two primary types of VAV systems are single-duct and dual-duct. The single-duct
VAV system is the traditional system in which conditioned air is supplied to each space in
varying quantities through an air terminal unit. The terminal unit (typically referred to as
an air valve or VAV box) is simply a flow sensor, damper, and reheat coil mounted in a
sheet metal box with controls. Figure 6-35 illustrates a single-duct VAV system. The sin-
gle-duct VAV system is simple to design and construct, and it probably has the lowest first
cost of the supply systems available. Accurate and stable room temperature control is
possible, and the system has the design advantage of being easier to modify in a remodel

Figure 6-34
Typical
Laboratory
VAV System

(Labs21 n.d.)

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than some other designs. However, this kind of system uses a great amount of energy. In
using the flow sensors provided with the typical VAV terminal unit, the engineer must
consider the minimum-flow-reading accuracy of the flow sensor and the pressure trans-
ducer when using volumetric offset control. Most manufacturers have a minimum veloc-
ity that must be maintained across the sensor to maintain the velocity pressure
amplification factor (typically two or three times the actual velocity pressure) on the sen-
sor. Thermal dispersion sensors can improve the accuracy and turndown capability of the
system.
A dual-duct VAV system uses two supply air ducts—a hot duct and a cold duct.
Instead of having a reheat coil as in a single-duct system, which is energy intensive, the
dual-duct terminal units mix hot and cold air to deliver the correct temperature air to each
space as required to meet thermal comfort conditions. Dual-duct VAV systems can be
very energy efficient. However, special attention must be given in selecting and maintain-
ing the two box dampers to minimize leakage of hot or cold air through a closed damper.
Further, there must be sufficient space to lay out two parallel duct runs for the hot and
cold ducts. The cost of a dual-duct system is typically significantly higher than that of a
single-duct system, primarily due to the additional ductwork required. Figure 6-36 illus-
trates a typical dual-duct VAV system.
Unitary System
In contrast to central systems, unitary systems use individual AHUs to provide condi-
tioning for each laboratory space. Unitary systems are used for several reasons, such as
the following:
• Large laboratories
• Isolation of laboratories
• Limited duct distribution space
• To reduce fan energy

As the sizes of individual laboratories increase, there is a point when it is more eco-
nomical and simpler to install separate air systems for each laboratory. A simple example
is that of cleanrooms in industrial and pharmaceutical industries. There is also a need for

Figure 6-35
Single-Duct
VAV System

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Figure 6-36
Typical
Dual-Duct
VAV System

Figure 6-37
Typical
Unitary
System
Layout

unitary systems when spaces must be physically isolated from one another. This is the
case when dealing with highly toxic and dangerous substances in biological laboratories.
Another typical reason unitary systems are installed is a lack of duct distribution space.
Since the exhaust air ductwork takes precedence, when there is limited space, the supply
and outdoor air ductwork often must be contained within the laboratory space, as shown
in Figure 6-37. Because unitary systems provide heating and cooling directly to labora-
tory spaces, the need for inefficient reheating systems is greatly reduced. Unitary systems
allow the ventilation system to supply only the tempered air required for minimum venti-
lation and makeup air for exhaust devices, which reduces the fan energy required.

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Similar to central systems in nearly all aspects, unitary systems are sized to meet the
specific requirements of each laboratory and can offer immense adaptability. They can
also be operated using constant-volume or VAV control methods to match the exhaust
control. However, unitary systems do have a number of drawbacks. The primary draw-
back is that each unitary system must have access to outdoor air. This often requires a
separate outdoor air intake louver (envelope penetration) for each system. This often
eliminates the potential for central, economical heat reclaim and air treatment. Another
drawback is that chilled- and hot-water piping connections must be made to each system.
This can be a substantial cost increase.
Finally, in some situations, the unitary system cannot be physically located within the
laboratory space but must be in a separate mechanical room. Because of the need for
accessibility for maintenance, a separate mechanical room for each unitary system will
significantly increase the size of the building or significantly reduce the size of the labora-
tories. Biological, clinical, and animal research laboratories typically do not allow place-
ment of the unitary system within the laboratory due to concerns for possible system
contamination from the experiments (system and ductwork upstream of supply fan under
a negative pressure). Also, if the unitary system is located either above the space or adja-
cent to the space, significant noise may be generated and must, therefore, be controlled.
With the growing concern over reducing laboratory energy use, there has been a
resurgence in the application of unitary systems coupled with a dedicated outdoor air sys-
tem (DOAS) for laboratories in which minimum air change rates are not the primary
determinant of the supply airflow. If the required laboratory outdoor air is significantly
less than the required supply air, then coupling a DOAS unit with local recirculation type
unitary units can potentially save a significant amount of fan energy. This type of system
has seen growing popularity in the application of fan-coil units, fan-powered induction
units, and active and passive beams. Capital costs for these types of systems can some-
times be significantly higher than those for traditional VAV systems because of the
increased amount of piping and the coils at each zone.
Active and passive beams, often referred to as chilled beams, are a technology devel-
oped more than 30 years ago in Scandinavia that have become popular in Europe and are
beginning to make inroads in the United States. This technology allows the majority of
the sensible cooling load to be removed at the room level, which decentralizes the cool-
ing. In other words, the sensible cooling load is transferred from the chilled-water coil in
the central AHU to the chilled beam suspended from the ceiling in the laboratory space.
Additionally, since the amount of air supplied by the AHU is reduced, the ductwork main
and branch sizes can be reduced.
The beams come in several forms, including active beams, passive beams, two-pipe
beams, four-pipe beams, and custom units integral with the room lights. Active beams
(see Figure 6-38) cool the room air through induction by running primary air (from air
handlers) through air nozzles across the coils. Most of the air (secondary or induced air)
comes from the room itself and therefore uses very little primary air, making the duct-
work smaller. This system is beneficial when there is a limited floor-to-ceiling height.
Passive beams (see Figure 6-39) are similar to active beams; however, they do not use
any primary air. This type of beam functions solely on induction moving the air around
the room with natural-convection loops. As hot air rises and passes through the cooling
coil of the chilled beam, it cools and drops back down, creating a natural convection loop.
A two-pipe beam is a cooling-only unit. A four-pipe beam is a cooling and heating
unit. Both two- and four-pipe beams can be either active or passive. Chilled beams pro-
vide the ability to have individual thermal comfort control for each room. Each space can
have its own thermostat that controls a chilled- and hot-water modulating control valve

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Figure 6-38
Active Beam

(Labs21 2009)

Figure 6-39
Passive Beam

(Labs21 2009)

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serving the beam’s air induction unit. To avoid condensation from the cooling coil in the
space, the chilled water must be supplied at a temperature a couple of degrees higher than
the space dew-point temperature. Typically, this falls within the range of 57°F to 62°F
(13.9°C to 16.7°C).
EVALUATE NEED FOR AUXILIARY AIR SUPPLY
Because of the high volume of air being exhausted through laboratory hoods relative
to the volume of supply air required for comfort, methods have been developed to mini-
mize the volume of conditioned air supplied to the laboratory. The basic principle is that
unconditioned or less-conditioned (tempered) air is supplied near the face of the hood
with the expectation that this tempered air will be directly exhausted and not impact the
space conditions. Therefore, the amount of conditioned room air exhausted by the hood is
reduced. For laboratory systems, this strategy is called auxiliary air.
While each laboratory hood manufacturer designs its auxiliary air systems slightly
differently, auxiliary air is typically introduced above the hood opening or along the sides
of the hood opening. The required supply volume of conditioned and ventilation air is
reduced up to 70% in auxiliary air supply systems, where a constant-speed blower is used
to pull in a constant supply of outdoor air.
Tempering Only
Since the auxiliary air is directly exhausted, it is either 1) unconditioned, filtered outdoor
air or 2) tempered, filtered outdoor air. Tempering is used to avoid cold drafts on the user of
the laboratory hood when the outdoor air temperature falls below about 60°F (15.6°C).
The heating of the outdoor air is typically accomplished by a central system using
steam, hot water, direct-fired natural gas, or some combination of the these. Often, multi-
ple direct-fired natural gas makeup air units are used for their simplicity and low capital
cost. A summary of auxiliary air heating options is given in Table 6-4.
Effects on Humidity and Latent Loads
The primary concern with auxiliary air systems is the impact that unconditioned or
tempered air may have on occupant comfort within the laboratory space. When designed
properly, the auxiliary air should not mix with the fully conditioned air in the occupied
space. However, in improperly designed or operated systems, introduction of the auxiliary
air into the occupied space may increase the space humidity through an increase of the
space latent load. The result is an increase in occupant discomfort due to a clammy, sticky
perception of the skin. Therefore, to avoid adverse comfort effects, the auxiliary air must
be supplied directly to the laboratory hood and not have a chance to mix with the occu-
pied space air. Despite the possibility of occupant discomfort, about a 50% reduction in
conditioning costs is often worth evaluating the application of auxiliary air systems.
The effect of introducing the auxiliary air into the space can be determined by a psy-
chrometric analysis of the system. This is accomplished by using a psychrometric chart

Table 6-4 Heat Sources Benefits Drawbacks

Auxiliary Air Must properly size coil and
Heating Steam Simple and economical steam trap to avoid freezing
Options at part loads
Typically is not used when
Good part-load control
Hot water outdoor air temperature is
characteristics
below 32°F (0°C)
Direct-fired natural gas Can be easily added to systems

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Figure 6-40
Auxiliary Air
Impact on
Space
Conditions

and comparing the supply airstream/auxiliary airstream mixed-air condition with the
room air. Figure 6-40 shows an example of such an analysis.
In addition to the problems related to the thermal condition of auxiliary air, the sys-
tem itself presents some engineering challenges. The auxiliary air must be of reasonably
uniform velocity across the discharge area. Balancing the two separate supply air systems
for the laboratory can be another engineering challenge. Auxiliary air fume hoods reduce
the amount of energy and operating costs used to condition makeup air. However, they do
not reduce fan energy consumption because they do not change the amount of exhaust air.
Additional considerations of some of the drawbacks of implementing such a system, such
as adverse impact on experiments, are discussed in Chapter 5. VAV or reduced-airflow
systems are better designs used now in lieu of the older auxiliary air design.
ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5 (AIHA 2012) discourages the use of auxiliary air fume
hoods. In summary, the following difficulties and installation criteria are associated with
auxiliary air fume hoods:
• The auxiliary air supply must be introduced outside the fume hood to maintain
appropriate velocities past the researcher.
• The flow pattern of the auxiliary air must not degrade the containment perfor-
mance of the fume hood.
• Auxiliary air must be conditioned to avoid blowing cold air on the researcher;
often the air must be cooled to maintain the required temperature and humidity
within the hood. Auxiliary air can introduce additional heating and cooling
loads in the laboratory.
• Only a vertical sash should be used in the hood.
• Controls for the exhaust, auxiliary, and supply airstreams must be coordinated.
• Additional coordination of utilities during installation is required to avoid spa-
tial conflicts caused by the additional duct system.
• Humidity control can be difficult. Unless auxiliary air is cooled to the dew point
of the specified internal conditions, there is some degradation of humidity con-
trol; however, if such cooling is done, the rationale for using auxiliary air has
been eliminated.

SELECT AIR-HANDLING UNIT

The selection of an AHU, whether central, unitary, or auxiliary, is the same as for a
typical nonlaboratory application. The uniqueness with the selection for laboratories is
that 100% outdoor air is required. Therefore, special consideration must be given to the

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Figure 6-41
Typical AHU

selection of the heating and cooling coils, filtration, and fans. A typical layout for an
AHU is shown in Figure 6-41.
Heat recovery systems are discussed in detail in Chapter 10. Once through the heat
recovery system, if present, the air is filtered, heated or cooled, humidified or reheated,
then supplied to the individual spaces. The role of the AHU is to take the supply air at
varying conditions and condition it to a consistent setpoint. Inlet air can range from very
dry and cold to very hot and humid. In this section, selection and sizing of each of the
main components for laboratory AHUs are discussed.

Filtration

The treatment and filtration of outdoor air is discussed in detail in Chapter 8. In gen-
eral, unless there is potential reentrainment of exhaust air or the outdoor air is highly pol-
luted, treatment of the outdoor air is limited to filtration of particles.
Filtration of the outdoor air is meant to protect the air-conditioning systems (clean
coils, ductwork, etc.) and to protect the processes/experiments located in the laboratory
space. Therefore, the level of filtration required for a laboratory is typically determined
by the use of the laboratory. Table 6-5 summarizes the possible filtration levels typically
used in laboratories.
While higher filtration is often desirable, there is a trade-off between better filtration
and higher filter and operating costs. The operating costs increase with filter efficiency
due to higher filter pressure drops and subsequent fan energy increase. In addition, when
selecting and designing the filtration system, several criteria must be evaluated:
• Eliminate moisture carryover. Because filters collect and hold dust, dirt, and
pollen, the introduction of moisture into filters can result in the growth of fungi
and mold. To avoid this, any visible moisture from the outdoor air must be elim-
inated. The primary concern is carryover of rainwater through the outdoor air
intake.
• Loading pressure effect. As a filter is used, it becomes loaded with materials.
This results in an increase in the pressure drop across the filters. The effect of
the increase in pressure drop from clean to fully loaded on the system airflow
must be addressed. This is of primary concern in constant-volume systems but
can also be deleterious in VAV systems if not addressed.
• Filter bypass. The typical construction of the rack holding the filters allows for
some bypass. Consideration of the rack design must be done to avoid any
bypassing of the filters.
• Maintenance. To ensure laboratory operations and system integrity are not com-
promised, adequate access and safety requirements for servicing and testing of
the filters must be addressed during the design.

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Table 6-5
Laboratory Filtration Options
Composite Average
Particle Size Efficiency*, % Average
MERV in Size Range, μm Arrestance, Application Notes
Rating
Range 1 Range 2 Range 3 %
0.30–1.0 1.0–3.0 3.0–10.0
Used to extend life of
7 n/a n/a 50  E3 < 70 n/a Prefilter
higher-efficiency filters
Office, nonlaboratory Prefilter typically
11 n/a 65  E2 < 80 85  E3 n/a
spaces not required
13 E1 < 75 90  E2 90  E3 n/a General laboratory Minimum efficiency
Biological and clinical Sometimes used as
15 85  E1 < 95 90  E2 90  E3 n/a
laboratories final filters
Animal and
HEPA filters used as
>17 n/a n/a n/a n/a biomedical research
final filters
and cleanrooms
Used when outdoor air
— n/a n/a n/a n/a Gas-phase filtration
is polluted
MERV = minimum efficiency reporting value
HEPA = high-efficiency particulate air
* ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 52.2 (ASHRAE 2012b) defines twelve particle size ranges that are placed in three larger groups according to the
following schedule: ranges 1–4 (or E1, which is 0.3 to 1.0 μm), ranges 5–8 (or E2, which is 1.0 to 3.0 μm), and ranges 9–12 (or E3, which is 3.0
to 10.0 μm). Averaging the composite minimum efficiency (CME) for each of these groups will calculate the average particle size efficiency
(PSE), and the resulting three percentages (E1, E2, E3) are then used to determine the MERV.

Filtration for the air supply depends on the requirements of the laboratory. Conven-
tional chemistry and physics laboratories commonly use minimum efficiency reporting
value (MERV) 11-13 filters (ASHRAE 2012b). Biological and biomedical laboratories
usually require MERV 13-15 filtration. HEPA filters should be provided for spaces where
research materials or animals are particularly susceptible to contamination from external
sources. HEPA filtration of the supply air is necessary for such applications as environ-
mental studies, studies involving specific pathogen-free research animals or nude mice,
dust-sensitive work, and electronic assemblies. In many instances, BSCs or laminar-flow
clean benches (which are HEPA filtered) may be used rather than HEPA filtration for the
entire laboratory.

Heating and Cooling Coils and Humidification

The purpose of the heating and cooling coils and humidification is to provide a con-
sistent temperature/humidity supply air to the space. The actual sizing of the components
is no different than any other application. However, because of the higher than normal
capacities (temperature/humidity differentials) in laboratory applications, there are a few
key selection guidelines that should be followed:
• Design conditions. Design the heating coil and system for the absolute lowest
temperature expected to ensure that the coil does not freeze. If hot water is used
as the heating medium, adding glycol to the desired concentration to avoid
freezing may be desirable in some climates. Since laboratory air handlers typi-
cally condition 100% outdoor air, the engineer should investigate both the peak
sensible cooling and dehumidification loads to see which is higher. In warm and
humid climates, the peak dehumidification condition may be more critical (Har-
riman et al. 1997).

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Figure 6-42
Plenum Fan
Array

(Courtesy of
Greenheck)

• Cooling coil cleaning. Due to the high latent loads, the cooling coil depth in a
laboratory is typically at least eight rows. To simplify maintenance and conden-
sate management, it is recommended that the cooling coil be split into two or
more sections. This can be two six-row coils or a similar combination to make
cleaning the coils easier. An access section, of at least 18 in. (457 mm) and pref-
erably 24–36 in. (610–914 mm), must be left between all coils to facilitate
cleaning.
• Cooling coil face velocity. To avoid carryover of condensate from the cooling
coil to the supply air, the cooling coil face velocity should not exceed 500 fpm
(2.5 m/s). In situations with high condensate levels, a maximum face velocity of
400 fpm (2.0 m/s) is recommended.
• Humidification. Sufficient space upstream and downstream of humidifiers is
required to obtain even flow distribution and avoid condensation of moisture on
ductwork or supply fans. In some applications (cleanrooms, hospitals) the
humidifier must be located upstream of the final filters.

Supply Air Fan Types

Types of fans used for supply are not very different from fans for exhaust. There is no
need for special protective coating of these fans, as the supplied air is not as contaminated
as the exhaust air. However, in certain laboratory settings such as cleanrooms, where the
supply air is HEPA filtered, there will be a need for more powerful fans to force the air
through these filters. There also may be a requirement to provide multiple fans for redun-
dancy. Increasingly fan arrays, also called fan walls, using multiple direct-driven plenum
fans (also called plug fans) with VFDs are used to meet this goal (see Figure 6-42).

DETERMINE CONTROL STRATEGY

Details on the selection and application of control strategies for air-handling systems
are contained in Chapter 11.
Air Quality
The supply air system plays a key role in determining the air quality and comfort of
the conditioned laboratory space. The key aspects in which the AHU directly affects the
indoor air quality (IAQ) are as follows:

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• Filters. The filters primarily determine the cleanliness of the supply air from a
particulate contamination viewpoint. However, the filters can also be a site of
fungal and mold growth if moisture is present. Consideration should then be
given to application of air purification technologies such as ultraviolet germi-
cidal irradiation (UVGI). If removal of outdoor pollutants is a concern, gas-
phase filtration (e.g., using activated carbon or potassium permanganate) may
also be required.
• Cooling coil. If dirt is present on the coils or the condensate pan is not sloped to
drain properly, mold and fungi can grow in these locations, compromising the
IAQ. Again, UVGI or another form of treatment may be in order.
• Humidifier. Improper placement or maintenance of the humidifier can result in
standing water in the ductwork or downstream wetting and subsequent fungal
and mold growth.
• System integrity. Poor integrity of the AHU (due to air leakage) between the fil-
ters and the supply fan can result in unfiltered or conditioned air moving into the
system. Poor integrity downstream of the AHU due to excessive duct leakage or
inadequate duct insulation can result in inadequate capacity to condition the lab-
oratory space or condensation and subsequent fungal and mold growth on duct-
work or the building components.

DUCT CONSTRUCTION
Duct construction is an important aspect of the HVAC system in any building, but it is
especially important in laboratories. This is due to the hazardous nature of the materials
contained in the exhaust airstreams and the high energy use of laboratory HVAC systems
to condition and move large volumes of nonrecirculated air. Duct construction for labora-
tories includes general parameters that are common to all types of buildings and duct
material selection and application.

GENERAL PARAMETERS
In the construction of ductwork for laboratories, several parameters are universal.
These primarily deal with specifications established by the Sheet Metal and Air Condi-
tioning Contractors’ National Association (SMACNA) that pertain to almost all ductwork
of any building type. They include such things as the following:
• Duct fabrication
• Duct system components
• Performance testing
• Duct material selection and application

Duct Fabrication
As do all types of buildings, laboratories require dimensional stability in the ductwork
to prevent shape deformation and maintain the strength of the ductwork. Dimensional sta-
bility for laboratories is especially important, as laboratories may require higher than nor-
mal velocities in the exhaust ductwork to keep contaminants suspended in the airstream.
A ductwork shape that deforms can create additional pressure losses, cause the air veloc-
ity to decrease, and increase the fan energy required for air transport. Also, frequent and
repeated shape deformation can cause fatigue and reduce the strength of the ductwork.
Containment of the airstream (by minimizing ductwork leakage) is needed in labora-
tories, as in other types of buildings, to minimize energy losses from conditioning and
moving of the air that leaks and to provide the desired room conditions. Additionally, lab-

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oratories must minimize ductwork leakage to control the spread of hazardous contami-
nants that are contained in the exhaust airstream, as this could result in the reintroduction
of hazardous materials into the occupied and mechanical equipment spaces in the labora-
tory building. Also, ductwork leakage should be minimized for the supply ductwork, as
considerable energy (due to the larger fans needed to overcome the pressure drop of high-
efficiency filters) can be lost when conditioned 100% outdoor air or highly filtered supply
air is not delivered to the desired spaces.
Ductwork should be tested to confirm that the specified leakage rates have been
attained. Leaks from positive-pressure exhaust ductwork can contaminate the building, so
they must be kept to a minimum. Designs that minimize the amount of positive-pressure
ductwork are desirable. All positive-pressure ductwork should be of the highest possible
integrity. The exhaust fan discharge should connect directly to the vertical discharge stack.
Careful selection and proper installation of airtight flexible connectors at the exhaust fans
are essential. Some engineers prefer that flexible connectors be used on the exhaust fan
inlet only. If flexible connectors are used on the discharge side of the exhaust fan, they
must be of high quality and included on a preventative maintenance schedule, because a
connector failure could result in the leakage of hazardous fumes into the equipment room.
Another viewpoint contends that the discharge side of the exhaust fan should be hard-con-
nected to the ductwork without the use of flexible connectors. The engineer should evalu-
ate these details carefully. The potential for vibration and noise transmission must also be
considered. Machine rooms that house exhaust fans should be ventilated to minimize
exposure to exhaust effluent (e.g., leakage from the shaft openings of exhaust fans).
As with all ductwork, laboratory ductwork exposure to damage needs to be mini-
mized. Types of damage include exposure to weather, wind forces and windborne debris,
seismic forces, temperature extremes, corrosive atmospheres, and biological contamina-
tion. As laboratory exhaust systems may frequently be exposed to corrosive chemicals,
biological materials, and temperature extremes, the materials used to construct the duct-
work should be selected to withstand exposure to the conditions and contaminants that
will be present in the laboratory.
Ductwork support includes both hangers for horizontal sections and supplemental
structural framing for vertical riser sections. There are various methods available for
hanging ductwork in buildings, including laboratory buildings. Hangers consist of three
components: the upper attachment to the building structure, the hanger itself, and the
lower attachment to the ductwork. Hangers with a maximum spacing of 8 to 10 ft (2.4 to
3 m) typically can support ductwork, although the weight limits for the individual hangers
must be considered. Wide ducts typically require closer spacing of hangers to reduce the
load on the individual hangers. Ductwork risers should be supported by steel angles or
channels fastened to the sides of the duct with welds, bolts, sheet metal screws, or rivets.
When fastening supports to the ductwork, caution must be used for ducts greater than
30 in. (762 mm) wide, as the internal pressure of the duct may cause expansion, which
could tear fasteners out of the duct material. Riser supports should be provided at one- or
two-story intervals (e.g., every 12 to 24 ft [3.7 to 7.3 m]). As with other building compo-
nents, ductwork construction, hangers, and risers should follow appropriate seismic and
wind restraint requirements as applicable for the location of the laboratory. Typically,
seismic and wind restraint for ductwork involves using some form of vibration isolation
or increased strength materials for the hanger and riser supports of the ductwork. For
additional information on seismic and wind restraint design, see Chapter 55 of ASHRAE
Handbook—HVAC Applications (2015a).
The thermal conductivity of ductwork should always be considered, both for supply
and exhaust air systems. During cooling, heat gain needs to be minimized for supply air

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ductwork so that sufficient cooling capacity can be delivered to the desired conditioned
laboratory spaces. Similarly, heat loss from supply air ductwork must be minimized dur-
ing heating to provide sufficient capacity to maintain the desired space temperature. Dur-
ing cooling, condensation can form on supply air ductwork that has a high thermal
conductivity (e.g., uninsulated steel ductwork). For exhaust systems, protecting against
heat loss and condensation on the interior of the ductwork are important considerations
for laboratories. Heat loss through exhaust ductwork, which primarily is used to remove
heat from equipment and heat-producing chemical reactions, can increase the temperature
of surrounding spaces and increase the cooling load. Condensation can form on the inside
of exhaust ductwork if the exhaust air has a high amount of water/chemical vapors in it
and the exhaust air is cooled significantly by the surrounding air.
SMACNA (2005) defines seven static pressure classes for ductwork: 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6,
and 10 in. w.g. (0.12, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.5 kPa). Each class of ductwork is for
static pressures above the previous class and up to the number designating the class. For
example, 2 in. w.g. (0.50 kPa) ductwork is for ductwork with a static pressure greater than
1 in. w.g. (0.25 kPa) up to 2 in. w.g. (0.50 kPa). For static pressures up to 0.5 in. w.g.
(0.12 kPa), 0.5 in. w.g. (0.12 kPa) ductwork would be used. For each size of ductwork
within a given pressure class, a minimum duct wall thickness, joint specification, and
reinforcement specification are provided (SMACNA 2005). HVAC design drawings
should identify each class of ductwork being used.
Duct systems used for perchloric acid fume hoods are seam-welded Type 316L stain-
less steel, FRP, PVC, or CPVC and generally vertical. Duct systems used in high-contain-
ment biological laboratories (BSL-3 and BSL-4 laboratories) should have completely
sealed joint construction to facilitate gas decontamination (Wunder 2000).
Duct System Components
For new construction, all air-handling ducts and plenums installed as part of a labora-
tory HVAC air distribution system should be thermally insulated in accordance with
ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 (ASHRAE 2013a), while existing buildings should
meet the requirements of ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 100 (ASHRAE 2015b). Due to
the large amount of nonrecirculated air used in laboratories, it may be economically feasi-
ble to use more insulation for laboratory ductwork than the minimum values required by
the applicable standards. Additional insulation and vapor retarders may be needed to limit
vapor transmission and condensation. The selection of insulation determines the heat gain
or loss from the ductwork, which impacts the supply air quantities, supply air tempera-
tures, and coil loads. Therefore, to ensure that the required conditions for the laboratory
are met, it is important to verify that the insulation requirements selected during the
design phase are correctly implemented during construction.
Various sound-control devices are available to minimize the noise created by the air
distribution system. First, a vibration isolator can be used to support the supply or exhaust
fan that serves the section of ductwork. Fan flexible fabric connectors should be used
when the fan is connected to the ductwork. When fan vibration rates are held to a mini-
mum level through dynamic and static balancing, vibration isolators and flexible connec-
tions may be eliminated. Flexible connections are a maintenance item that must be
replaced, as the fabric deteriorates and leaks form. Also on exhaust systems, the fabric
duct is pulled into the airstream, reducing the effective area of the duct. This can create
system effect issues with the exhaust fan. Vibration isolators are also used to support air
terminal units, to connect the outlets of AHUs and terminal units to ductwork, and some-
times to support the ductwork itself, especially for ductwork located near a fan. Other
sound-control methods are also available, such as sound attenuators, duct linings, and

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sound enclosures. Care should be taken when using duct linings so they are not exposed
to moist airstreams, and they should typically not be used in exhaust airstreams because
of their potential to trap harmful contaminants.
One very important difference between laboratory and typical commercial building
ductwork systems is how fire, smoke, and volume control are achieved. Laboratory
exhaust systems cannot use automatic fire and/or smoke dampers because a malfunction
or false alarm would cause the hazardous exhaust air to back up into the laboratory and
compromise personnel safety (see section 6-10.3 of NFPA 45 [2015]). Similarly, fire
detection and alarm systems should not automatically shut down laboratory exhaust fans.
For these reasons, multiple-story laboratory buildings usually require a separate fire-rated
mechanical shaft for the ductwork and other utilities servicing each floor/laboratory con-
trol unit. However, specific fire/smoke separation and duct dampering requirements
should always be verified with the authority having jurisdiction.
In addition to national codes and standards from ASHRAE, SMACNA, National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA), American National Standards Institute (ANSI), and oth-
ers, many laboratories may also have to conform to state and local codes that pertain to
the construction of ductwork systems. Common items included in state and local codes
are insulation requirements for smoke and flame spread, smoke evacuation procedures,
and fire safety controls. High-containment biological laboratories may have requirements
for gastight dampers and bag-in/bag-out filter housings to control the release of gas steril-
ants and pathogens.
Performance Testing
SMACNA defines three different classes for duct sealing requirements (SMACNA
2005), which are listed in Table 6-6. Sealant types include liquids, mastics, gaskets, and
tapes. Welding can be used to seal some types of laboratory system ductwork, such as the
exhaust ductwork for perchloric acid fume hoods.
The permissible leakage rate and static pressure of the ductwork according to Equa-
tion 6-3 define the SMACNA duct leakage classification:

Q
C L = ---------------- (I-P) (6-3)
0.65
P

Q
C L = 710
----------------- (SI) (6-3)
0.65
P

where
CL = leakage class number
Q = leakage rate, cfm per 100 ft2 (L/s per m2) of duct surface
P = static pressure, in. w.g. (Pa)

Table 6-7 lists applicable leakage rates based on pressure and sealant classifications.
It is up to the laboratory designer, in consultation with laboratory staff and based on the
materials being handled in the ductwork, to determine the appropriate leakage values for
each ductwork system in a laboratory.
The values contained in Table 6-7 are suggested minimum values, which may need to
be exceeded for exhaust system ductwork that handles certain types of hazardous materi-
als. These leakage classifications are shown as a corresponding leakage based on percent-
age of airflow in Table 6-8.

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Table 6-6 Applicable

SMACNA Duct Seal Class Sealing Requirements Static Pressure
Construction Class
Sealing Classes
All transverse joints, longitudinal seams,
A 4 in. w.g. (1.0 kPa) and up
(SMACNA 2005) and duct wall penetrations
B All transverse joints and longitudinal seams only 3 in. w.g. (0.75 kPa)
C Transverse joints only 2 in. w.g. (0.49 kPa)
In addition to the above, any VAV system duct of 1 in. w.g. (0.25 kPa) and 1/2 in. w.g. (0.13 kPa)
construction class that is upstream of the VAV boxes is to meet Seal Class C.

Table 6-7 Duct Class

0.5, 1, 2 in. w.g. 3 in. w.g. 4, 6, 10 in. w.g.
Applicable (0.12, 0.25, 0.50 kPa) (0.75 kPa) (1.0, 1.49, 2.49 kPa)
Leakage Rates Seal Class C B A
Leakage Class
Rectangular Metal Duct 24 12 6
Round Metal Duct 12 6 3

Duct leakage pressure tests are highly recommended for laboratory HVAC systems in
order to verify that the leakage requirements of the ductwork are met and safety and
energy use will not be negatively impacted. The procedure for testing laboratory duct-
work leakage is the same as for typical buildings. Ductwork leakage testing can be per-
formed on either a whole ductwork system or multiple portions of the ductwork system.
Other equipment, such as AHUs, coils, fans, and VAV boxes, should be isolated from the
section of ductwork being tested. Leakage testing of ductwork is performed by using a
flowmeter, a differential pressure sensor, and a variable-flow fan to positively pressurize
the ductwork as shown in Figure 6-43.
Before performing the leakage test, calculate the volume of air that is permissible and
confirm that the fan has enough capacity to supply that amount of air. Take care to not
overpressurize the ductwork, as the sealant and connections may develop leaks if exposed
to excessive pressures. Starting the variable-flow fan at a low speed or with the inlet
damper closed and using an appropriately sized fan will help to avoid this problem. The
speed of the fan should be increased until the pressure in the ductwork being tested reaches
the desired value for the test. When this occurs, record the flow rate from the flowmeter at
regular intervals (every 2 to 5 min) for approximately 15 to 30 min to verify that the flow
rate and pressure can be sustained for an extended period of time. Calculate the leakage
rate of the ductwork and compare it to the leakage requirement. If the leakage exceeds the
requirement, inspect the ductwork for audible leaks and use a smoke test or soap solution
to locate the leaks in the ductwork. Once the leaks have been located, depressurize the
ductwork, repair the leaks, allow the sealant to cure, and retest the ductwork.
Duct Material Selection and Application
Numerous types of materials are available for the construction of ductwork for both
the supply and exhaust systems. The choice of duct material depends on which system
(supply or exhaust) it will be used for, the types of substances to which the ductwork will
be exposed, and applicable codes and standards. For instance, supply air ductwork for
laboratories can generally be fabricated from galvanized steel, as for typical commercial
buildings. However, the selection of exhaust ductwork for laboratories requires a specific
set of criteria for material selection and application that differs significantly from that of
typical commercial buildings, as laboratory exhaust may contain a wide variety of hazard-

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Table 6-8 Leakage System cfm per ft2 Static Pressure, in. of water
Leakage as Class Duct Surfacec 0.5 1 2 3 4 6
a Percentage 2 15 24 38 49 59 77
of Airflowa,b 2.5 12 19 30 39 47 62
48 3 10 16 25 33 39 51
(ASHRAE [2009], 4 7.7 12 19 25 30 38
Chapter 21, 5 6.1 9.6 15 20 24 31
Table 7) 2 7.7 12 19 25 30 38
2.5 6.1 9.6 15 20 24 31
24 3 5.1 8.0 13 16 20 26
4 3.8 6.0 9.4 12 15 19
5 3.1 4.8 7.5 9.8 12 15
2 3.8 6 9.4 12 15 19
2.5 3.1 4.8 7.5 9.8 12 15
12 3 2.6 4.0 6.3 8.2 9.8 13
4 1.9 3.0 4.7 6.1 7.4 9.6
5 1.5 2.4 3.8 4.9 5.9 7.7
2 1.9 3 4.7 6.1 7.4 9.6
2.5 1.5 2.4 3.8 4.9 5.9 7.7
6 3 1.3 2.0 3.1 4.1 4.9 6.4
4 1.0 1.5 2.4 3.1 3.7 4.8
5 0.8 1.2 1.9 2.4 3.0 3.8
2 1.0 1.5 2.4 3.1 3.7 4.8
2.5 0.8 1.2 1.9 2.4 3.0 3.8
3 3 0.6 1.0 1.6 2.0 2.5 3.2
4 0.5 0.8 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.6
5 0.4 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.9
Leakage System L/s per m2 Static Pressure, Pa
Class Duct Surfacec 125 250 500 750 1000 1500
10 15 24 38 49 59 77
12.7 12 19 30 39 47 62
68 15 10 16 25 33 39 51
20 7.7 12 19 25 30 38
25 6.1 9.6 15 20 24 31
10 7.7 12 19 25 30 38
12.7 6.1 9.6 15 20 24 31
34 15 5.1 8.0 13 16 20 26
20 3.8 6.0 9.4 12 15 19
25 3.1 4.8 7.5 9.8 12 15
10 3.8 6 9.4 12 15 19
12.7 3.1 4.8 7.5 9.8 12 15
17 15 2.6 4.0 6.3 8.2 9.8 13
20 1.9 3.0 4.7 6.1 7.4 9.6
25 1.5 2.4 3.8 4.9 5.9 7.7
10 1.9 3 4.7 6.1 7.4 9.6
12.7 1.5 2.4 3.8 4.9 5.9 7.7
8 15 1.3 2.0 3.1 4.1 4.9 6.4
20 1.0 1.5 2.4 3.1 3.7 4.8
25 0.8 1.2 1.9 2.4 3.0 3.8
10 1.0 1.5 2.4 3.1 3.7 4.8
12.7 0.8 1.2 1.9 2.4 3.0 3.8
4 15 0.6 1.0 1.6 2.0 2.5 3.2
20 0.5 0.8 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.6
25 0.4 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.9
a Adapted from HVAC Air Duct Leakage Test Manual (SMACNA 1985).
b Percentage applies to airflow entering a section of duct operating at an assumed pressure equal to average of
upstream and downstream pressures.
c Ratios in this column are typical of fan volumetric flow rate divided by total system surface. Portions of systems may
vary from these averages.

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Figure 6-43
Duct Leakage
Testing
Apparatus

(Reprinted with
permission from
SMACNA [2012])

ous materials. Considerations in selecting materials include resistance to chemical attack

and corrosion, reaction to condensation, flame and smoke ratings, ease of installation,
ease of repair or replacement, and maintenance costs. Selection criteria for both supply
and exhaust ductwork are described in detail in the following sections.

Supply Ducts
Typically, general practices for all buildings can be used in the selection of supply
duct materials for laboratories. The reasoning for this is that most supply ductwork will
not come in contact with sufficient concentrations of hazardous laboratory materials to
warrant special criteria such as those used for exhaust systems. Ducts are less subject to
corrosion when runs are short and direct, the flow is maintained at reasonable velocities,
and condensation is avoided.
Therefore, the following three items are the general considerations to make when
designing supply ducts:
• The ambient temperature of the space surrounding the supply duct should be
considered when selecting supply duct materials. Higher ambient temperatures
relative to the supply air temperature can create condensation on the outside of
the ductwork. Condensation on ductwork can eventually cause corrosion of the
ductwork, leading to small leaks developing or premature failure of the duct-
work. Also, condensation can lead to increased formation of mold and fungal
organisms, which can cause unacceptable odors or health impacts on occupants.
To counter the effects of condensation, sufficient insulation, proper insulation
sealing, and nonferrous duct materials can be used. Horizontal ductwork may be
more susceptible to corrosion if condensate accumulates in the bottom of the
duct. Applications with moist airstreams (cage washers, sterilizers, etc.) may
require condensate drains that are connected to chemical sewers. The design

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should include provisions to minimize joint or seam corrosion problems. If flow

through the ductwork is intermittent, condensate may remain for longer periods
because it will not be able to reevaporate into the airstream. Moisture can also
condense on the outside of ductwork exhausting cold environmental rooms.
• Duct velocities and pressures also need to be considered, as they affect the
choice of materials and the overall energy use of the supply air system. For
instance, low-pressure ductwork is often made of thinner material than higher-
pressure ductwork, but it requires a larger duct to move the same volume of air
as a high-pressure system. High-pressure systems require engineering analysis
for sound control. The selection of duct velocities and pressures will also affect
the type, size, and energy use of the supply air fan.
• The length and arrangement of supply ductwork need to be determined. Lengthy
runs of ductwork result in larger supply air heat gains or losses and require addi-
tional cooling and heating capacity or additional insulation. Simplifying the
arrangement of the supply ductwork by minimizing offsets and fittings contrib-
utes to limiting the static pressure losses in the system, thereby improving
energy efficiency through a reduction in required fan horsepower.

Exhaust Ducts
Because of the wide variation in types of hazardous materials that may be present in
the exhaust airstream, exhaust ducts have more design considerations related to the selec-
tion of materials and applications than supply ducts.
Exhaust ductwork requires materials that will not react or degrade when exposed to
the hazardous materials in the exhaust air. In determining the appropriate duct material
and construction, the HVAC engineer should ascertain and evaluate a variety of factors:
• Determine the types of effluents (and possibly combinations) handled by the
exhaust system.
• Classify effluents as either organic or inorganic, and determine whether they
occur in the gaseous, vapor, or liquid state.
• Classify decontamination materials.
• Determine the concentration of the reagents used and the temperature of the
effluents at the hood exhaust port (this may be impossible in research laborato-
ries).
• Estimate the highest possible dew-point temperature of the effluent.
• Determine the ambient temperature of the space housing the exhaust system.
• Estimate the degree to which condensation may occur.
• Determine whether flow will be constant or intermittent (intermittent flow con-
ditions may be improved by adding time delays to run the exhaust system long
enough to dry the duct interior prior to shutdown).
• Determine whether insulation, watertight construction, or sloped and drained
ductwork are required.
• Determine if fire sprinkler protection within the ductwork is required.
• Select the materials and construction most suited for the application.

Appropriate materials can be selected from standard references and by consulting

with manufacturers of specific materials. For example, exhaust ductwork for perchloric
acid fume hoods is typically made from stainless steel, and fume exhaust that contains
large amounts of corrosive acids may require a protective interior coating (e.g., asphaltum,
polyvinyl, or polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). Commonly used materials for chemical
fume exhaust systems and their characteristics are included in Table 6-9.

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Table 6-9
Chemical-Resistant Properties and Flame Ratings
Acids1 Alkalies1 Organic
Material Flammability2
Weak Strong Weak Strong Solvents1

Aluminum3 N N N N N G
Asphalt-coated steel4 Y Y Y Y N G
Epoxy-coated steel Y Y Y Y Y G
Galvanized steel5 N N N N Y G
Epoxy glass fiber reinforced6 Y Y Y N Y SL
Polyester glass fiber reinforced7 Y Y Y N Y SL
Polethylene fluorocarbon8 Y Y Y Y Y SE
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)9 Y Y Y Y N SE
Polypropylene10 Y N Y N N SE
316 Stainless steel11 Y Y Y Y Y G
304 Stainless steel11 Y N Y N Y G
1
N = attacked severely; Y = no attack or insignificant
2
G = good fire resistance; SL = slow burning; SE = self-extinguishing
3
Aluminum is not generally used due to its subjectivity to attacks by acids and alkalies.
4
Asphalt-coated steel is resistant to acids, subject to solvent and oil attacks.
5
Galvanized steel is subject to acid and alkaline attacks under wet conditions.
6
Epoxy glass fiber reinforced is resistant to weak acids and weak alkalies and is slow burning.
7
Polyester glass fiber reinforced can be used for all acids and weak alkalies but is attacked severely by strong alkalies and is slow burning.
8
Polyethylene fluorocarbon is an excellent material for all chemicals.
9
PVC is an excellent material for most chemicals and is self-extinguishing but is attacked by some organic solvents.
10
Polypropylene is resistant to most chemicals and is self-extinguishing but is subject to attack by strong acids, alkalies, gases, anhydrides,
and ketones.
11
Types 3016 and 304 stainless steel are subject to acid and chloride attacks, varying with the chromium and nickel content.

Each of these materials should be evaluated based on its reactivity to chemicals and
flammability. Effluents may be classified generically as organic or inorganic chemical
gases, vapors, fumes, or smoke and qualitatively as acids, alkalies (bases), solvents, or
oils. Exhaust system ducts, fans, dampers, flow sensors, and coatings are subject to corro-
sion, which destroys metal by chemical or electrochemical action; dissolution, which
destroys materials such as coatings and plastics; and melting or yielding, which can cause
a catastrophic failure, weakening of the duct, or thinning of the coating and can occur in
certain plastics and coatings at elevated temperatures.
Common reagents used in laboratories include acids and bases. Common organic
chemicals include acetone, ether, petroleum ether, chloroform, and acetic acid. The
HVAC engineer should consult with the safety officer and scientists of the laboratory
because the specific research to be conducted determines the chemicals used and there-
fore the necessary duct material and construction.
The following criteria should be considered when selecting the materials and applica-
tions for exhaust ducts:
• The nature of hood effluents plays a significant role in determining the type of
duct material to use and determines the sealant type and application procedure
as well as the possible need for protective coatings. Therefore, knowledge of the
current and future effluents and their possible concentrations is necessary to
assess the materials required to handle the exhaust. The resistance strengths of
various materials to effluent attacks are provided in Table 6-9.
• The ambient temperature of the space surrounding the exhaust duct should be
considered when selecting exhaust duct materials. As with supply ducts, the
ambient air surrounding the exhaust ductwork can create condensation. How-

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Table 6-10 Contaminant Examples

Desired Velocity,
Exhaust Duct fpm (m/s)
Velocities Vapors, gases, smoke All vapors, gases, and smokes 1400–2000 (7.1–10.2)
Fumes Zinc and aluminum oxide fumes 1400–2000 (7.1–10.2)
(SMACNA 2010)
Very fine light dust Cotton lint, wood flours, litho power 2000–2500 (10.2–12.7)
Dry dust and powders Cotton dust, light shavings 2500–3500 (12.7–17.8)
Average industrial dust Sawdust, grinding dust 3500–4000 (17.8–20.3)
Heavy dust Metal turnings, lead dust 4000–4500 (20.3–22.9)
Heavy or moist dust Budding lint (sticky), lead dust with small chips 4500+ (22.9+)

ever, since the exhaust air is generally warmer and more moist than the ambient
air, the condensation will form on the inside of the exhaust ductwork. This may
create problems for some exhaust systems, as the hazardous materials in the
exhaust air may react with the duct after condensation occurs.
• Effluent temperature is also a concern for condensation. High-temperature efflu-
ents can cool off significantly in a lengthy section of duct. For selection pur-
poses, an estimate of the lowest possible dew-point temperature of the effluent
should be determined.
• Duct velocities and pressures affect the choice of duct materials and overall
energy use of the exhaust air system, as is the case for supply air systems. How-
ever, the duct velocities for exhaust air systems are also determined by the type
of materials in the exhaust airstream. Table 6-10 lists recommended design duct
velocities for different types of exhaust air contaminants. Higher velocities may
be required at the exhaust stack than are listed here for the ductwork.
• The length and arrangement of ducts is very important in the selection of
exhaust duct materials and applications. Some materials that are exhausted, such
as perchloric acid, should have minimal or no horizontal runs to prevent conden-
sation from forming. When using manifolded exhaust ductwork systems, the
arrangement of the ductwork must be such that the exhausts from all of the
sources are compatible with each other and the exhaust duct material.
• Variance in exhaust air volume can present a problem in maintaining needed
duct velocities. In instances where VAV control is used for exhaust fans, the
minimum acceptable duct velocity must be determined and it must be verified
that it will be met during operation from minimum to maximum flow of the VAV
exhaust fan.
• Flame spread and smoke developed ratings for duct materials should also be
considered (ASTM 2015). Depending upon the national, local, and state regula-
tions, some materials may not be acceptable for use as duct material in some
applications. Therefore, knowledge of the rating for the materials considered for
ductwork is required. Table 6-9 presents the chemical-resistant properties and
flame ratings for these materials.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY
In the laboratory, energy consumption is typically high due to the use of 100% out-
door air, minimum required air exchange rates, and reheat energy. With the numerous
items of equipment and the need to have constant exhaust and operation of hoods, energy-
efficient methods and equipment become all that more important. For this reason, several
possible methods for lowering or using energy more efficiently are discussed here.

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The electrical power requirements of the fan system are represented by the combined
supply and exhaust fan power. Fan input power can be estimated by Equation 6-4:

Airflow  System air pressure drop

Fan input power (bhp) = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
6345  Fan system efficiency   fan   motor   drive 
(I-P) (6-4)

Fan input power (W) = Airflow  m 3 /s   System air pressure drop (Pa)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Fan system efficiency   fan   motor   drive 
(SI) (6-4)

Reducing the energy consumed by a laboratory fan system requires changing one or
more of the three variables in the equation: fan system efficiency, airflow, or system pres-
sure drop. Table 6-11 indicates areas of opportunity for reducing the power requirement
of a laboratory fan system.

FAN SYSTEM EFFICIENCY

Standard design practice usually results in an efficiency of around 62%. Careful
selection of a direct-drive fan, where appropriate, and use of high-efficiency motors can
increase that efficiency to around 72%, resulting in a power reduction of about 15% at
best. While this is an important aspect of design, opportunities are minimal; if energy effi-
ciency is emphasized as an important design criterion, however, conventional design
methods can optimize the fan efficiency.

AIRFLOW
The airflow through the system is typically set by the requirements of the facility.
Two key design decisions separate typical laboratory facilities from energy-efficient ones.
The design decision with the greatest impact on airflow energy use is to use a variable-
flow exhaust system rather than a constant-flow or constant-volume system. Varying sup-
ply and exhaust flows based on actual usage immediately captures the significant savings
possible from reducing the flow—a 25% reduction in airflow results in about a 58%
reduction in the fan power required. Note that ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1
requires VAV systems, with some exceptions (ASHRAE 2013a). The second design deci-
sion typically impacting laboratory airflow levels is the determination of the minimum
laboratory airflow rate. A minimum airflow rate exceeding 1 cfm/ft2 (0.47 L/s·m2) should
be carefully investigated to verify whether it is necessary.

Table 6-11 Parameter Savings Potential Comment

Potential for Fan system efficiency 5% to 15% Minor potential, traditional design is often OK
Fan Energy
VAV supply and exhaust systems provide big
Savings in savings in fan and conditioning energy when
Traditional Airflow 0% to 60%
compared with constant-flow systems; actual
Laboratory savings depend on facility usage
Designs Traditional design results in energy-intensive
System pressure drop 30% to 65% laboratory systems; large reductions are possible
(Labs21 2005)
in numerous areas

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SYSTEM PRESSURE DROP

System pressure drop typically offers the greatest potential for energy savings in the
ventilation system. Despite the huge impact of the ventilation system on yearly energy
consumption, it is not uncommon to find laboratory buildings with a supply and exhaust
system combined total of 8 to 12 in. w.g. (2 to 3 kPa) pressure drop. As shown in the fan
power equation, this very high pressure drop directly results in a ventilation system with
high fan power consumption. To reduce the ventilation system’s energy consumption, all
that is required is to reduce the system’s pressure drop.
The pressure drop in a laboratory fan system should be addressed throughout both the
supply and exhaust sides of the system. Although VAV systems inherently reduce pres-
sure drop during nonpeak conditions by reducing the volume of airflow, designers using
VAV systems should still consider opportunities for further reduction in pressure drop.
The extended hours of operation for laboratory buildings (typically continuous, 24/7
operation) results in higher fan energy use compared to similar nonlaboratory buildings
that are scheduled OFF or in setback mode at night. Therefore, the economically optimum
pressure drop for a laboratory VAV system is typically lower than that for a nonlaboratory
building. Oversizing the ducts also provides significant flexibility to add load to the sys-
tem in the future. A variable-flow supply and exhaust system reduces the airflow and the
power required to run it by approximately the cube of the reduction in flow. The greatest
challenge in applying VAV systems in laboratories is ensuring that the balance between
supply and exhaust is maintained properly. Typically, these systems make use of one of
two general methods: direct pressure-independent measurement of airflows or through-
the-wall airflow or pressure measurement.
While these methods are radically different, the results are comparable. The primary
difference is that the pressure drop associated with pressure-independent flow measurement
valves is about 0.60 to 0.30 in. w.g. (0.15 to 0.75 kPa), in comparison to about 0.05 in. w.g.
(0.13 kPa) pressure drop across a typical butterfly control damper. The energy savings asso-
ciated with a 0.25 in. w.g. (0.62 kPa) pressure difference on the supply and exhaust sides
adds up quickly when the entire laboratory facility’s airflow is considered.
The fan energy required to supply the required high exhaust discharge velocity, which
is part of the total pressure drop as velocity pressure, and the pressure drop in the exhaust
stack itself are the most significant components of the exhaust system pressure drop. In a
constant-volume system, the stack pressure drop can be minimized using conventional
duct design techniques. Minimizing the pressure drop in a VAV exhaust system is made
more difficult by the varying exhaust flow. Sometimes laboratory owners may allow for a
lower minimum exhaust velocity based on wind tunnel modeling results but still require
that the system be designed for a higher minimum exit velocity. In these cases, VFDs may
be used to modulate exhaust flow between the minimum and the design exit velocities,
allowing for lower discharge velocities during periods of reduced exhaust flows. More
complex control methodologies include varying the exit velocity based on outdoor wind
speed and measured contamination levels in the exhaust airstream.
AIR RECIRCULATION
Air recirculation is one method available to laboratory designers that can lower the
operational costs of central systems. The idea behind this method is to recirculate or rein-
troduce exhaust from clean spaces into the supply air and laboratory spaces, thus requir-
ing less conditioned air volumes. However, a few standards must be followed within a
laboratory with respect to the amounts and types of exhaust air that can be reentrained
into supply air.

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Chemical and Fume Exhaust

ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1 (ASHRAE 2013b) classifies the exhaust from labora-
tory hoods as Class 4 air, which is not allowed to be recirculated or transferred to any
space or recirculated within the space of origin. NFPA 45 also specifically states that air
exhausted from chemical fume hoods and other special local exhaust systems is not to be
recirculated (NFPA 2015). However, some exhaust hoods do allow recirculation of
exhaust air within the hood and laboratory depending upon filtration and hazard levels;
they are described in Chapter 5 of this Guide.
From Administrative Spaces
One method of air recirculation that is commonly allowed and practiced in laborato-
ries is the use of exhaust air from administrative spaces and nonlaboratory zones. Except
for laboratories that deal with highly toxic or hazardous materials, a constant leakage of
air from administrative zones is allowed to enter laboratory areas. This is due to the nega-
tive pressurization of most laboratories and helps to maintain containment of pollutants. It
is possible to actively transfer or recirculate return air from administrative spaces into the
laboratory, but caution must be taken to minimize cross-contamination and maintain
appropriate pressure relationships. Also, if exhausts from the laboratory or hoods are
combined into the general building exhaust, recirculation in this manner should not be
used.
Within the Laboratory
Recirculation of air exhausted from the general laboratory space (as distinguished
from laboratory chemical hoods) is restricted by ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5. The reasoning
for this is that not all contaminants may be captured by the hoods in the laboratory. Thus,
introducing exhaust from the laboratory space would serve only to increase the concentra-
tions of trace chemicals and contaminants to unsafe levels. For this reason it is typical that
100% of the air supplied to the laboratory is exhausted unless the specific criteria outlined
in Section [Link] of ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5 are met (AIHA 2012).
However, one instance where laboratory exhaust recirculation is acceptable and often
used is in cleanroom laboratories, since high degrees of air change rates (600 to 900 ach)
are required for filtration and it requires substantial costs for conditioning of these air vol-
umes. Another case is where ventilation and temperature control are decoupled, such as
with a fan-coil or active or passive beam that recirculates room air locally within the same
space, for temperature control, with minimum ventilation and exhaust handled separately.

HEAT RECOVERY
Within the laboratory, a large portion of heat that is generated by equipment in the
laboratory is exhausted into the atmosphere. This is a significant energy loss for laborato-
ries and a major component of the high operating costs in most laboratory buildings.
Therefore, heat recovery is an area of interest for the design engineer to lower annual
energy costs for certain climates.
Four commonly used energy recovery systems are often considered for laboratories:
energy recovery wheels, flat-plate air-to-air heat exchangers, heat pipes, and runaround
coils. All of these systems have unique pros and cons. NFPA 45 (NFPA 2015) prohibits
the use of energy conservation devices that could result in recirculation of exhaust air or
exhausted contaminants unless designed in accordance with Section 4:10.1, “Nonlabora-
tory Air,” and Section [Link], “General Room Exhaust,” of ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5
(AIHA 2012). To use this technology, careful planning and understanding of the opera-
tion and limitations of the equipment as it pertains to the laboratory are necessary. For this

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reason, a thorough discussion of possible energy recovery options for laboratories is pre-
sented in Chapter 10 of this Guide.

REDUCED ROOM VENTILATION RATES

Most laboratories (with the exception of cleanrooms) can be handled with a minimum
airflow rate in the range of 6 to 12 ach. However, recent research (Klein et al. 2009) indi-
cates that minimum ventilation rates at the lower end of the 6 to 12 ach range may not be
appropriate for all laboratories. Chapter 16 of ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications
states that “minimum ventilation rates should be established on a room-by-room basis
considering the hazard level of materials expected to be used in the room and the opera-
tion and procedures to be performed” (ASHRAE 2015a, p. 16.8). The chapter further
states that as the operation, materials, and hazard level of a room change, an increase or
decrease in the minimum ventilation rate should be evaluated.
Active sensing of air quality in individual laboratories (Sharp 2010) is an alternative
approach for dealing with the variability of appropriate ventilation rates, particularly
when energy efficiency is important or when less may be known about the hazard level.
With this approach, the minimum airflow rate is varied based on sensing the laboratory’s
actual air quality level or air cleanliness. Sensors used to determine air quality should be
evaluated for their ability to detect the chemicals being used in the space. When air con-
taminants are sensed in the laboratory above a given threshold, the minimum air change
rate is increased proportionally to an appropriate level to purge the room. When the air is
“clean” and contaminants are below the threshold, lower minimum airflow rates may be
appropriate.
Extensive studies of laboratory room environmental conditions (Sharp 2010) have
shown that the air in laboratories is typically “clean” over 98% of the time. As such, a lab-
oratory can normally operate safely at airflow rates as low as 2 ach with some adjust-
ments to thermal requirements and changes in hood sash heights. In the event that a spill
occurs, such as someone dropping a hazardous chemical in the laboratory, a sensor would
detect this and increase the airflow into a range of from 8 ach to as high as 16 ach to
increase the air dilution until the emergency event is under control, the contaminants are
eliminated, and the airflow is reduced.
This demand-based control approach can use either a set of individual sensors in each
laboratory room or a single set of sensors integrated into the building’s management sys-
tem for monitoring and control of up to 20 laboratory spaces. However, monitoring using
many sets of individual dedicated sensors for each laboratory can drive the first cost,
maintenance, and recalibration costs up. Dedicated sensors may be warranted for high-
hazard or special laboratories.
There is no way to detect every possible substance or compound in a laboratory with
this approach, nor is there a need to do so based on the fact that dilution ventilation at 6 or
8 ach provides less personal protection as compared to the increased dilution ventilation
protection and clearance times provided when demand-based control detects laboratory
air contaminants. In fact, to provide increased safety over traditional fixed ventilation lev-
els, demand-based control need only sense a large majority of the compounds used in lab-
oratories, not all of them.
For example, the use of a photoionization detector (PID), a type of total volatile
organic compound (TVOC) sensor, in combination with a metal oxide chemical sensor
can accurately detect hundreds of commonly used laboratory chemicals. Even if a com-
pound is not detectable by itself, many compounds are mixed with solvents that allow the
mixture to be detected. These sensors, when coupled with a laser-based particle-counting
sensor to identify aerosol vapors and smoke, can detect acid spills or other out-of-control

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reactions or other events needing increased ventilation. The appropriateness and cost-
effectiveness of a laboratory demand-based ventilation control strategy should be care-
fully reviewed based on the expected chemical use, monitoring frequency, and cost to
operate and maintain the sensing equipment.

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ASHRAE. 2013a. ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-2013, Energy standard for build-
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indoor air quality. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
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Caplan, K.J., and G.W. Knutson. 1977. The effect of room air challenge on the efficiency
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Caplan, K.J., and G.W. Knutson. 1978a. Laboratory fume hoods: A performance test.
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Process
Cooling

OVERVIEW
7
Within a laboratory, particular pieces of equipment may require cooling that cannot
be efficiently or sufficiently supplied by air cooling using mechanisms discussed in Chap-
ter 6. In these cases, using process cooling becomes necessary to ensure the safety of per-
sonnel, equipment, and experiments.
Process cooling is the supply of water or other fluid to various types of equipment for
cooling purposes. The fluid is pumped through a series of pipes attached to equipment,
and heat is transferred from the equipment to the fluid.
For process cooling it is imperative to understand the following:
• Types of water-cooled loads
• Water treatment and quality requirements
• Temperature and pressure requirements
• System pumping configurations

TYPES OF WATER-COOLED LOADS

Several types of equipment require process cooling. Usually, this equipment gener-
ates high amounts of heat in very short periods that cannot be adequately handled solely
by the primary air system. Typical types of equipment in a laboratory that require process
cooling includes lasers, centrifuges, vacuum and diffusion pumps, and various others.

LASERS
Typically used in physics and analytical laboratories, lasers can rapidly create large
amounts of heat and thus need to be cooled. Because excessive heat within laser equip-
ment can cause equipment failure and potential fire hazards, process cooling is used for
personnel, experiment, and equipment safety. To further maintain safety, lasers are often
equipped with interlocks that disable the heat production in the event of insufficient cool-
ing. Smaller lasers, 1 to 2 in. (25 to 50 mm) and with capacities in the milliwatt range, are
mostly used for telecommunication. These lasers are typically cooled with thermoelectric
coolers. Larger lasers, 2 to 6 ft (0.6 to 1.8 m) in length with capacities ranging from 2 to
20 W, need to be water cooled with their own dedicated cooling system.
[Link] Page 126 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:37 AM

The source of the heat produced by lasers may originate from its amplifying medium
(solid, liquid, or gas) or from a particular target on which the laser is focused for cutting
or boring. In the case of the latter, cooling may be needed to prevent the target from
annealing or hardening.

CENTRIFUGES
A centrifuge is a piece of equipment used for liquid/solid separation purposes. It does
this by rotating samples at varying speeds using a rotor and an attached motor. Although
the centrifuges generally found in clinical and biological laboratories are typically air
cooled by an integral fan system, those found in more industrial laboratories often have
the option of using process cooling to maintain acceptable internal temperatures during
their operation.

VACUUM AND DIFFUSION PUMPS

Vacuum and diffusion pumps are used in processes where distillation or concentra-
tion of substances is required. Smaller versions of this equipment typically do not require
any supplementary conditioning. However, larger operations, and thus larger pumps, usu-
ally do require the introduction of water cooling to ensure the safe operation and longev-
ity of the pump.

OTHER
Other types of equipment, such as large blast ovens, tube furnaces, incubators, and
autoclaves, may require the use of process cooling. Generally, the deciding factor for this
type of cooling depends on manufacturer requirements and power consumption, since
larger consumption can be translated into greater heat gains from the equipment.

WATER TREATMENT AND

QUALITY REQUIREMENTS
Where water is used for process cooling, it must be properly treated to obtain and
maintain quality. Treatment is used to combat various water problems, such as the fol-
lowing:
• Corrosion. This develops when metal is destroyed by chemical or electrochemi-
cal reactions within the process water. Corrosion inhibitors and pH control
chemicals may be added to the water to minimize damage by reducing the
amount of oxygen present.
• Biological growth. This is more prevalent in open systems and can cause block-
ages in the water distribution system. Excessive slime buildup can be expelled
with the use of microbicidal materials.
• Scale formation. This typically results from the precipitation of calcium carbon-
ate and can be controlled by regulating the pH of the process water.
• Solid solutes. When present in systems, these reduce heat transfer and interfere
with process water flow. Thoroughly flushing the system after new piping is
installed and before system operation can eliminate these suspended materials.
In addition, the use of strainers removes larger solids.

In treating the process cooling water to reduce these problems, care must be taken
when administering chemicals. Too high or too low a concentration can cause adverse
effects. For example, at too-high concentrations of chlorine, corrosion can actually speed
up. However, at too-low concentrations, pitting can develop.

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Addressing the following quality requirements is helpful to maintaining effective

water treatment:
• Power capacity should be available and adequate for chemical injection pumps.
• Domestic water supply should be available for mixing chemicals.
• A drain is necessary for bleed-off waste.
• Turbulent flow through pipes is needed for water treatment chemicals to contact
the metal surfaces to be protected.
• Sufficient space must be provided for chemical equipment and storage.

Consult Chapter 49 of ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications (ASHRAE 2015)

for further details on water treatment.

TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE

REQUIREMENTS
For process cooling, the temperature and pressure requirements of the water used are
dependent on the cooling needs of the equipment or the desired effect the cooling is to
accomplish. The typical temperature range for most chilled-water systems is 40°F to 45°F
(4.4°C to 7.2°C) at a pressure of 120 psi (827 kPa), which is suitable for most applica-
tions. However, some equipment may have greater cooling needs. Designers of process
cooling systems should consult with the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) or dis-
tributor regarding the needs and requirements of the specific equipment.
Because additional cooling of the water for individual equipment can be costly,
higher flow rates are often used. Higher flow rates are synonymous with higher process
cooling costs because of this increased pumping power, but these costs are usually much
lower than the costs associated with an increase in compressor power for the refrigerant
subsystem used to cool the water.
There are some instances where the cooling needs of a piece of equipment warrant
the use of a dedicated system or the use of domestic water. However, this may require
additional piping and can also be costly. Any proposed design should include the manu-
facturer’s specifications for the pressure and temperature thresholds of the equipment.

SYSTEM PUMPING CONFIGURATIONS

This section presents the basic architecture of a chilled-water system used for process
cooling. Various pumping subsystems with their alternative pumping configurations are
emphasized, and discussions include general practices for good design. More detailed
information on overall system design is available in Chapter 13 of ASHRAE Handbook—
HVAC Systems and Equipment (ASHRAE 2012).

SYSTEM BASICS
Most chilled-water systems, including the ones used for process cooling, are closed
instead of open. The main difference between closed and open water systems is the num-
ber of interfaces that exist between the water and a compressible gas (e.g., air). Whereas
an open system has two or more such interfaces, closed systems have only one. The basic
closed chilled-water system comprises the following components/subsystems:
• Source subsystem: the point where heat is removed from the process cooling
system, e.g., chillers, heat pump evaporators, and heat exchangers.
• Load: the point where heat flows into the cooling system from the process, ren-
dering it cooler (e.g., lasers and associated heat-producing equipment).

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• Pump subsystem: the mechanical devices used and configured to provide suffi-
cient energy to circulate the water in the process cooling system.
• Distribution subsystem: the piping system that connects the various components
of the entire cooling system and the main conduit through which all the water
flows.
• Expansion chamber: also known as an expansion tank or compression tank; pro-
vides a space into which the noncompressible water can expand or from which it
can contract as changes in temperature influence a volumetric change in the
water.

PUMPING SUBSYSTEMS
The pumping system uses circulating pumps that may vary in size. These include
small in-line pumps that can deliver 5 gpm (1.1 kg/h) at 6 or 7 ft (1.8 or 2.1 m) head as
well as base-mounted or vertical pipe-mounted pumps that can handle much larger flows
with head pressures restricted only by the overall system characteristics.
To effectively size a pump for a given process cooling system, the system operating
requirements must be prudently matched to the pump operating characteristics. When
selecting pumps, the following steps are generally good practice:
• Select for design flow rates and use pressure-drop charts that illustrate the actual
closed-loop system piping pressure drops.
• Select slightly to the left of the maximum efficiency point of the pump curve to
avoid undesirable pump operation or overloading.
• Select a pump with a flat curve to make allowance for unbalanced circuitry and
to provide a minimum differential pressure increase across two-way control
valves.

Pumping systems are arranged using the following common configurations:

• Parallel pumping
• Series pumping
• Compound pumping
• Two-speed/variable-speed pumping

Parallel Pumping
Pumps configured in parallel each operate at the same head pressure while providing
their own share of the system flow at that pressure. Typically, the pumps used should be
of the same size, and thus the characteristic curves for parallel pumps are attained by dou-
bling the flow of the single pump curve. Overloading can be prevented during single-
pump operation provided that the pumps in a parallel configuration are constantly pow-
ered. A single pump can be used for standby service of up to 80% of design flow, depend-
ing on a given system curve and pump curve.
Series Pumping
Pumps configured in series each operate at the same flow rate while providing their
own share of the total head pressure at that flow. Like the parallel pump configuration, a
single pump in series configuration can provide up to approximately 80% flow for
standby service, which is often adequate.
Compound Pumping
Compound pumping, also known as primary-secondary pumping, is typically used
for larger systems. The main advantages of using this type of configuration are as follows:

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• A designer is able to achieve differing water temperatures and temperature

ranges in different elements of the process cooling system.
• The control, operation, and analysis of large systems are less complex because
individual circuits are hydraulically isolated (i.e., they function dynamically
independent of each other).
• The primary and secondary circuits can be designed for different flow character-
istics. For instance, the secondary circuit can incorporate two-way valves for
improved control and energy efficiency, and the primary circuit can be operated
at a constant flow to prevent freezing of chillers.

Two-Speed/Variable-Speed Pumping
Standard two-speed motors used in pumps are quite common. They are available in
1750/1150 rpm, 1750/850 rpm, 1150/850 rpm, and 3500/1750 rpm speeds. At a decrease
in system flow, these pump motors will reduce overpressurization—the difference
between the pump pressure and the system pressure and a condition that occurs in con-
trolled flow systems.
In contrast to two-speed pumping, variable-speed pumping uses variable-frequency
drives (VFDs) that are normally available with an infinite speed range. The pump with the
correct controls will be able to follow the system curve and, therefore, like the two-speed
pump, avoid any overpressurization effects.

SYSTEMS DESIGN PROCEDURE

Provided the cooling loads, temperature and pressure requirements, and limitations of
the equipment to be cooled are understood, engineers and designers may proceed with
designing the process cooling system. For a given application, the following basic steps
should be followed:
1. Preliminary equipment layout
a. Determine water flow rates in mains and laterals. Starting from the most
remote terminal and progressing toward the pump, sequentially list the
cumulative flow in each of the mains and branch circuits for the entire distri-
bution system.
b. Determine preliminary pipe sizes.
c. Determine preliminary pressure drop. For each pipe size determined in step 1b,
determine the pressure drop in each segment of the distribution system.
d. Select preliminary pump. The pump should be selected based on its ability to
meet the determined capacity requirements.
2. Final pipe sizing and pressure drop determination
a. Determine final piping layout. Make the necessary adjustments of the pre-
liminary layout to optimize the design based on economics and functionality.
b. Determine final pressure drop. Repeat step 1c based on the final piping layout.
c. Select final pump. Based on the final pressure drop calculation in step 2b,
plot a pump curve and a system curve and select the pump that operates clos-
est to the design point (the intersection of the two curves).

REFERENCES
ASHRAE. 2015. Chapter 49, Water treatment: Deposition, corrosion, and biological con-
trol. In ASHRAE handbook—HVAC applications. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2012. Chapter 13, Hydronic heating and cooling. In ASHRAE handbook—
HVAC systems and equipment. Atlanta: ASHRAE.

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Air
Treatment

OVERVIEW
8
Treatment of air, either before it is supplied to a space or before it is exhausted to the
environment, is often required for the safety and health of occupants or people near the
building or for processes that require special conditions. Air treatment involves an under-
standing of the following:
• Requirements for acceptable and safe levels of pollutants
• Air treatment technologies

This chapter reviews the requirements for allowable concentration limits of typical
gases and particulates for state and local ambient concentration limits for short-term
exposure, occupational health limits for long-term exposure, and maximum concentration
levels for preventing unwanted odors. This is followed by a discussion of the technologies
available to achieve acceptable levels.

REQUIREMENTS FOR ACCEPTABLE AND

SAFE LEVELS OF POLLUTANTS
The requirements for acceptable and safe levels of pollutants are based on various
codes and standards typically developed to protect industrial workers who are exposed to
the chemicals. In this section, the allowable concentrations for chemicals are reviewed,
followed by a discussion of the consequences of exposure to excessive concentrations.
Requirements for industrial processes (electronic manufacturing, etc.) are not discussed,
as the laboratory designer will not determine them but rather be given the requirements as
a prerequisite.

ALLOWABLE CONCENTRATION LIMITS

The allowable concentration limit of a pollutant depends on the type of pollutant and
the length of a person’s exposure to it. State and local ambient concentration limits are
maximum limits for short-term exposure, whereas occupational health limits are for
exposures that are relatively constant for an extended period of time (e.g., eight hours).
Therefore, the state and local ambient code limits are typically significantly lower than
those for occupational health limits.
[Link] Page 132 Thursday, August 6, 2015 2:36 PM

State and Local Ambient Concentration Limits for Short-Term Exposure

Most state and local ambient concentration limits are intended to account for instanta-
neous or short-term exposure. Because these limits account for the exposure of sensitive
individuals, they have a safety factor of 40 to 300 (depending on the chemical and the
state) compared to the occupational health limits, which must not be exceeded (Petersen
and Ratcliff 1991).
To properly account for actual exposures during worst-case releases, usually spills or
accidents, it is necessary to calculate the evaporation rate of the liquid chemical. Typi-
cally, information on chemical emission rates from existing or proposed local laboratory
sites are insufficient.
Once armed with preliminary information of the key chemicals to be used at a local
site, Equation 8-1, developed by Kawamura and MacKay (1987), can be used to calculate
the evaporation (mass emission) rate, which is primarily dependent on the saturation
vapor pressure of the liquid:

E = k ·M ·P  T s    RT  (8-1)

where
E = evaporation rate per unit area, g/m2h
k = mass transfer coefficient, m/h
M = molecular weight
P(Ts) = vapor pressure of the chemical evaluated at the surface of the pool, Pa
R = gas constant (8.314 Pa·m3/mol·K)
T = absolute temperature, K

Using the calculated emission rates of various chemicals along with their correspond-
ing health threshold concentrations, a ratio of emission rate to thresholds can be used to
rank chemicals in terms of their relative potential to be harmful. That is, a chemical with a
high emission rate and low odor or health threshold would cause the most adverse effects.
Table 8-1 presents a list of estimated emission rates and health thresholds for a few
selected chemicals.
Occupational Health Limits for Long-Term Exposure
Occupational health limits are typically expressed as an 8-hour time-weighted aver-
age (TWA) concentration to which healthy individuals can be exposed during a 40-hour
work week with no significant health effects (Petersen and Ratcliff 1991). The Occupa-
tional Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the American Conference of Gov-
ernmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) publish lists of, respectively, permissible
exposure limits (PELs) and threshold limit values (TLVs) for various chemicals. The
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) publishes recommended
exposure limits (RELs), which are limits based on human and animal studies and recom-
mended to OSHA. Whereas RELs and TLVs are recommendations and guidelines, PELs
are legally binding and OSHA has the authority to warn, cite, or fine violators if workers’
exposure exceeds PELs.
Refer to the latest OSHA-published PELs and ACGIH-published TLV-TWA thresh-
olds for chemicals (OSHA n.d.; ACGIH 2001a). The thresholds are listed as parts by vol-
ume of gas or vapor per million parts by volume of contaminated air.
Detailed rationale for the determination of the TLVs is available from ACGIH
(2001a). Basically, the exposure is the average exposure per hour divided by the length of
the workday (eight hours). The calculated exposure must not exceed the given limit.

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Table 8-1
Estimated Emission Rates and Health Thresholds for Selected Chemicals
(Adapted from Petersen and Ratcliff [1991])

Emission Rate (Q), Health Limit (HL), HL/Q · 1 g/s,5

Chemical Limit Type
lbm/s (g/s) lbm/ft3 (μg/m3) lbm/ft3 (μg/m3)
Isopropyl mercaptan4 3.68  10–6 (0.00167) N/A N/A N/A
Bromine—100 g spill2 8.82  10–4 (0.4) 1.25  10–7 (2000) ACGIH STEL 3.12  10–7 (5000)
Hydrogen fluoride4 8.82  10–4 (0.2) 1.62  10–7 (2600) ACGIH CEIL 8.11  10–7 (13 000)
Ethylene oxide4 6.67  10–3 (3.026) 5.61  10–7 (9000) NIOSH—10 min 1.86  10–7 (2974)
Chloroform1 9.44  10–3 (4.28) 6.26  10–7 (10 000) NIOSH—60 min 1.46  10–7 (2336)
Ammonia—2 lb spill3 2.38  10–3 (1.08) 1.50  10–6 (24 000) ACGIH STEL 1.39  10–6 (22 222)
Dichloromethane1 9.39  10–3 (4.26) 1.09  10–5 (174 000) ACGIH TWA 2.55  10–6 (40 845)
1 2.07  10–3 6.31  10–6 6.70  10–6 (107 447)
Acetonitrile (0.94) (101 000) ACGIH STEL
Tetrahydrofuran1 5.64  10–3 (2.56) 4.61  10–5 (738 000) ACGIH STEL 1.80  10–5 (288 281)
Acetone1 5.05  10–3 (2.29) 1.49  10–4 (2 380 000) ACGIH STEL 6.49  10–5 (1 039 301)
Hexane1 6.62  10–3 (3) 1.12  10–4 (1 800 000) ACGIH—15 min 3.74  10–5 (600 000)
Ethyl acetate1 4.48  10–3 (2.03) 8.75  10–5 (1 400 000) ACGIH TWA 4.30  10–5 (689 655)
STEL = short-term exposure limit
CEIL = ceiling limit
TWA = time-weighted average
1 Emission rate estimated assuming a 1 gal (4 L) spill and 6 × 6 ft (2 x 2 m) pool; thermal effects included.
2 Emission rate estimated assuming a 0.08 gal (310 mL) spill and 1.5 × 1.5 ft (0.5 x 0.5 m) pool; thermal effects included.
3 Emission rate estimated assuming a 0.3 gal (1 L) spill and 3 × 3 ft (1 x 1 m) pool; no thermal effects included (little variation of vapor pres-
sure with temperature).
4 Emission rate estimated with supplied mass and release durations.
5 These numbers are used for comparison with wind tunnel results when Q = 0.22 lb/s (1 g/s).

Some substances are also given a ceiling value that cannot be exceeded during any 15-
minute period. Other chemicals have an eight-hour weighted maximum value, an accept-
able ceiling value (ACV), and a maximum peak value (MPV) for a given duration. The
concentration is allowed to exceed the ACV but not the MPV.
The general guidance for acceptable pollutant concentrations in commercial office
buildings is one-tenth the TLV (ASHRAE 2013a).
Preventing Unwanted Odors
Odor perception is a very complicated process with significant individual variation.
Chemicals with molecular masses greater than 300 are generally odorless (ASHRAE
2013b). Humans can perceive chemicals with molecular weights less than 300 if the con-
centration is above an odor threshold limit, which can be as low as 0.1 parts per billion
(ppb). This is often too low to be detected by a direct reading instrument. Refer to the lat-
est ACGIH-published TLV odor level thresholds (ACGIH 2001b). For more discussion of
odors, refer to Chapter 12 of ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals (ASHRAE 2013b). A
safety factor of greater than 1 is required to ensure that occupants can detect the odor
before the hazardous levels of the gases are present. Ruth (1986) suggests that both upper
and lower limits for odors be documented to account for differences in individuals and
experimental techniques.
It is important from an occupant satisfaction basis to recognize that only chemicals
with safety factors greater than 1 and with odor threshold limits below the occupational
limit are important. The reason for this is that occupants will smell the odor before it is
harmful, and their satisfaction with the environment decreases with increasing odors.

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Conversely, from a health basis, it is those chemicals with odor threshold limits above
occupational limits that are of concern. The reason is that once the occupants smell the
chemical, they are already at risk for health problems.
In sensitive areas, such as universities and mixed-use spaces, it is recommended that
lower limits (i.e., concentrations where only a few individuals can detect the odor) be
used. An average between the lower and upper limits can be used in less sensitive areas
such as chemical manufacturing plants (Petersen and Ratcliff 1991).

CONSEQUENCES OF EXPOSURE TO EXCESSIVE CONCENTRATIONS

Inadequate performance of systems that results in exposure of users to contaminants
above limits given in codes and standards can cause both reversible and irreversible health
effects. While skin irritation and headaches are milder reactions that usually are revers-
ible, cancer, chronic respiratory disease, and heart diseases are reactions to exposure to
hazardous substances that are often irreversible. Unfortunately, the causes of symptoms
are hard to distinguish from other causes, such as viruses and stress reactions. Therefore,
identifying the substance causing the symptoms is difficult, as odors can cause milder
symptoms such as headaches, nausea, and loss of appetite without exposures that exceed
safe limits.

AIR TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Air treatment technologies are applied in the exhaust or the supply based on what
contaminants need to be reduced to an acceptable level. Technologies available to achieve
acceptable levels of pollutants include fan-powered dilution, filtration, scrubbing, con-
densing, and oxidation.

FAN-POWERED DILUTION
Using fan-powered dilution systems is the most common method for handling labora-
tory exhaust effluent, and some laboratory experts suggest that the systems should be
thoroughly evaluated before selecting air treatment processes (Wunder 2000). These dilu-
tion systems induce clean (outdoor) air into the contaminated airstream and thereby dilute
the contaminant exit concentration. The dilution increases the air volume out of the stack
and thereby increases the effective stack height, which also ensures good mixing. This
strategy can be used with variable-air-volume (VAV) systems to ensure adequate stack
exit velocity under all operating conditions. The use of dilution fans is briefly discussed
in the Select Fume Exhaust Fans section of Chapter 6.

FILTRATION
Filtration is a treatment process that traps particles or gas in a filter that, when it fills
up, can be removed or cleaned. Often, different filtration media are used in series to
extend the life of the more expensive, higher-efficiency filter. For example, pleated filters
are usually used as prefilters to bag, electrostatic, or activated carbon filters.
Terms commonly used to describe the particles that get trapped by the filters include
the following (ASHRAE 2013c):
• Dust—Particles less than 100 µm.
• Fume—Solid particles formed by condensation of vapors on solid materials.
• Smoke—Small solid and liquid particles (and gas) produced by incomplete
combustion.
• Bioaerosol—Virus, bacteria, fungi, and pollen.
• Mist—Airborne small droplets.

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• Fog—Fine airborne droplets (smaller than mist) normally produced by conden-

sation.
• Smog—Air pollution of particles (solid, liquid, and gas) that impairs visibility
and is irritating or harmful.

Particulate Filters
Particulate filters are mechanical devices that use five mechanisms to collect particles:
• Straining. The membrane openings of the filter are smaller than the larger parti-
cles, which are blocked from passing through the filter.
• Direct interception. The particle follows a flow line that results in direct contact
with a filter fiber and thus becomes attached to the fiber.
• Inertial deposition. The particle initially follows a flow line around a fiber but,
because of sufficient size or inertia, deviates from the flow line and comes in con-
tact with a fiber in the filter and attaches to the fiber. A higher percentage of the
particles will collide with the fiber at high velocities due to increased inertia, but
because of increased high drag and bouncing forces at high velocities, the fibers
should have an adhesive coating to ensure that the particles stay in the filter.
• Diffusion. Very small particles have a random movement about their streamline
(Brownian motion) that can cause the particle to contact a fiber and thereby
become attached. This effect is increased with decreasing velocity and decreas-
ing particle size.
• Electrostatic effect. The particles are charged and pass by an oppositely charged
surface to which they are attracted and attached.

Common types of particulate filters include the following:

• Fibrous media unit filters. With this type of filter, particles accumulate on the fil-
ter, causing the filtration efficiency and the filter differential pressure to increase
as the filter becomes loaded. However, at high particulate loading, the efficiency
of some filters decreases due to offloading. These types of filters should be
replaced when there is reduced filtration efficiency or the filters reach the upper
limit for pressure drop. The efficiency of high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA)
filters, however, increases with loading, but less air is moved due to an increase
in pressure drop, thus leading to the need for their replacement. Fibrous media
filters can range from coarse low-efficiency filters to ultrafine high-efficiency
filters (with greater than 99.999% efficiency for 0.12 m particles). Particulate-
matter filters having a minimum efficiency reporting value (MERV) of 6 should
be used (ASHRAE 2013a). Examples of typical fibrous media unit filters are
shown in Figure 8-1.
• Renewable media filters. These filters remain at constant pressure and efficiency
by periodically introducing new fibrous filter media into the filtration stream.
• Electronic air cleaners. This technology charges particles and collects them on
an oppositely charged plate. Electronic air cleaners have relatively constant
pressure loss and high filtration efficiency.

Any of the above can be combined to create an efficient filtration system.

Gas-Phase Filters
Gas-phase filters adsorb gaseous contaminants by Van der Waals forces, which are
created by physically broken or heated surfaces. Activated carbon is a commonly used
adsorbent, as it has an enormous internal surface area compared to its mass (1000 m2 to
1 g [10,800 ft2 to 0.035 oz] of activated carbon). Other common adsorbents include acti-

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Figure 8-1
Typical Fibrous
Media Unit
Filters

(Modified with
permission from
Jasun Envirocare,
PLC)

vated alumina silica gel and molecular sieves. Alumina silica gel will absorb water to the
exclusion of other chemicals and is for that reason often used to dry airstreams. Molecular
sieves are used for specialized pollution control where a specific contaminant needs to be
removed.
The adsorbent in gas filters can be impregnated with a chemically reactive substance
to contain contaminants that are too loosely bound to the adsorbent alone to improve fil-
tration efficiency. The temperature, concentration, and molecular mass of the contaminant
determine the capacity of the adsorbent. The adsorbent process is reversible, and high
temperatures or solutions of contaminants in a liquid can reactivate the adsorbent.
There are three types of equipment for adsorption:
• Fixed beds—The absorbent is periodically regenerated or replaced.
• Moving beds—Moving the adsorbent as granular in cycles allows regeneration
of the adsorbent and thereby better pollution control.
• Fluidized beds—Suspends fine particles of adsorbent in the gas stream.

Filter Retaining System

Particulate filters and gas-phase filters used in laboratory applications may have to be
secured in nuclear-grade bag-in/bag-out housings to protect maintenance personnel from
exposure to hazardous materials during change-out procedures. Also, without an engi-
neered filter clamping mechanism, filter bypass can take place, contaminating down-
stream ductwork and associated equipment. These systems are custom-designed systems
supplied by the manufacturer.
Figure 8-2 shows a filter housing with an isolation valve on each end, pressure differ-
ential readings across each filter section, and bag-in/bag-out housing.

SCRUBBING
Scrubbers are air treatment systems that use a liquid (typically water) to dissolve or
react with the gases to be removed. In the process of removing the gases, scrubbers may

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Figure 8-2
Typical
Filter Housing

(Courtesy of
Flanders
Corporation)

also remove particles that the liquid comes into contact with. The liquid and air are in
direct contact by spraying, by dripping the liquid onto a packing through which the air-
stream is passed, or by bubbling the exhaust through the liquid. The by-product of scrub-
bing is a liquid solution or solid particles. The liquid can be disposed of or cleaned when
the concentration of pollutant in the water is at a level where the efficiency of the scrub-
bing process is reduced, and the particles can be removed by particulate filters. The three
main categories of scrubbers are dry, wet, and particulate.
Dry scrubbing uses an alkaline water solution sprayed into an acid airstream. The
acid is absorbed onto the water solution droplet and reacts with the alkaline to form a salt.
Solid salt particles then form as the water evaporates, and filters capture the particles. It is
important that sufficient time be allotted between the introduction of the alkaline solution
and the particulate filter to ensure that the solution and acid reacted and that the water
evaporated. Gases typically cleaned with this type of scrubber are hydrochloric acid (from
biological waste incinerators), sulfuric acid, sulfur trioxide, sulfur oxides, and hydrogen
fluoride.
Wet packed scrubbers remove gaseous contaminates by absorption on the water sur-
face. Particles are removed by impingement of the particles on the liquid droplets. While
there is no limit to the particulate removal, the gaseous removal is limited by the partial
vapor pressure of the gas. As long as the partial vapor pressure of the gas with respect to
the liquid is above the partial pressure of the gas in the exhaust, the gas will be absorbed
into the water. Packing material is typically used to distribute the water to provide a large
contact area. The packing material should have a high void ratio to ensure a low pressure
drop. Common wet packed-scrubber configurations are these:
• Horizontal co-current scrubber
• Vertical co-current scrubber
• Cross-flow scrubber
• Countercurrent scrubber

Particulate scrubbers remove particles by impingement of the particles onto water

droplets. Direct interception, inertial deposition, and diffusion are mechanisms in particu-
late scrubbers that are similar to mechanisms in particulate filters. An additional mecha-
nism in particulate scrubbers is condensation. Condensation occurs when the air or gas is

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cooled below its dew point. The vapor condenses on the dust particles, which serve as
condensation nuclei. The dust particles become larger and the chance of removal is
increased. For a given type of particulate scrubber, the efficiency increases as the power
applied increases.
The advantages of particulate scrubbers are as follows:
• Constant operating pressure
• No secondary dust source
• Small-parts requirements
• Ability to collect both gases and particles
• Low cost
• Ability to handle both high-temperature and high-humidity gas streams
• Reduced possibility of fire or explosions
• Reasonably small space requirements

The disadvantages of particulate scrubbers are as follows:

• High susceptibility to corrosion
• High humidity in discharge airstream can cause visible exhaust plume
• Large pressure drop, high power requirement
• Possibly difficult or incurs high cost to dispose of wastewater
• Rapidly decreasing efficiency for particles less than 1 µm
• Freeze protection may be required in cold climates

The different types of particulate scrubbers are these:

• Spray towers and impingement scrubbers. The gas stream or airstream passes
through a single spray or several sprays or a series of irrigated baffles. These
scrubbers are low-energy scrubbers (up to 2 kJ/m3, 0.25 to 1.5 kPa) and gener-
ally have a low degree of particle removal (50% to 99% efficiency for particle
sizes down to 2 µm).
• Centrifugal-type collectors. The gas stream or airstream enters the scrubber tan-
gentially. These scrubbers are medium-energy scrubbers (2 to 6 kJ/m3, 1.5 to
4.5 kPa).
• Orifice-type collectors. The gas stream or airstream passes through narrow
openings where the gas/air and the liquid interact. These scrubbers are medium-
energy scrubbers (2 to 6 kJ/m3, 1.5 to 4.5 kPa).
• Venturi scrubber. The gas stream or airstream is accelerated up to 60 m/s
through a venturi. The liquid is injected right before or at the throat. The rapid
acceleration shears the water into a fine mist, which increases the chance of
impact. These scrubbers are high-energy scrubbers (>6 kJ/m3, >4.5 kPa).
• Electrostatic augmented scrubber. This is a combination of a particulate scrub-
ber and electrostatic filter.

For a more detailed discussion of scrubbers, refer to Chapter 30 of ASHRAE Hand-

book—HVAC Systems and Equipment (ASHRAE 2012).

CONDENSING
Condensing is a process in which gas or vapor in an airstream condenses on a cold
surface or on particles in the airstream. The airstream to be cleaned is cooled to a temper-
ature lower than the dew-point temperature of the gas/vapor in the airstream. The con-
densed gas/vapor can be removed as a liquid or by removing the larger particles
containing the contaminant particle. The cooling capacity of the condenser must be larger

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than the latent and sensible heat that must be removed, including the latent heat capacity
of other gases/vapors that condense.
Gases are removed to a level equal to the partial vapor pressure for the contaminant at
the leaving air temperature. When condensing is used to remove particles, the efficiency
of the filtration process depends on how much the particle sizes are increased by the con-
densing liquid and how efficient the filtration equipment is after the condensing has
occurred.

OXIDATION
Oxidation of gas is a treatment that breaks down the contaminant into chemicals that
are inert or less harmless. This process is, in essence, the same as incineration, but the
contaminant is usually at a concentration so low that ignition is impossible. The treatment
can be accomplished by using catalysts (catalytic incineration), by increasing the temper-
ature to initialize the wanted reaction (thermal incineration), or by bleeding a strong oxi-
dizer such as ozone into the airstream.
Adsorption and incineration can be combined to reduce the size of the incinerator and
the energy consumption of the incineration process as much as 98%. In this combination,
the contaminants are accumulated in the adsorption material until it is saturated. The gas
stream is then switched to another bed of adsorption material, while the contaminants in
the saturated adsorption material are driven off by hot inert gas and incinerated. The vol-
ume of this contaminated gas stream is significantly lower, reducing the energy needed
for incineration.

REFERENCES
ACGIH. 2001a. Documentation of the threshold limit values and biological exposure
indices, 7th ed. Cincinnati: American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists.
ACGIH. 2001b. Threshold limit values for chemical substances and physical agents and
biological exposure indices. Cincinnati: American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists.
ASHRAE. 2013a. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2013, Ventilation for acceptable
indoor air quality. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2012. Chapter 30, Industrial gas cleaning and air pollution control. In
ASHRAE handbook—HVAC systems and equipment. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2013b. Chapter 12, Odors. In ASHRAE handbook—Fundamentals. Atlanta:
ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2013c. Chapter 11, Air contaminants. In ASHRAE handbook—Fundamentals.
Atlanta: ASHRAE.
Kawamura, P.I., and D. MacKay. 1987. The evaporation of volatile liquids. Journal of
Hazardous Materials 15:343–64.
OSHA. n.d. Table Z-1 Limits for air contaminants. 29 CFR Part 1910, Occupational safety
and health standards, toxic and hazardous substances. Washington, DC: U.S. Depart-
ment of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. [Link]/pls/
oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=standards&p_id=9992.
Petersen, R.L., and M.A. Ratcliff. 1991. An objective approach to laboratory stack
design. ASHRAE Transactions 97(2):553–62.
Ruth, J.H. 1986. Odor thresholds and irritation levels of several chemical substances: A
review. Journal of American Industrial Hygienists Association 47:A-142.

8 · Air Treatment 139

[Link] Page 140 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:38 AM

Wunder, J.S. 2000. Personal communication from operating experiences with laboratory
equipment, University of Wisconsin–Madison.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
ACS. 1995. Guide for chemical spill response planning in laboratories. Washington,
DC: CEI/CCS Task Force on Laboratory Waste Management, American Chemical
Society. [Link]/content/acs/en/about/governance/committees/chemicalsafety/
publications/[Link].
ASHRAE. 2012. Chapter 29, Air cleaners for particulate contaminants. In ASHRAE
handbook—HVAC systems and equipment. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
NIOSH. 2010. Pocket guide to chemical hazards department of health and human ser-
vices. Cincinnati, OH: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

140 ASHRAE Laboratory Design Guide, Second Edition

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Exhaust
Stack Design

OVERVIEW
9
A critical function of a laboratory system is properly exhausting polluted air from a
building to avoid pollutant concentrations that are higher than the limits given by codes
and standards in sensitive areas, such as air intakes, sidewalks, and building entrances.
This chapter examines the following topics:
• Elements of stack design
• Dispersion modeling
In these sections, the required elements for good stack design and the modeling tech-
niques available to verify a design are presented in detail. Finally, models that can help
determine the effects of the design are explained. These models document how the design
of the exhaust will perform.

ELEMENTS OF STACK DESIGN

The key elements of stack design are the parameters that influence the dispersion of
the gas and the airflow around buildings. The latter is of particular interest, because it has
a significant impact on where the pollutants go and is a very complex issue involving the
effects of a building’s shape and its neighboring buildings on airflow as well as the
effects of wind direction and static pressure around the building. The design should avoid
reentrainment into building air intakes and contamination of building entrances, exits,
and adjacent buildings. These design parameters are put into context in the Design Issues
subsection. The issues include aesthetics, energy use, noise and vibration, weather control
and drainage, mixing of contaminated airstreams, and maintaining sufficient plume
height. Problems with exhaust stacks are release in turbulent airflow, insufficient plume
height, stack-tip downwash, and contamination of elevated receptors.

STACK DESIGN PARAMETERS

The key parameters that affect stack design are as follows:
• Stack height
• Exit velocity/exit diameter/volumetric flow rate
• Intake locations
• Surrounding structures
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The plume height must be sufficient to ensure that the exhaust plume is sufficiently
diluted when it reaches sensitive areas such as building air intakes, entrances, operable
windows, and outdoor plazas. The appropriate plume height is a function of the plume
rise and the physical stack height for the exhaust system being designed and the subse-
quent dispersion, or concentration levels, at the aforementioned sensitive locations. While
the dispersion modeling process is described in detail in the Dispersion Modeling section,
this section focuses on the method for calculating plume height. The information pre-
sented in this section can be used to compare the plume heights for different exhaust sys-
tems. If two exhaust systems give the same plume height, the dispersion and resulting
concentration levels will be identical. The plume height calculation can also be used to
determine the most energy-efficient fan system to achieve the same plume rise. For exam-
ple, the same plume rise may be achieved by adding 5 to 10 ft (1.5 to 3.0 m) to the physi-
cal height of the stack and decreasing the exit velocity/volume flow rate, which results in
a more energy-efficient system.
The plume height should be calculated at the downwind distance for each air intake
of interest based on the stack height and not corrected for buoyancy but reduced if stack-
tip downwash occurs:

he = hs + hr – hd (9-1)

where
he = plume centerline height, ft (m)
hs = stack height, ft (m)
hr = plume rise above stack top at a given downwind distance, ft (m)
hd = stack-tip downwash, ft (m)

This is a conservative approach that includes safety margins.

For a plume with a low momentum flux (Fm) and a sufficiently high wind speed, the
plume rise (hr) will be close to zero and the lower edge of the plume will spread down-
ward approximately one unit for every five units the plume goes forward. Since it is
important that the plume be high enough to avoid contact with building objects and recir-
culation wake regions, significant plume rise and/or stack height is beneficial (see
Figure 9-1). Enhanced plume rise can be accomplished by increasing the momentum flux.
If a rain cap is added to the exhaust stack, the plume rise is zero. Therefore, rain caps are

Figure 9-1
Plume Rise

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not recommended for laboratory exhaust stacks. The plume rise versus its downwind dis-
tance from a stack can be calculated using Equation 9-2:

  3F m  x  1 / 3 
-  h f 
h r = min   ------------------- (9-2)
   2j  U H 2


where

d2
F m = V e2  ------ , momentum flux, ft4/s2 (m4/s2) (9-3)
 4

 1.2U H 
 j = 0.4 +  ----------------
- , jet entrainment coefficient (9-4)
 Ve 

0.9  F m  U H  U *  1 / 2
h f = -----------------------------------------------------
-, final plume rise, ft (m) (9-5)
U H   j

U H  U * = 2.5 ln  H  z o  , logarithmic wind profile equation (9-6)

and
 = design parameter; 1.0 without cap, 0 with cap
x = distance downwind of stack, ft (m)
Ve = stack exit velocity, fpm (m/s)
d = stack diameter, ft (m)
UH = wind speed at stack top, fpm (m/s)
H = stack height above ground level (e.g., building height plus stack height), ft (m)
U* = friction velocity, ft (m)
zo = surface roughness length, ft (m)

Table 9.1 provides examples of zo values for a range of sites. For example, if zo equals
0.6 m (suburban) and H = 13 m, substituting into the logarithmic wind profile equation
(Equation 9.6) gives UH/U* = 7.7. The zo values in Table 9-1, specifically those for the
suburban and urban environments, are on the high end for these categories. As such, they
tend to result in conservative (i.e., low) plume rise calculations. Site-specific zo can be
obtained through such programs as AERSURFACE (EPA 2013), a free program by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) that can be downloaded at [Link]
/scram001/dispersion _related.htm.

Table 9-1 Terrain

zo,
a
,
Terrain Factors ft (m) ft (m)

Flat, water, desert 0.03 (0.01) 0.10 640 (195)

Flat, airport, grassland 0.16 (0.05) 0.14 820 (250)

Suburban 2.0 (0.6) 0.22 1130 (344)

Urban 6.0 (1.8) 0.33 1400 (427)

zo = surface roughness length, a = exponent that varies with the roughness of the terrain
for the local point, and  = boundary layer thickness of airstream approaching the building.

9 · Exhaust Stack Design 143

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Figure 9-2
Stack
Downwash

(ASHRAE
[2015b],
Figure 3)

A counteractive force to the plume rise is the stack-tip downwash that occurs when
the exhaust air is caught within the wake on the leeward side of the stack. This occurs
when the wind speed is high compared to the stack exit velocity. ASHRAE (2015b) rec-
ommends that the stack velocity be at least 1.5 times higher than the design wind speed
(exceeded 1% to 5% of the time) to minimize the effect of wind-induced downwash and
provide good initial dilution. For situations where downwash will occur (Ve /UH < 1.5),
the additional stack height needed to compensate for the reduced plume rise (see
Figure 9-2) can be calculated using Equation 9-7 (ASHRAE 2015b, Equation 9):

h d = d e  3 – V e  U H  (9-7)

where hd is the additional stack height needed to compensate for downwash.

It should be noted that Snyder and Lawson (1991) showed that Equation 9-7 is
extremely conservative for most large-diameter stacks (those greater than about 10 in.
[254 mm]). Their work showed that stack-tip downwash does not occur for any practical
wind condition (i.e., when Ve /UH < 0.3). This work shows that significant energy savings
can be achieved by using lower exhaust velocities and confirming that the dispersion is
adequate to avoid fume reentry.
Equations 9-2 and 9-7 rely on an accurate estimation of the wind speed. Because the
average wind speed is typically not measured at the actual building location but at a mete-
orological station, the measured wind speed must be corrected for the actual location (see
Figure 9-3). This is accomplished using Equation 9-8 (ASHRAE 2013):

  met  a met  H  a
U H = U met  ------------
-  ----- (9-8)
 H met  

where
UH = wind speed at stack top, fpm (m/s)
Umet = wind speed at the meteorological station, fpm (m/s)
met = boundary layer thickness at the meteorological station, ft (m)
Hmet = height of the meteorological station, ft (m)
amet = roughness factor for the meteorological station, dimensionless
H = stack height above ground, ft (m)

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Figure 9-3
Wind
Calculation
from
Meteorological
Station
to the
Point of Interest

 = boundary layer thickness of airstream approaching the building

a = exponent that varies with the roughness of the terrain for the local point, dimen-
sionless

The boundary layer is defined as the transition from no velocity (ground) to uniform
velocity (gradient height). The height of the boundary layer () and the exponent (a)
depend on the roughness factor of the local upwind terrain. Values for these variables
have been experimentally defined for the selected terrain types shown in Table 9-1.
For variable-air-volume (VAV) systems, it is important to design the stack for all vol-
umetric flow rates so that adequate dispersion is obtained at the lowest exhaust flow rate.
This can be accomplished by carrying out a dispersion modeling analysis as described in
the Dispersion Modeling section. The dispersion modeling analysis may show that a
higher exit velocity is needed at the low flow setting and that the exhaust diameter will
have to be sized accordingly or the stack height increased. Alternatively, outdoor air can
be introduced into the exhaust stream before the exhaust fan to maintain the minimum
volumetric flow rate and exhaust velocity needed to avoid fume reentry. A variable-geom-
etry exhaust stack that maintains constant velocity regardless of flow can be used but may
not be feasible, because the plume rise is a function of both exit velocity and volumetric
flow rate, as Equation 9.2 shows. Therefore, caution should be used when implementing a
variable-geometry exhaust stack. Maintaining a constant exit velocity does not correspond
to maintaining constant plume rise, as can be verified using the previously presented
plume rise formulas. When the diameter is decreased, so is the plume rise, even though
the exit velocity has remained constant. Therefore, to evaluate the stack performance, dis-
persion modeling should be conducted using the minimum potential stack diameter to
provide assurance that downwind concentrations remain within acceptable limits.
When using a variable-geometry exhaust stack, an iris-type device at the stack exit
that opens and closes to increase or decrease the exit velocity should be avoided at all
times. This device creates a trip that significantly increases the turbulence intensity of the
exhaust flow through the stack, increasing the static pressure drop and ultimately reduc-
ing plume rise. Dampers at the end of the stack can create similar issues, because the
leading edge of each louver can trip the flow, and the blades are typically too narrow to
reestablish fully developed flow. Rather, the variable-geometry device should provide a
smooth transition from the larger diameter of the exhaust stack to the smaller diameter of
the device while maintaining fully developed flow throughout the transition.

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A final design parameter to consider when locating and sizing exhaust stacks is the
location of the outdoor air intakes. It is critical that the intake locations be carefully eval-
uated to avoid contamination from the laboratory exhaust system. In addition, the air
intakes should be located so as to avoid other sources of contaminants, such as surround-
ing building emission sources, dust, fumes from traffic, kitchen exhaust, cooling towers,
plumbing vents, loading docks, and leaf-shedding trees.

AIRFLOW AROUND BUILDINGS

The local climate, in particular the wind, is an important parameter for designing
stacks for laboratories. Knowledge of the airflow around and over buildings is necessary
to avoid contaminating sensitive areas such as building air intakes, building entrances and
exits, sidewalks, and adjacent buildings’ sensitive areas.
Contaminating the air around building intakes and entrances results in reentrainment
of the contaminants exhausted from the laboratories and in contamination of the surround-
ing buildings. However, determining the airflow around buildings is complicated even for
simple geometrical structures. The important parameters for understanding the effect
wind has on pollution reentrainment are airflow patterns, relative static pressures around
buildings, and adjacent building effects. Wind data can be retrieved from the National Cli-
matic Data Center in Asheville, North Carolina, and local meteorological stations.
Airflow Patterns
The upwind velocity profile, the upwind turbulence, the angle of the approach wind,
and the shape of the building—all influence the airflow pattern around a building. The
upwind terrain influences the upwind velocity profile. Rougher terrain has higher bound-
ary layers and the free wind speed is reached at higher levels. The wind speed that influ-
ences the flow around the building (UH) will be higher for a building where the terrain is
flat compared to that of a building in an urban setting where the terrain is rougher when
the free wind speed is the same. The upwind terrain also influences the turbulence of the
wind hitting the building. This turbulence created by an upwind building can cause parts
of the building to be in the wake or otherwise complicate the airflow pattern, which can
be important when considering the stack height. The angle of the approach wind signifi-
cantly influences the pressure, surface flow pattern, and size and shape of wake regions
around the building (see flow patterns in Figure 9-4).

Figure 9-4
Flow Patterns
around
Rectangular
Buildings

(ASHRAE [2015b],
Figure 4)

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A stagnation point exists on the windward wall and separation occurs at sharp edges.
Separation of the airflow creates turbulence and recirculation. The airflow can reattach to
the building surface if the building extends far enough downwind. Figure 9-4 illustrates
the flow pattern around rectangular buildings. As wind speeds increase, a larger stagna-
tion pressure occurs at the top of the building, resulting in a downwash on the lower one-
half or two-thirds of the upwind wall. The top one-quarter or one-third has a flow that is
directed upward. However, a horizontal flow can exist in the intermediate zone if the
building height is more than three times the width of the building. The size of the recircu-
lating zones created by separation of the flow at sharp edges can be estimated with the
help of the scaling length, R (see Equation 9-11), which can be applied to the different
locations of separation. While the sizes of these zones will vary over time due to the tur-
bulent flow in the approaching wind and the wake region, the important fact to understand
is where air is recirculating and where exhaust flows should not be located to avoid recir-
culation into the building.
Relative Static Pressures around Buildings
The difference between the static pressures outside buildings and inside buildings
influences where exfiltration and infiltration occur. The static pressure distribution on the
outside of the building, according to ASHRAE (2013), varies with the angle of attack of
the wind. In general, the static pressure caused by wind will be positive on the upward
wind surface until the angle of attack exceeds 45°, the static pressure will be negative on
the upward wind surface when the angle of attack exceeds 75°, and both positive and neg-
ative pressures exist when the angle of attack is between 45° and 75°. On the leeward
side, the static pressure will always be negative. The pressure on the roof caused by wind
will, on average, be negative, but roof angles steeper than 20°will have parts of or the
whole upwind side at a positive pressure. The static pressure can be calculated from
Equation 9-9:

Ps = C P  Pv (9-9)

where
Ps = static pressure, in. w.g. (Pa)
CP = static pressure coefficient, dimensionless
Pv = velocity pressure, in. w.g. (Pa)
CP for different wind directions, building shapes, and locations on the building can be
found from figures and tables in ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals (ASHRAE 2013).
The spatially average static pressure coefficient summarized around the building (all four
walls) is approximately CP , sum = –0.2.
The velocity pressure can be calculated from Equation 9-10:

  UH 2
P v = ----------------
- (9-10)
2C 2

where
Pv = velocity pressure, in. w.g. (Pa)
 = density of air, lb/ft3 (kg/m3)
UH = approach wind speed at upwind wall height H, ft/s (m/s)
C2 = conversion coefficient, which in I-P units = gc (= 3.44 × 10–8 ft4/[lbf ·s]) and in
SI units = 1

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Wind effects can also disturb fume hood operation by creating volume surges result-
ing in inadequate exhaust. This is unacceptable if highly toxic materials are handled. The
exhaust hoods should be tested under both low and high wind conditions. If wind effects
are suspected to cause inadequate exhaust, fume hoods should be provided with a flow-
sensing monitor with both visual and audio alarms. The static pressure on the inside of the
building is influenced by the stack effect and the pressurization caused by the air-handling
system. The stack effect is caused by the movement of air in vertical enclosures (stair-
ways, elevator shafts, etc.) and is induced by the density difference between the air in the
enclosure and the ambient air (Dorgan and Dorgan 1996). Tall buildings in cold climates
are significantly influenced by the stack effect in the heating season; this causes negative
pressure in the bottom half of the building and positive pressure in the top half of the
building. The air-handling system can be used to pressurize the whole building, or parts of
the building, to ensure exfiltration or infiltration or to overcome or reduce the pressure dif-
ference created by the stack effect or the wind pressure. Supplying more air than is
exhausted and enough to obtain an interior pressure that is higher than the exterior pres-
sure ensures exfiltration, while supplying less air than is exhausted and enough to obtain a
pressure that is lower than the exterior pressure ensures infiltration. The difference in the
amounts of air supplied and exhausted depends on the pressure that is to be achieved and
the leakage of the building structure. However, too high or too low a pressure inside the
building can cause difficulties in opening or closing doors and windows and can create
drafts, and most HVAC systems are designed to create a neutral pressure.
Adjacent Building Effects
Adjacent upstream buildings can change the upstream flow pattern around the build-
ing by creating wakes around parts of the building or the whole building, by creating tur-
bulent flow, or by changing the wind profile. Exhaust gases can contaminate downstream
buildings if the exhaust is not diluted enough or does not pass over the downstream build-
ings. Figure 9-5 shows some examples of how an adjacent building can influence the
plume from an exhaust stack. Figure 9-6 shows plume behavior from a shorter laboratory
building impacting the side of a taller neighboring building when the wind is directing the
plume toward the taller building. However, the impact is not limited to when the wind is
blowing from this direction. As shown in Figure 9-7, the plume will also impact the taller
building when the wind is blowing from the exact opposite direction. In this case, the
plume is caught within the downwind wake region of the taller building and is literally
sucked into the leeward side of the taller building.
Flow visualization videos of the plume behaviors shown in Figures 9-6 and 9-7 are
available with this Guide at [Link]/LabDG. As illustrated in these videos, the
effect by or on adjacent buildings is often extremely complicated and may require wind
tunneling tests or computer simulations. However, some general guidelines are suggested
by Wilson et al. (1998):
• Designers should avoid locating stacks near the edge of a roof, where the high
wind speed can deflect the plume into the roof edge recirculation and reduce
dilution by factors of 2 to 10.
• With the emitting building upwind, a lower roof on an adjacent building will
always have higher dilution (lower concentration) than would occur on a flat
roof at the emitting building height. Ignoring the step down produces conserva-
tive designs.
• Designers should consider increasing the stack height, volume flow rate, and/or
exit velocity to increase the plume rise so that the exhaust is not trapped in the
recirculation cavity from a taller upwind adjacent building.

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Figure 9-5
Adjacent
Building
Effect on
Stack Plume

(Wilson et al.
1998)

9 · Exhaust Stack Design 149

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Figure 9-6
Exhaust Plume
Impacting the
Side Wall of a
Neighboring
Downwind
Taller Building

(Courtesy of
CPP, Inc.)

Figure 9-7
Exhaust Plume
Caught in the
Wake of a
Neighboring
Upwind Taller
Building

(Courtesy of
CPP, Inc.)

• When an adjacent building is as high as or higher than the emitting stack,

designers should maximize the separation distance between the emitting stack
and the adjacent building. If this is not possible, the exhaust system on the emit-
ting building should be designed to create sufficient plume rise to clear the adja-
cent building.

DESIGN ISSUES
In addition to design parameters, other issues influence the design of the stack:
• Stacks that are highly visible can be considered aesthetically unappealing.
• Energy use is an issue that often causes changed exhaust volumetric flow rates
that influence the stack design.
• Noise and vibration can cause problems both outdoors and indoors if not consid-
ered.
• Rain can infiltrate exhaust systems with insufficient exit velocities, so it is
important to design exhaust stacks for weather control and drainage.

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• While rare, mixing of incompatible contaminated airstreams has the potential to

create increased hazards.
• Ultimately, the primary function of the laboratory exhaust system is to minimize
the reentrainment of toxic and/or odorous emissions; this requires maintaining
adequate plume height to clear nearby air intakes and other sensitive receptor
locations.

Aesthetics
The required stack height for proper expulsion and dilution of the contaminated air
often makes the stack very visible. This visibility is normally unwanted, even though
taller stacks generally result in better air quality and lower energy consumption. There-
fore, many designers are forced to decide the placement of the stack not only on design
parameters, such as location of air intake, recirculating zones, etc., but also on the desire
of the owner or architect to make the stack less visible to the surroundings. Fans designed
for laboratory exhaust dilution (e.g., induced air systems) may be considered because they
typically require less height than conventional stacks and provide the necessary high exit
velocities (i.e., high momentum flux). Architectural screens and physical placement of
the stack away from the edge of the building can reduce the visibility of the stack. How-
ever, when architectural screens are used, care must be taken to ensure that the exhaust
cannot enter the recirculating zones the screens create. Additionally, the appearance of the
stack can be altered to create a more pleasing appearance than plain metal stacks.
Energy Use
Laboratory buildings are often very high energy consumers due to the need for signif-
icant volumes of outdoor air to replace the air exhausted by the fume hoods. To reduce the
amount of outdoor air needed, the fume hood exhaust system can be designed to be VAV.
However, this also affects the stack design, as the volumetric flow rate out of the stack
varies. The requirements for sufficient plume height must be maintained at minimum
exhaust air volumes to avoid downwash at the stack and ensure that downwind concentra-
tions remain within acceptable limits. The Maintaining Adequate Plume Height section of
this chapter discusses options to accomplish this.
Noise and Vibration
High velocities out of exhaust stacks can cause excessive noise either from turbulence
or from the exhaust fan. The noise to the surroundings should be evaluated, and noise
reduction equipment should be installed to protect noise-sensitive areas. Local codes and
noise level limits should be used as maximum values, with lower values desirable near
residential areas. Noise traps and noise screens can effectively reduce noise to acceptable
levels but may cause turbulence to effectively lower stack height. Vibration from fans and
motors can be transferred to ductwork and cause noise problems from the vibration of the
duct against some other object. Further, vibrations cause increased wear and tear on sys-
tem components, leading to increased maintenance needs and reduced reliability and sys-
tem life. Vibrations can be reduced with flexible connections to the fan and other
vibrating components; the connections must be of a material usable for the contaminants
exhausted. Noise and vibration can become important for exhaust velocities above 3000
to 4000 fpm (~15 to 20 m/s).
Weather Control and Drainage
The stack exhaust velocity should exceed 2560 fpm (13.0 m/s) to prevent rain from
entering the stack and to prevent condensed moisture from draining into the stack. If a
dispersion modeling assessment shows that a lower exhaust speed (and fan energy) is

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acceptable to avoid fume reentry, or when redundant fans are not in operation, stack
designs with internal drains should be installed to prevent water from entering the fan or
pooling at low spots in the exhaust ductwork. Caps and coverings or nonvertical exhaust
exits greatly reduce the performance of the stack to properly disperse the pollutants and
should not be used. Figure 9-8 shows best, good, and poor stack designs for avoiding rain
penetration into the exhaust stack.
It is important in cold climates to ensure the stack design prevents freezing by main-
taining an internal stack temperature during the minimum design temperature condition.
This is typically accomplished by insulating the stack or heating the stack. Freeze protec-
tion is especially important for exhaust systems with a washdown system (perchloric
fume hoods), where water is used to clean the exhaust air of dangerous pollutants prior to
their exhaust. In these systems, the exhaust air is saturated and will quickly freeze up the
exhaust stack if allowed to cool and freeze on the stack walls.

Figure 9-8
Best, Good,
and Poor
Exhaust Stack
Design

(ASHRAE
[2015b],
Figure 2)

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Mixing of Contaminated Airstreams

Section [Link] of ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5 (AIHA 2012) states that laboratory chem-
ical hoods can be ducted into a common manifold with some restrictions for perchloric
acid and radioisotope hoods. The guideline further says that, contrary to popular belief,
the probability of two or more reagents from different sources combining to produce an
explosion or more toxic chemical is very unlikely.
Maintaining Adequate Plume Height
The problem of maintaining adequate plume height at all operating conditions is
related to VAV systems, which are primarily designed to save energy by reducing the
need for outdoor air to replace the exhausted air from the fume hoods and by reducing the
stack velocity. These systems exhaust a varying amount of air, and the air speed out of the
exhaust stack subsequently varies. ASHRAE (2015b) recommends designing the stack to
meet the requirements at the minimum volume of air exhausted. The requirements at
higher volumetric flow rates will thereby be met, but noise and vibration should be con-
sidered if the exhaust velocity exceeds 3000 to 4000 fpm (15 to 20 m/s) at the maximum
volumetric flow rate.
A dispersion modeling assessment can define the minimum exhaust velocity and vol-
umetric flow rate needed to avoid fume reentry at a specific stack height. If this assess-
ment shows a higher exhaust velocity and/or volumetric flow rate is needed, there are
other methods of maintaining adequate plume height:
• Variable-flow geometry (see the cautions in the Stack Design Parameters section
on the use of variable-geometry exhausts)
• Bypass air
• Multiple staged fans on a common inlet plenum
• Control system and on-site weather station with reduced velocities set during
low winds and high velocities set during high winds
• In-situ chemical monitoring in the exhaust plenum

CAUSES OF PROBLEMS
Many typical problems occur with exhaust stacks that result in significant perfor-
mance degradation. These include the following:
• Release in turbulent airflow
• Insufficient plume rise
• Stack-tip downwash
• Contamination of elevated receptors

Release in Turbulent Airflow

Release of the exhaust flow into a separated and highly turbulent airflow near the
roof, caused by the physical structure, can result in the accumulation of contaminants and
prevent the exhaust plume from leaving the building. The turbulent zone may contain crit-
ical zones, such as air intakes and entrances that can be polluted even if they are physi-
cally far away from the exhaust but are in the same turbulent and recirculating zone. The
structures that create turbulent and recirculating zones are architectural screens, roof-
mounted air-handling units, penthouses, etc. Turbulent zones are also created behind all
“leading edges” on a building, as shown in Figure 9-9. Release in these turbulent and
recirculating zones must be prevented. Either the stack must be moved out of this area or
the stack height must be increased to release the exhaust above the building. All wind
directions should be considered when determining where turbulent and recirculating
zones will be created.

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Wilson and Winkel (1982) suggest that the dimensions of the turbulent zones be cal-
culated using Equation 9-11:

R = B s0.67  B L0.33 (If BL > 8Bs , use BL = 8Bs) (9-11)

where
R = scaling length, ft (m)
Bs = smaller of upwind building face dimensions, height or width, ft (m)
BL = larger of upwind building face dimensions, height or width, ft (m)

For buildings with different roof levels, only the height under the roof and width of
the roof in question should be used to calculate R, as long as the distance to other obstruc-
tions is at least Bs . However, the shape and size of the turbulent zone is not constant,
because both the height and the length of the turbulent zone are smaller upwind on the
same edge (see Figure 9-10). The turbulent zone at a downwind wall (Lr) extends approx-
imately 1.0R. For a flat-roofed building, the approximate extension of the turbulent zone

Figure 9-9
Turbulent and Recirculating Zones on a Building
(ASHRAE [2013], Figure 3)

Figure 9-10
Flow Patterns
around Two
Buildings

(ASHRAE
[2015b],
Figure 5)

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is a maximum height (Hc) of 0.22R, a position (Xc) of 0.5R behind the leading edge, and
to a length (Lc) of 0.9R behind the leading edge.
Insufficient Plume Rise
The plume has to rise high enough to avoid contact with critical areas, such as air
intakes or entrances to the building. These critical areas can be contained in building
recirculation wake (turbulent) regions. Poor design of the exhaust stack (e.g., using a rain
cap) or a low exit momentum can reduce or eliminate the plume rise. A conservative
design of the stack height does not take into account any plume rise above the height of
the stack. This design approach provides a safety margin in case of unfavorable atmo-
spheric conditions.
Stack-Tip Downwash
The exhaust may get caught in the wake region on the leeward side of the stack,
reducing the effective stack height. This occurs when the stack exit velocity is insufficient
to escape the stack wake. The effect of stack-tip downwash can be diminished through the
use of tapered stacks, which increase the exit velocity while reducing the size of the wake.
Otherwise, the reduction in plume rise that occurs with stack-tip downwash can be coun-
teracted by increasing the physical height of the stack by the amount specified in Equa-
tion 9-7.
Contamination of Elevated Receptors
The exhaust gas can contaminate elevated receptors if their height is within the
exhaust plume. To avoid contaminating the receptors, the receptor height can be
decreased, the stack height can be increased, or the stack or receptor can be moved so that
the receptor is not inside the plume or is far enough away to ensure enough dilution so
that the contamination is below the required level.

DISPERSION MODELING
Dispersion modeling is used during design and system troubleshooting to determine
the optimum stack design given local conditions. To understand how dispersion modeling
works, the characterization of a pollution release must be accomplished including consid-
erations of accidental and steady-state releases. Dispersion modeling can also be used to
help design energy-efficient systems by minimizing the required exhaust and bypass air.
Advanced systems can be designed such that exit velocities and volumetric flow rates are
only increased when infrequent high winds occur and/or when chemicals are present in
the exhaust stream (Carter et al. 2005).
EMISSIONS CHARACTERIZATION
In addition to fume hoods, other pollutant sources may also be of concern in labora-
tory design. These could include emergency generators, kitchens, vivariums, loading
docks, traffic, cooling towers, and boilers. The emissions from each source should be
characterized to determine their potential impact on air quality at nearby intake locations.
Three types of information are needed to characterize emissions: 1) a list of the toxic or
odorous substances that may be emitted and the storage quantities, 2) the health limits
and odor thresholds for each emitted substance, and 3) the maximum potential emission
rate for each substance.
A laboratory must comply with 40 CFR 355 and 40 CFR 370 (GPO 2015a, 2015b) if
it stores chemicals listed in the regulation in quantities greater than those specified. Parts
355 and 370 detail how facilities are required to plan for accidental releases of hazardous

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chemicals. They also stipulate how to respond and when to report the incident to the
authorities. Because few laboratories store the listed chemicals in sufficient quantities,
most laboratories are not governed by these regulations.
Recommended health limits are based on ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5, Laboratory Venti-
lation (2012), which specifies air intake concentrations no higher than 20% of acceptable
indoor concentrations for routine emissions and 100% of acceptable indoor concentra-
tions for accidental releases. Acceptable indoor concentrations are frequently taken to be
the minimum short-term exposure limits (STELs) from the American Conference of Gov-
ernmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), the Occupational Safety and Health Adminis-
tration (OSHA), and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH),
as listed by ACGIH (2015a, 2015b). ACGIH (1989) also provides odor thresholds.
For laboratories, emission rates are typically based on small-scale accidental
releases—either liquid spills or the emptying of a lecture bottle of compressed gas—in
fume hoods or in rooms. Evaporation from liquid spills is computed from equations in
EPA’s Workbook of Screening Techniques for Assessing Impacts of Toxic Air Pollutants
(1992a) based on a worst-case spill within a fume hood or a room. The equations for
compressed-gas leaks typically assume the time for emptying of a fractured lecture bottle
to be one minute. For other sources, such as emergency generators, boilers, and vehicles,
chemical emission rates are often available from the manufacturer.
For general laboratory design purposes, Chapter 16 of ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC
Applications (2015a) provides an example emission characterization (i.e., design crite-
rion). A 15 cfm (7.5 L/s) chemical emission rate (i.e., one due to a liquid spill or lecture
bottle fracture) is assumed along with a limiting concentration of 3 ppm (mg/kg) or less at
an intake. For dispersion modeling purposes, the emission characterization can be
expressed in SI units as 400 g/m3 per g/s, or dilution units of 1:5300 per 1000 cfm of
exhaust flow. ASHRAE (2015a) includes the following disclaimers regarding this design
criterion: 1) laboratories using extremely hazardous substances should conduct a chemi-
cal-specific analysis based on published health limits, 2) a more lenient limit may be jus-
tified for laboratories with low levels of chemical usage, and 3) project-specific
requirements must be developed in consultation with the safety officer.
The ASHRAE criterion may be put into perspective by considering the “as manufac-
tured” and “as installed” chemical hood containment requirements outlined in ANSI/
AIHA/ASSE Z9.5 (AIHA 2012); that is, a concentration at a manikin outside the chemi-
cal hood of 0.05 ppm (mg/kg) or less for “as manufactured” and of 0.10 ppm (mg/kg) or
less for “as installed” with a 0.14 cfm (4 L/min) accidental release in the hood as mea-
sured using the ASHRAE Standard 110 test method (ASHRAE 1995). The “as manufac-
tured” requirement is equivalent to a design criterion of 750 g/m3 per g/s (1:3000
dilutions per 1000 cfm), and the “as installed” requirement is equivalent to a design crite-
rion of 1500 g/m3 per g/s (1:1500 dilutions per 1000 cfm). Hence, the ASHRAE crite-
rion for a manikin (i.e., a worker outside the chemical hood) is 1.9 to 3.8 times less
restrictive than that for the air intake or other outdoor locations. That the air intake has
more strict criteria seems reasonable since the worker at the chemical hood can shut the
hood or walk away to avoid adverse exposure. Also, the Standard 110 test is not necessar-
ily a worst-case exposure scenario for the worker.

DISPERSION MODELS
Dispersion models are intended to help the designer investigate how the pollutants
will be distributed in the atmosphere, around the building, and around adjacent buildings
and areas. Understanding this helps identify potential problems that could result in
exceeding acceptable pollution concentrations by air intakes, entrances, or other sensitive

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areas that can be easily corrected during design. These problems can be corrected by
changing design parameters such as exhaust exit velocity, volumetric flow rate, location
of stack, height of stack, etc. Identifying possible problems during the design phase
allows for a less expensive, more efficient solution than correcting a real problem after the
building is completed, when, for example, changing the location and/or height of the
stack can be very costly. Many models have been suggested, and most of these are avail-
able as computer programs. The dispersion models presented in this section include the
following:
• EPA models
• ASHRAE dilution/concentration equations
• Wind tunnel modeling
• Computer simulations using computational fluid dynamics

EPA Models
In late 2005, the EPA (Cimorelli et al. 2005) promulgated AERMOD as the replace-
ment for Industrial Source Complex (ISC2) (EPA 1992b). The new model (EPA 2004)
includes state-of-the-art boundary layer parameterization techniques, convective disper-
sion, plume rise formulations, and complex terrain/plume interactions, as well as a build-
ing downwash algorithm. AERMOD can be used to calculate short-term (hourly)
exposure and long-term (monthly and annual) exposure. Both the short-term and long-
term models are divided into three source classifications: point source, line source, and
area source. For exhaust stack design, the point source is the model of interest. The EPA
guideline (2004) also describes short- and long-term dry deposition models. AERMOD
uses the Gaussian equation to calculate the concentration of the contaminant downwind
of the source. The models consider the wind speed profile, use plume rise formulas, cal-
culate dispersions factors (which take into consideration different landscapes, building
wakes and downwash, and buoyancy), calculate the vertical distribution, and consider
decay of the contaminant. More information on AERMOD and other EPA models can be
found on EPA’s Technology Transfer Network Support Center for Regulatory Atmo-
spheric Modeling website at [Link]/scram001. It should be emphasized that the
EPA models are primarily designed to predict concentration (or dilution) values down-
wind of the building on which the exhausts are located. For predicting the impact at build-
ing intakes, operable windows, and entrances, alternative modeling methods are required,
such as the ASHRAE dilution/concentration equations, wind tunnel modeling, or compu-
tational fluid dynamics (CFD).
ASHRAE Dilution/Concentration Equations
The dilution/concentration equations from Chapter 45 of ASHRAE Handbook—
HVAC Applications (2015b) can be used to calculate the concentration of contaminants at
air intakes on the building roof and/or sidewalls. These equations are based on the Gauss-
ian dispersion equation with simplifications based on ASHRAE-funded research. These
equations have been designed to produce conservative (high) concentration estimates,
which can result in taller stacks, higher volumetric flow rates, and/or higher exhaust
velocities. However, because these dilution equations do not take into account adverse
impacts from neighboring and/or complex structures, they may not be valid in these envi-
ronments.
DilutionCalc, a program that calculates downwind dilutions/concentrations from an
exhaust stack using the equations from Chapter 45 of ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Appli-
cations (2015b) is available with this Guide at [Link]/LabDG. Although this
calculator is not specifically designed to fully evaluate a stack design, it can be used to

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spot-check dilution/concentration calculations from a given stack and receptor combina-

tion at a specified wind speed. A more elaborate program may be useful for evaluating
dilutions/concentrations from an emission source at all nearby receptor locations over a
wide range of wind speeds to determine the greatest potential for reentrainment associ-
ated with a specific stack design.
Wind Tunnel Modeling
Wind tunnel modeling is often the preferred method for predicting maximum concen-
trations for stack designs and locations of interest when energy and equipment optimiza-
tion is desired. It is the recommended approach because it gives the most accurate
estimates of concentration levels in complex building environments. A wind tunnel mod-
eling study is like a full-scale field study, except it is conducted before a project is built.
Typically, a scale model of the building under evaluation, along with the surrounding
buildings and terrain within a 1000 ft (305 m) radius, is placed in an atmospheric bound-
ary layer wind tunnel. A tracer gas is released from the exhaust sources of interest, and
concentration levels of this gas are then measured at receptor locations of interest (i.e., air
intakes, operable windows, etc.) and converted to full-scale concentration values. Next,
these values are compared against the appropriate health or odor design criteria to evalu-
ate the acceptability of the exhaust design. ASHRAE (2015b), Petersen and Cochran
(2008), and Snyder and Lawson (1981) provide more information on scale-model simula-
tion and testing methods.
Wind tunnel studies are highly technical, so care should be taken when selecting a
dispersion modeling consultant. Factors such as past experience and staff technical quali-
fications are extremely important.
Computer Simulations using Computational Fluid Dynamics
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models are used successfully to model internal
flow paths within areas such as vivariums and atriums, as well as in external aerodynam-
ics for the aerospace industry. The aerospace CFD turbulence models, however, are ill
suited for modeling the atmospheric turbulence in complex full-scale building environ-
ments because of the differing geometric scales. This is exemplified in the conclusions of
Castro’s (2003) evaluation of applying CFD to the built environment, which have more
recently been confirmed by Stathopoulos et al. (2011):
Despite considerable effort over the last two decades, there is no agreed
modeling approach which will automatically yield accurate results for
the surface pressure field on and/or the flow field around buildings in the
wind. Only large eddy simulation (LES) techniques genuinely have the
potential to yield adequate mean and fluctuating data, but these have yet
to be fully developed for complex bluff body flows. (Castro 2003, p. 6)
Based on the current state of the art, CFD models should be used with extreme cau-
tion when modeling exhaust plumes resulting from laboratory pollutant sources. At this
time, research indicates that CFD models can both overpredict and underpredict concen-
tration levels by orders of magnitude, leading to potentially unsafe designs. If a CFD
study is conducted for such an application, supporting full-scale or wind tunnel validation
studies should be carried out.
A variety of commercial software packages are available for CFD-driven airflow
analysis. Most have advanced user interfaces and resulting visualization capabilities as
well as sophisticated computational models and solver options. Usually, commercial soft-
ware includes advanced technical user support provided by vendor specialists. A number

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of open-source research codes are available as well, but they require a much greater user
insight into the underlying solution methods and hardware platforms, and usually no user
support or problem-specific validation data are available. It must be emphasized that,
regardless of the software package choice, obtaining an accurate numerical solution
requires expertise, training, and understanding of the fundamental aspects of CFD algo-
rithm construction and implementation.
There is also a tendency when using CFD for dispersion modeling to significantly
limit the number of wind speeds and wind directions included in the assessment. Because
each approaching wind condition requires a unique CFD simulation, it is often impracti-
cal to conduct sufficient simulations to fully define the worst-case approach condition.
Rather, CFD-based assessments typically focus on either predominant wind conditions or
assumed worst-case wind conditions. This information can be valuable as a preliminary
assessment of the stack design but shouldn’t be considered adequate for the final design
unless sufficient simulations have been conducted to verify that the worst-case conditions
have been adequately modeled.

REFERENCES
ACGIH. 1989. Odor thresholds for chemicals with established occupational health stan-
dards. Cincinnati: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
ACGIH. 2015a. 2015 Guide to occupational exposure values. Cincinnati: American Con-
ference on Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
ACGIH. 2015b. 2015 TLVs® and BEIs®. Cincinnati: American Conference of Govern-
mental Industrial Hygienists.
AIHA. 2012. ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5-2012, Laboratory ventilation. Falls Church, VA:
American Industrial Hygiene Association.
ASHRAE. 1995. ASHRAE Standard 110-1995, Method of testing performance of labo-
ratory fume hoods. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2013. Chapter 24, Airflow around buildings. In ASHRAE Handbook—Funda-
mentals. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2015a. Chapter 16, Laboratories. In ASHRAE handbook—HVAC applications.
Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2015b. Chapter 45, Building air intake and exhaust design. In ASHRAE hand-
book—HVAC applications. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
Carter, J.J., R.L. Petersen, and B.C. Cochran. 2005. Designing exhaust systems to mini-
mize energy costs. ASHRAE Journal 47(7):18–22.
Castro, I.P. 2003. CFD for external aerodynamics in the built environment. The QNET-
CFD Network Newsletter 2(2), July.
Cimorelli, A.J., S.G. Perry, A. Venkatram, J.C. Weil, R.J. Paine, R.B. Wilson, R.F. Lee,
W.D. Peters, and R.W. Brode. 2005. AERMOD: A dispersion model for industrial
source applications. Part I: General model formulation and boundary layer character-
ization. Journal of Applied Meteorology 44:682–93.
Dorgan, C.B., and C.E. Dorgan. 1996. Ventilation best practices guide. Palo Alto: Electric
Power Research Institute.
EPA. 1992a. Workbook of screening techniques for assessing impacts of toxic air pollut-
ants (Revised). EPA-454/R-92-024. Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards.
EPA. 1992b. User’s guide for the Industrial Source Complex (ISC2) dispersion models.
Volume II, Description of model algorithms. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency

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EPA. 2004. AERMOD: Description of model formulation. EPA-454/R-03-004. Research

Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality,
Planning and Standards.
EPA. 2013. AERSURFACE, Version 13016. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Technology Transfer Network Support Center for Regulatory Atmo-
spheric Modeling.
GPO. 2015a. Code of federal regulations. Title 40, Part 355, Emergency planning and
notification. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Publishing Office. [Link]/
cgi-bin/text-idx?tpl=/ecfrbrowse/Title40/40cfr355_main_02.tpl.
GPO. 2015b. Code of federal regulations. Title 40, Part 370, Hazardous chemical report-
ing: Community right-to-know. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Publishing Office.
[Link]/cgi-bin/text-idx?tpl=/ecfrbrowse/Title40/40cfr370_main_02.tpl.
Petersen, R.L., and B.C. Cochran. 2008. Chapter 24, Physical modeling of air pollution.
In Air quality modeling. Pittsburgh, PA: EnviroComp and Air and Waste Manage-
ment Association.
Snyder, W.H., and R.E. Lawson. 1991. Fluid modeling simulation of stack-tip downwash
for neutrally buoyant plumes. Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 25A.
Snyder, W.H. 1981. Guideline for fluid modeling of atmospheric diffusion. EPA600/8–
81–009. Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Envi-
ronmental Sciences Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development.
Stathopoulos, T., M. Chaves, and A. Bahloul. 2011. CFD approaches to predicting dilu-
tion from exhaust stacks in urban areas. Presented at the 2011 ASHRAE Annual Con-
ference, Montreal, Canada.
Wilson, D.J., and G. Winkel. 1982. The effect of varying exhaust stack height on contam-
inant concentration at roof level. ASHRAE Transactions 88(1):515–33.
Wilson, D.J., I. Fabris, and M.Y. Ackerman. 1998. measuring adjacent building effects on
laboratory exhaust stack design. ASHRAE Transactions 104(2):1012–28.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Briggs, G.A. 1984. Chapter 8, Plume rise and buoyancy effects. In Atmospheric science
and power production. DOE/TIC-27601. D. Randerson, ed. Washington, DC: Techni-
cal Information Center, Office of Scientific and Technical Information, United States
Department of Energy.
EPA. 1995. Testing of meteorological and dispersion models for use in regional air qual-
ity modeling. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Labs21. 2011. Laboratories for the 21st Century: Best practices—Modeling exhaust dis-
persion for specifying acceptable exhaust/intake designs. Washington, DC: Laborato-
ries for the 21st Century. [Link]/docs/fy11osti/[Link].
McQuaid, J., and B. Roebuck. 1984. Large scale field trials on dense vapor dispersion.
Final report to sponsors on the heavy gas dispersion trials at Thorney Island, 1982–84.
Sheffield, UK: Health and Safety Executive Safety Engineering Laboratory.
Petersen, R.L., B.C. Cochran, and J.J. Carter. 2002. Specifying Exhaust and Intake Sys-
tems. ASHRAE Journal 44(8).
Petersen, R.L., J.J. Carter, and J.W. LeCompte. 2004. Exhaust contamination of hidden
versus visible air intakes. ASHRAE Transactions 110(1).
Petersen, R.L., J.J. Carter, and M.A. Ratcliff. 1999. Influence of architectural screens on roof-
top concentrations due to effluent from the short stacks. ASHRAE Transactions 105(1).
Petersen, R.L., M.A. Ratcliff, and J.J. Carter. 1999. Influence of architectural screens of on
rooftop concentrations due to effluent from short stacks. ASHRAE Transactions 105(1).
Turner, D.B. 1994. Workbook of atmospheric dispersion estimates, 2d ed. Boca Raton,
FL: Lewis Publishers.

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Energy
Recovery

OVERVIEW
10
Because laboratories often use 100% outdoor air, energy recovery is an important
consideration for design. Energy recovery uses the sensible and latent heat in the exhaust
air or other source that would otherwise be wasted to pretreat (heat or cool) the supply
airstream, thereby saving energy. These savings can be substantial, with lifetime savings
and payback periods of energy recovery systems being very favorable. In some projects,
energy recovery has been the main contributor to savings from energy-efficient installa-
tions, with others involving variable-air-volume (VAV) and diversification considerations
(Streets and Setty 1983). Due to the strong influence of the climate on potential energy
savings, each energy recovery system must be evaluated based on local variations in cli-
mate and in energy costs.
Energy can be recovered from exhaust air, process water, and cooling water from air-
conditioning equipment. Energy recovery from water only transfers sensible energy,
while energy recovery from air offers the opportunity to transfer both sensible and latent
loads. However, care must be taken to avoid contaminating the supply airstream. Appen-
dix A of NFPA 45 states that the use of devices for energy conservation purposes should
consider the “potential contamination of the fresh air supply by exhaust air containing
vapors of flammable or toxic chemicals” (NFPA 2015, p. 45-30). Biological contamina-
tion is also a concern.
This chapter discusses the following:
• Air-to-air energy recovery
• Water-to-air energy recovery
• Selection parameters

More details on the theory of energy recovery equipment are available in Chapters 9
and 12 of ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment (ASHRAE 2012a).

AIR-TO-AIR ENERGY RECOVERY

The intent of air-to-air energy recovery systems is to transfer sensible energy only or
enthalpic energy (sensible and latent energy) between two airstreams, typically the
exhaust air and supply air. Sensible energy recovery equipment includes runaround loops,
heat pipes, sensible heat wheels, fixed-plate heat exchangers, thermosiphons, and reverse-
[Link] Page 162 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:37 AM

flow plate exchangers. Enthalpic energy recovery includes processes such as liquid desic-
cants and evaporative cooling.
When selecting the type of air-to-air device, several design issues must be addressed,
including the following:
• Relative airstream location. Some air-to-air systems require the two airstreams
to be located adjacent to each other, whereas other systems can have a reason-
able distance between the airstreams.
• Cross-contamination potential. Unless there is a physical barrier between the
two airstreams, contamination of the supply air could occur.
• Corrosion. The chemical in the exhaust air can corrode the energy recovery
device, either directly or due to the formation of condensate when the warm
moist exhaust air comes in contact with the cold heat exchanger surface. Corro-
sion can lead to cross-contamination by breaking down the barrier between the
two airstreams. Perchloric acid fume exhausts should not be considered for
energy recovery due to corrosion and explosion hazards.
• Fouling. Fouling of the heat exchanger reduces the supply or exhaust air volume,
resulting in reduced heat exchanger and system performance, as cleanliness is
critical to maintaining system performance.
• Freeze-ups. Freeze-ups occur when the exhaust air contains sufficient moisture
and the outdoor air is below freezing. The moisture in the exhaust air condenses
and freezes. As frost builds up, airflow is decreased until there is no flow, which
seriously compromises occupants’ health and safety.

When cross-contamination is a major concern, physically separating the two air-

streams by using a second media is recommended. Runaround loops, heat pipes, or evap-
orative cooling should be used. In some instances, the exhaust air is cleaned by a scrubber
or washer prior to the heat exchanger to reduce the potential for cross-contamination.

SENSIBLE ENERGY RECOVERY EQUIPMENT

Runaround Loops

The runaround loop is an energy recovery system where the heat from the exhaust air
is transferred to a water-based medium (glycol) using a typical coil heat exchanger. It is
then circulated through pipes to the supply air, where the water releases the energy recov-
ered from the exhaust air using another coil heat exchanger. The water then returns to the
exhaust air coil. Figure 10-1 depicts this energy recovery system, which is usually used in
systems where it is uneconomical or not desired to have the exhaust duct and the supply
duct next to each other. These systems have a relatively high initial cost and low perfor-
mance compared to other energy recovery systems. Runaround loops have a sensible heat
transfer effectiveness of 45% to 65% (ASHRAE 2012b).
Runaround loops are excellent energy recovery systems for laboratory applications
where it is critical that no cross-contamination occur. To achieve increased effectiveness,
the exhaust coil is typically a closely spaced fin coil that requires filtration upstream to
keep dirt from accumulating inside the coil. The runaround loop system has exhaust fil-
ters upstream of the exhaust coils to minimize cleaning. These systems require periodic
cleaning; thus, coil static pressure drop should be monitored to ensure that the coil has
acceptable pressure drop and that the laboratory exhaust has acceptable airflow. To clean
the exhaust coil, high-pressure water is usually used, which can push particles deeper
inside the coil. This forces coil replacement to maintain airflow. Therefore, unless a long-

162 ASHRAE Laboratory Design Guide, Second Edition

[Link] Page 163 Tuesday, July 21, 2015 10:03 AM

Figure 10-1
Runaround
Loop
Recovery
System

(ASHRAE
[2012b],
Chapter 26,
Figure 14)

term maintenance plan is developed to maintain the runaround loop, with effective pre-
treatment of the incoming exhaust air, this cleaning method should not be used.
Heat Pipes
Heat pipes rely on refrigerant migration within sealed pipes with half of the pipe in
the exhaust airstream and the other half in the supply airstream. The heat pipe transfers
heat from one airstream to the other by having the refrigerant evaporate at the hot side of
the tube (cooling the airstream) and condense at the cold side (heating the airstream). The
refrigerant is then returned to the warm side. Figure 10-2 shows the configuration of a
heat pipe recovery system, and Figure 10-3 depicts a single heat pipe’s operation.
The heat pipe is usually made of copper pipes with aluminum fins. The heat transfer
fluid must be selected to work for the operating temperatures to avoid decomposition and
deterioration of performance. Because heat pipes can have the supply and exhaust ducts
physically separated, there is no cross-contamination. The effectiveness of sensible heat
transfer for heat pipes is between 45% and 65% (ASHRAE 2012b).
Sensible Heat Wheels
A sensible heat wheel consists of a cylinder with a large internal surface where one
half is in the exhaust air while the other half is in the supply air. The cylinder rotates and
heats up on the warm side and transfers this heat to the cool side. Similar to a sensible
heat wheel, an enthalpic wheel transfers sensible heat but also transfers humidity using a
desiccant coating or molecular science technology. However, the risk of transferring pol-
lutants increases with increased humidity transfer. Figure 10-4 depicts a heat wheel
recovery system.
There will always be some cross-contamination with sensible heat wheels. The
cross-contamination can happen by carryover or leakage. Carryover is air that is
entrained in the sensible heat wheel as it moves from the exhaust to the supply. Leakage
occurs because of a pressure difference between the exhaust and supply sides. The
amount of cross-contamination is dependent on the pressure of the exhaust relative to the
supply airstream at the sensible heat wheel and the design of the sensible heat wheel. The
normal recirculation rate is from 1% to 10%. With a purge section, the cross-contamina-
tion can be reduced to below 0.1%. SEMCO_Heat_Wheel_Purge.exe, available with this
Guide at [Link]/LabDG courtesy of SEMCO, shows the principle of the purge

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Figure 10-2
Heat Pipe
Recovery
System

Figure 10-3
Heat Pipe
Operation

Figure 10-4
Heat Wheel
Recovery
System

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in a sensible heat wheel. The effectiveness of sensible heat transfer is between 50% and
85% and for sensible and latent heat transfer is between 50% and 85% (ASHRAE 2012b).
Fixed-Plate Heat Exchangers
Fixed-plate heat exchangers (depicted in Figure 10-5) have alternating layers of
exhaust and supply airstreams separated by a plate. The primary benefit of the fixed-plate
system is that there are no moving parts. To maximize heat transfer, the airflow is typi-
cally arranged in a cross-flow pattern. Even though a plate separates the airstreams, latent
energy can be transferred between the airstreams by using a hygroscopic material for the
plate. Some plates built with hygroscopic materials can transfer water vapor.
Though fixed-plate heat exchangers are often considered to have no cross-contamination,
the risk of contamination is always present, as the thin plates are all that separates the
exhaust and supply. Therefore, fixed-plate heat exchangers usually have between 0% to
5% cross-contamination from leakage. Corrosion, freezing, and cleaning of the fixed-
plate heat exchanger can damage the plates and can increase the leakage rate. The effec-
tiveness of sensible heat transfer is typically between 50% and 80% (ASHRAE 2012b).
Thermosiphons
A thermosiphon is used in two energy recovery system designs—a sealed-tube design
and a coil tube design. The sealed-tube design is illustrated in Figure 10-6 and is essen-
tially the same as heat pipes, with the exception of the wicker material in the heat pipes.
This thermosiphon is dependent on gravity to get the condensate back to the warm side.
The coil loop design is shown in Figure 10-7 and is a thermosiphon coil that is essen-
tially the same as the runaround loop energy recovery system. However, this thermosi-
phon system does not require any pumping. Thermosiphons typically require a significant
temperature difference to initiate boiling. The effectiveness of sensible heat transfer for
thermosiphons is between 40% and 60% (ASHRAE 2012b).
Reverse-Flow Plate Exchangers
In a reverse-flow plate exchanger, the exhaust air flows between plates that accumu-
late energy while the outdoor air flows in another series of plates and recovers energy from
these plates (see Figure 10-8). After a period of time, the flows are interchanged from one
series of plates to another. This system has a sensible efficiency in the order of 90%. In
winter, the water that condensates and frosts on the plates is partly recovered by the enter-

Figure 10-5
Fixed-Plate
Heat Exchanger
Recovery
System

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Figure 10-6
Sealed-Tube
Thermosiphon
Recovery
System

ing air. This is the only device in which there is almost no frosting problem. But with this
system there is a little cross-flow contamination during the reversing flow process.
ENTHALPIC ENERGY RECOVERY PROCESSES
Liquid Desiccants
A liquid desiccant energy recovery system consists of a liquid desiccant that is circu-
lated between the supply and the exhaust airstreams. The desiccant transfers sensible and
latent energy by direct contact with the air, using contactor towers in both the supply and
exhaust. The exhaust air must be filtered to remove particles such as animal hair, food,
etc., to avoid contamination of the liquid desiccant. However, any particulates captured in
the exhaust air do not typically pose a contamination threat, as the particle cannot be sep-
arated from the liquid intake supply airstream. The primary concern is the potential for
limited gaseous cross-contamination, which is dependent on the solubility of the gas in
the sorbent solution. Tests with sulfur hexafluoride as a tracer gas have shown a typical
gaseous cross-contamination rate of 0.025%. The cross-contamination rate should be
investigated for a system with large amounts of gaseous contaminants, as well as the gas-
eous effect on the sorbent solution. The effectiveness of sensible heat transfer is typically
between 40% and 60% (ASHRAE 2012b). The capital and operating costs of these sys-
tems are high.

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Figure 10-7
Coil Loop
Thermosiphon
Recovery
System

Evaporative Cooling
Evaporative cooling is not really an energy recovery method but a method of using
the evaporation of water to cool the air temperature. The cooling occurs when water is
evaporated in the air, converting the sensible heat in the air to latent heat and reducing the
temperature of the air.
Evaporative cooling may be accomplished directly or indirectly. With direct evapora-
tive cooling, air is cooled by direct contact with the water. This is done either by a series
of sprays or by an extended wet surface material. In very dry climates, the supply air can
be humidified directly to reduce the air temperature without resulting in excessively
humid supply air. Direct evaporative cooling does not cause cross-contamination. How-
ever, growth of algae, slime, fungus, or bacteria must be prevented in direct evaporative-
cooling systems.
With indirect evaporative cooling, either the exhaust air or the outdoor air is humidi-
fied and the dry-bulb temperature is decreased. The cooled air or water can then be used
to cool the supply air with a sensible heat exchanger. A combination of both direct and
indirect evaporative cooling can also be used. Cross-contamination in indirect evaporative
cooling depends on what kind of heat exchanger is used.
Figure 10-9 shows a psychrometric chart that illustrates what happens when air is
passed through a direct or an indirect evaporative cooler. Chapter 41 of ASHRAE Hand-
book—HVAC Systems and Equipment (2012a) and Chapter 52 of ASHRAE Handbook—
HVAC Applications (2015) explain in detail how evaporative cooling is accomplished.

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Figure 10-8
Reverse-Flow
Plate Exchanger
Recovery System

WATER-TO-AIR ENERGY RECOVERY

To overcome the concerns with cross-contamination using air-to-air energy recovery
systems, water-to-air energy recovery systems can be used. These systems require piping
to the air supply duct and a heating coil that transfers the heat from the water to the air.
Potential systems include the following:
• Refrigeration machine energy recovery
• Condenser water energy recovery
• Hot-water waste energy recovery

REFRIGERATION MACHINE ENERGY RECOVERY

Refrigeration machine energy recovery uses a dual air-cooled condenser to heat an
airstream. This type of system is used when there is a cooling load (interior zone) and a
heating load (perimeter zone) at the same time. Instead of the condenser heat being
rejected to the outdoors, it is rejected to the perimeter-zone supply airstream. In some

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Figure 10-9
Psychrometrics
of Evaporative
Cooling

(ASHRAE [2015],
Chapter 52,
Figure 1)

instances, a heat pump is placed across the exhaust and supply air to economically trans-
fer heat from one to the other.

CONDENSER WATER ENERGY RECOVERY

Condenser water energy recovery uses the heat typically rejected by a chiller to a
cooling tower. A double-bundle or split-bundle condenser system has historically been
the most common configuration used. It comprises two condensers or a single condenser
shell with two independent water loops. One of the water loops is connected to a cooling
tower to reject excess heat and the other is connected to the heating load equipment.
However, double-bundle condensers are not as widely available in recent years
because there have been changes in using newer refrigerants. Instead, dual-condenser
chillers for energy recovery are more readily offered by chiller manufacturers due to their
greater ease of manufacture. Figure 10-10 illustrates this system configuration. A dual
condenser has two distinct condenser shells. These have a water loop connected to the
cooling tower and a water loop connected to the heating equipment (e.g., heating coils).
Superheated refrigerant gases that result from the compression process flow into both
condenser shells, and the heat is rejected to one or both of the condenser water loops.
The double-bundle and dual-condenser arrangements are constructed differently but
operated similarly. Figure 10-11 illustrates these condenser arrangements. Chiller Heat

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Figure 10-10
Dual-
Condenser
System

Figure 10-11
Double-Bundle
and
Dual-
Condenser
System
Arrangement

Recovery Application Guide contains details on identifying and sizing double-bundle

arrangements (Dorgan et al. 1999).
HOT-WATER WASTE ENERGY RECOVERY
Hot-water waste heat is often available from industrial processes, including high-
temperature process cooling water and combustion gases. The temperature is usually very
good for preheating the supply air and often high enough and plentiful enough to heat the
supply air to the desired temperature. The temperature of hot-water waste energy recov-
ery can be close to the boiling temperature of water. The physical configuration for this
type of energy recovery is nearly identical to that of runaround systems.

SELECTION PARAMETERS
The selection of the type of energy recovery system to use is based on parameters
such as laboratory requirements, climate, exhaust and supply duct locations, and econom-
ics, which are based on the initial cost, expected savings, cross-contamination, and space
implications.
Table 10-1 presents a summary of various kinds of energy recovery devices along
with their physical features, advantages, and limitations.

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Table 10-1 Comparison of Air-to-Air Energy Recovery Devices

(ASHRAE [2012b], Chapter 26, Table 3)
Fixed Membrane Energy Heat Heat Runaround Coil Twin
Thermosiphon
Plate Plate Wheel Wheel Pipe Loop Towers
Airflow • Counterflow • Counterflow • Counterflow • Counterflow • Counterflow
Counterflow — —
arrangements • Cross-flow • Cross-flow • Parallel flow • Parallel flow • Parallel flow
Equipment size 50 to 74,000 50 to 74,000
range, cfm (L/s) 50 and up 50 and up and up and up 100 and up 100 and up 100 and up
—
(25 and up) (25 and up) (25 to 35 000 (25 to 35 000 (50 and up) (50 and up) (50 and up)

10 · Energy Recovery
and up) and up)
Typical sensible
effectiveness 50 to 80 50 to 75 50 to 85 50 to 85 45 to 65 45 to 65 40 to 60 40 to 60
(ms = me), %
Typical latent
— 50 to 72 50 to 85 0 — — — —
effectiveness,* %
Total
— 50 to 73 50 to 85 — — — — —
effectiveness,* %
Face velocity, 200 to 1000 200 to 600 500 to 1000 400 to 1000 400 to 800 300 to 600 400 to 800 300 to 450
fpm (m/s) (1 to 5) (1 to 3) (2.5 to 5) (2 to 5) (2 to 4) (1.5 to 3) (2 to 4) (1.5 to 2.2)
Pressure drop, 0.4 to 4 0.4 to 2 0.4 to 1.2 0.4 to 1.2 0.6 to 2 0.6 to 2 0.6 to 2 0.7 to 1.2
in. w.g. (Pa) (100 to 1000) (100 to 500) (100 to 300) (100 to 300) (150 to 500) (150 to 500) (150 to 500) (170 to 300)
Exhaust air
0 to 2 0 to 5 0.5 to 10 0.5 to 10 0 to 1 0 0 0
transfer ratio, %
Outdoor air
0.97 to 1.06 0.97 to 1.06 0.99 to 1.1 1 to 1.2 0.99 to 1.01 1.0 1.0 1.0
correction factor
Temperature –75 to 1470 –40 to 120 –65 to 1470 –65 to 1470 –40 to 104 –50 to 930 –40 to 104 –40 to 115
range, °F (°C) (–60 to 800) (–40 to 50) (–55 to 800) (–55 to 800) (–40 to 40) (–45 to 500) (–40 to 40) (–40 to 46)
Typical mode • Exchanger only • Exchanger only • Exchanger only • Exchanger only • Exchanger only • Coil only • Exchanger only • Complete system
of purchase • Exchanger in case • Exchanger in case • Exchanger in case • Exchanger in case • Exchanger in case • Complete system • Exchanger in case
• Exchanger and • Exchanger and • Exchanger and • Exchanger and • Exchanger and
blowers blowers blowers blowers blowers
• Complete system • Complete system • Complete system • Complete system • Complete system
Advantages • No moving parts • No moving parts • Moisture/mass • Compact large • No moving parts
• Exhaust airstream • No moving parts • Latent transfer
• Low pressure drop • Low pressure drop transfer sizes except tilt can be separated • Exhaust airstream from remote
• Easily cleaned • Low air leakage • Compact large • Low pressure drop • Fan location not
from supply air can be separated airstreams
• Moisture/mass sizes • Easily cleaned critical • Fan location not from supply air • Efficient
transfer • Low pressure drop • Allowable pressure
critical • Fan location not microbiological
• Available on differential up to critical cleaning of both
all ventilation 2 psi (15 kPa) supply
system platforms and exhaust
airstreams
Limitations • Large size at higher • Few suppliers • Supply air may • Some exhaust air • Effectiveness • Predicting • Effectiveness may • Few suppliers
flow rates • Long-term require some transfer ratio with limited by performance be limited by • Maintenance and
maintenance and further cooling or purge pressure drop and requires accurate pressure drop and performance
performance heating cost simulation model cost unknown
unknown • Some exhaust air • Few suppliers • Few suppliers
transfer ratio
without purge
Heat rate control • Bypass dampers • Bypass dampers • Bypass dampers • Bypass dampers • Tilt angle down to • Bypass valve or • Control valve over • Control valve or
(HRC) methods and ducting and ducting and wheel speed and wheel speed 10% of maximum pump speed full range pump speed
control control heat rate control control over full
range
*Rated effectiveness values are for balanced flow conditions. Effectiveness values increase slightly if flow rates of either or both airstreams are higher than flow rates at which testing is done.

171
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LABORATORY REQUIREMENTS
The energy recovery device must adequately meet the needs of the laboratory without
compromising the safety of the occupants, the functionality of equipment, or the integrity
of experiments. Some recovery devices are more appropriate for certain types of laborato-
ries than for others. In general, most energy recovery applications are applicable to most
types of laboratories. The key question to ask is: what is the risk of cross-contamination
that will threaten the safety of the laboratory occupants, products, or experiments? For
example, it is not recommended to use any equipment that expels infectious substances,
toxic chemicals, and animal dander, in, respectively, biological, chemical, or animal labo-
ratories, where there is a possibility of cross-contamination.

CLIMATE
The climate determines how much energy is necessary to heat or cool the supply air
for a building. The potential energy savings depend on the amount of energy spent. If the
supply temperature is close to the ambient temperature for large parts of the year, then the
energy savings are often small.

EXHAUST AND SUPPLY LOCATIONS

Most energy recovery systems need the exhaust and supply ducts next to each other.
This can cause an increased amount of ductwork unless this is planned from the initial
stages of the project. Also, the safety of adjoining contaminated exhaust air and supply air
is a concern. Energy recovery systems that allow the exhaust air and supply air to be at
different locations, such as runaround systems, can be a solution.

ECONOMICS
Energy recovery is usually aimed at reducing the amount of energy consumed. Most
of the savings come from this reduced energy usage. However, energy recovery systems
that do not freeze (i.e., that have a lower efficiency during subfreezing temperatures) or
have to shut down during subfreezing temperatures can also reduce the component size
(or power demand). This demand reduction can reduce or even eliminate the initial cost of
the energy recovery system. To evaluate the economic benefits of selected energy recov-
ery systems, an economic analysis can be done using a simple payback analysis or a life-
cycle cost analysis. Chapter 15 gives details of these analyses.

REFERENCES

ASHRAE. 2012a. ASHRAE handbook—HVAC systems and equipment. Atlanta:

ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2012b. Chapter 26, Air-to-air energy recovery equipment. In ASHRAE hand-
book—HVAC systems and equipment. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2015. ASHRAE handbook—HVAC applications. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
Dorgan, C.B., R.J. Linder, and C.E. Dorgan. 1999. Chiller heat recovery application
guide. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
NFPA. 2015. NFPA 45: Standard on fire protection for laboratories using chemicals.
Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association.
Streets, R.A., and B.S.V. Setty. 1983. Energy conservation in institutional laboratory and
fume hood systems. ASHRAE Transactions 89(2B):542–51.

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Controls

OVERVIEW
11
Every building requires a properly functioning control system to operate comfortably,
safely, and energy efficiently. This is especially true for laboratories, where the HVAC
systems protect the occupants from dangerous pollutants and help maintain health and
safety. Whereas the physical systems are designed for the peak operating condition, the
control system must maintain proper temperature, humidity, air speed, air volume flow,
and pressure through all modes of operation. Supply airflows are dictated by one of three
criteria: makeup for hood exhaust, thermal cooling demand, or minimum ventilation rate.
This is to ensure the safety of the occupants and the accuracy of the experiments and
research conducted during all nonpeak periods. In addition, the HVAC system for a labo-
ratory is often subjected to rapid disturbances or changes, such as those caused by open-
ing doors, opening sashes on numerous fume hoods at once, or turning on large pieces of
heat-generating equipment. Such disturbances require a fast response from the control
system to maintain the precise conditions required in the laboratory. Further, because the
materials used in laboratories are commonly hazardous, corrosive, or flammable, the con-
trol system components must withstand exposure to such materials.
Laboratories also typically operate using 100% outdoor air, which requires consider-
able energy to condition before it is supplied to the individual rooms. Care must also be
taken to prevent damage to the equipment such as freezing coils, frosted filters, and
frosted energy recovery devices. The systems must be able to provide for a wide range of
capacities as outdoor temperatures and humidity vary. Therefore, it is very important that
a laboratory HVAC control system be designed to minimize energy use by providing the
minimum airflow rate that still provides excellent safety through effective hood contain-
ment, good thermal comfort, and proper control of laboratory room particulate and chem-
ical contaminants.
Laboratory HVAC controls encompass many strategies and elements that must be
engineered properly in order for the system to work, such as the following:
• Constant-volume versus variable-air-volume fume hood control
• Air control devices
• Source containment and exhaust device controls
• Room pressurization control
• Dilution ventilation and minimum ventilation rates
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• Room temperature control

• Central system level control
• Emergency modes of operation
• Animal facilities

CONSTANT-VOLUME VERSUS
VARIABLE-AIR-VOLUME
FUME HOOD CONTROL
Constant-volume systems are the simplest of systems to control. The airflows are
manually balanced or controlled by a constant-flow terminal unit to their peak flows
needed for makeup air, thermal load, or minimum ventilation rate. Temperature control is
typically through the use of reheat coils that are controlled from a room thermostat.
However, these systems are very energy intensive and not recommended for modern lab-
oratories.
Variable-air-volume (VAV) systems vary the supply and exhaust volumes based on
demand. Typically, VAV fume hood laboratories have hoods that allow the exhaust vol-
umes to respond to sash movement and allow for reduced exhaust requirements to main-
tain a constant face velocity when the sash is moved to a lower position than the design
operating height. With VAV systems, biological safety cabinets (BSCs), canopy hoods,
and snorkels are turned off when not needed. The supply air responds to maintain the
minimum flow rate needed to meet the highest of the following three different airflow
requirements:
• Makeup air for the room’s fume hoods and all other exhaust devices to maintain
the proper pressure relationship
• Cooling to meet the room’s thermal load demands (or at least those that are not
being met by a local hydronic cooling approach such as active or passive beams
or fan-coil units)
• Supply air needed to provide dilution ventilation to eliminate room-level chemi-
cal and particulate pollutants

Dilution ventilation may be achieved through a fixed minimum ventilation or air

change rate or, to achieve greater energy savings, a demand-based approach can be used
that measures the real-time level of room contaminants and varies the dilution ventilation
flow rate as needed to more effectively reduce and eliminate these contaminants. For
rooms that are not always dominated by the fume hood or other exhaust device require-
ments, a room or general exhaust airflow control device is used to exhaust the additional
supply air needed for cooling or dilution ventilation. Because the use of outdoor air is typ-
ically the single largest driver for energy use in a laboratory, reducing the supply and
exhaust airflow volumes can cut the energy use of a laboratory with a VAV control system
by 50% or more compared to a laboratory with a constant-volume control system. VAV
systems allow for flexibility in laboratory spaces, making it easier to change ventilation
rates when equipment and space usage change in the future. As a result, most systems
installed today are VAV control systems.

AIR CONTROL DEVICES

Before evaluating control strategies, designers must understand the types of devices
that can be used to control and measure the airflow at the room level. Airflow in a duct
can be controlled at the room level through the use of blade dampers, pneumatic dampers,

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or venturi valves. Each device should be evaluated as part of the complete laboratory con-
trol system for speed of response, accuracy (at minimum and maximum flow), turndown,
material compatibility, operating range, pressure independence, pressure drop, mainte-
nance requirements, and long-term durability. The control accuracy of each airflow in the
room affects the ability to maintain a volumetric offset. Required flow control accuracy
should be specified with reference to the accuracy needed to maintain required pressure
relationships throughout the life of the system.
Blade dampers can be single-blade or multiblade. To provide accuracy of control and
pressure independence, the control system must measure the airflow and control the
damper to maintain the proper airflow through changing static pressures and heating and
cooling demands on the system. Damper construction materials should be compatible
with the airstream in which they are located. Blade dampers can be controlled by either
pneumatic actuators or electric actuators to provide the speed of response required. Some
dampers can be controlled with normal-speed actuators if quick response is not required.
Areas in the laboratory without fume hoods may only require a typical 60 to 90 s actuator
versus a high-speed actuator with a full stroke of less than 2 s.
One type of pneumatic damper is the bladder damper. These dampers have airfoil
blades that expand with pneumatic air to close off the space between them. As with blade
dampers, pneumatic damper construction materials should be compatible with the air-
stream in which they are located. To provide accuracy of control and pressure indepen-
dence, the control system must measure the airflow and control the damper to maintain
the proper airflow independent of changing static pressures across the device.
Venturi valves are airflow control devices utilizing a venturi-shaped body with a cone
that rides on a center shaft. The cone is spring loaded to make the valve pressure indepen-
dent through a mechanical device. As pressure increases in the duct, the spring is com-
pressed and the cone decreases the area between the cone and the valve body, thereby
increasing the pressure drop across the valve. Venturi valves can meter the airflow using a
characterization curve that relates airflow to the position of the base of the spring in the
cone, or effectively the shaft position. The valves are pressure independent over a speci-
fied pressure range (valves are available with ranges such as 0.3 to 3.0, 0.6 to 3.0, or 1.0
to 6.0 in. w.g. [75 to 750, 150 to 750, or 250 to 1500 Pa]). Venturi valves typically require
a higher pressure drop across the control device than blade dampers or pneumatic damp-
ers to maintain their pressure independence. Valve construction materials should be com-
patible with the airstream they control. Compared to a blade damper, venturi valves have
more precision-machined parts in the airstream. Airflow is controlled by moving the cen-
ter shaft that moves the base of the spring that is connected to the cone.
A venturi valve can have either a pneumatic or an electric actuator. Airflow can be
determined by using an airflow measurement device or by using data that calibrate the
valve’s airflow to its shaft position characteristic. This characteristic is repeatable, and
each venturi valve can be measured and calibrated to determine its characterization curve.
This curve correlation can be used to calculate the airflow through the valve based on
measuring the position of the shaft that determines the position of the base of the cone,
provided that the pressure drop across the valve is within its design specification. The
accuracy of a venturi valve based on the position and characterization curves is typically
within ±5% of actual airflow. The characterization curves and accuracy of the airflow are
dependent on the spring being compressed and the valve operating within its design pres-
sure range.
Upon loss of power or pneumatic air, actuators on the control devices can be provided
that fail the device open (full flow), closed (minimum flow), or in the last position. Fail-

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ing exhaust devices open and supply devices closed provides a more negative space on
failure. This prevents contaminants from escaping the space. This can also lead to issues
with opening doors and allowing people to leave the space or building. Failing to last
position typically keeps the airflow relatively constant. Because the hoods are the primary
containment, visual means should be provided to indicate proper operation and alarm
functions.
Lab Room Schedule - [Link], available with this Guide at [Link]/LabDG,
allows the engineer to schedule the pertinent data for all the room airflow control devices
in one schedule along with the room offset, minimum ventilation rate, and maximum
cooling demand quantities that are required for setting up the control system.

AIRFLOW MEASUREMENT DEVICES

To control airflow to a given value, the airflow typically needs to be measured
(although some venturi devices control airflow based on calibrated position data). Air-
flow can be measured with velocity pressure, thermal dispersion, or vortex shedding
devices. Each device offers advantages and disadvantages in measuring airflow. When
evaluating the accuracy of the devices, the engineer should look at published data sheets
indicating accuracy of the complete airflow control system: sensor, controller, actuator,
and flow control device. Complete data sheets indicate the airflow range (or velocity
range), inlet conditions, and duct pressure loss that correspond to the accuracy data.
Where airflow measurement is used for either control functions or ongoing commis-
sioning, the airflow measurement device should be selected and located carefully to
ensure that the resulting system meets the design objectives. Manufacturer’s recommen-
dations on straight duct should be followed. Drift and recalibration maintenance require-
ments should also be considered.

Velocity Pressure
Averaging pitot tubes, flow crosses, and orifice rings are examples of devices that
measure and may amplify the velocity pressure. The velocity pressure device is connected
to a pressure transducer. A controller reads the output signal from the pressure transducer
and calculates the flow rate from the sensed pressure and calibration data. Accuracy of
the velocity pressure sensing system depends on the characteristics of the velocity pres-
sure device and the pressure transducer. A design engineer must understand that poten-
tially significant component errors are addressed by product qualification and balancing
and commissioning processes.
The velocity pressure is amplified by the static pressure port being in the wake zone
on the back side of the sensor instead of on the side as with standard pitot tubes. Accord-
ing to manufacturers, this amplification effect is fairly constant between 500 and 3000
fpm (2.5 and 15.2 m/s). If the amplification factor varies, that appears as a nonlinearity.
This is best addressed by examining product performance specifications across the range
of interest. Designers should indicate the flow range when specifying airflow control
accuracy, and product data sheets from control system suppliers should indicate velocity
range or flow range corresponding to accuracy specifications.
Inlet conditions can change the amplification factor. The nominal value published by
a supplier might not apply in a particular installation. The construction team adjusts the
factor to bring control system readings within a few percentage points of the value mea-
sured by the air balancer. This adjustment takes care of the amplification factor and any
span error in the transducer.

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All airflow sensors are affected by nonuniform airflow into the unit. Velocity pressure
sensing devices average and amplify the velocity pressure at the various inlet holes in the
devices. Multiple sensing ports make these devices less sensitive to the airflow profile
than single-point sensors.
ASHRAE Research Project RP-1353, Stability and Accuracy of VAV Box Control at
Low Flows, shows that a ±5% accuracy can be read from the flow sensors down to
140 fpm (0.71 m/s) with proper duct configuration (Liu et al. 2012). When reducers are
added before the inlet, the response of the velocity pressure device is not linear and
amplification is lost at lower velocities within the recommended range for the flow sensor
(Klaczek et al. 2006). This is not the accuracy at the controller. Between the airflow mea-
surement device and the controller, a pressure transducer is required to convert the veloc-
ity pressure to an input signal to the controller.
At low velocities, accuracy is very sensitive to offset error in the pressure transducer
(typically ±0.5% of full scale, which can lead to ±20% of flow). Control system providers
select the range accuracy rating of the transducer accordingly. Setup procedures generally
include “zeroing” the sensor on site. Some transducers are stable enough to perform after
being zeroed once. If the transducer drifts (typically 0.5% per year), some automatic zero-
ing functioning is appropriate. With an accurate zero, velocity pressure sensing can be
very accurate even at low velocities.
The pressure transducers can have a variety of pressure ranges and accuracies. Pres-
sure transducer accuracy is typically expressed in percent of full scale. Pressure transduc-
ers have several types of errors that should be considered when determining the overall
accuracy of the airflow measurement device. The three common errors are nonlinearity,
hysteresis, and nonrepeatability, which is commonly referred to as the root sum squared
(RSS) error, which is normally associated with the device’s accuracy. Overall error in
reading can be from ±2% to greater than ±40% and is very dependent on the pressure
transducers, temperature changes, and duct placement (ASHRAE 2013). In addition to
the RSS error, zero setting tolerance error, span setting error, stability per year, and ther-
mal effects should be considered when selecting pressure transducers for flow measure-
ment. Auto-zero and frequent calibration of the transducers can help maintain stability
over time.
Overall airflow sensing accuracy combines the effects of the probe and the pressure
transducer. Each can be characterized with a span error and an offset error. Other errors
(nonlinearity, hysteresis) are very small in these components. Table 11-1 summarizes the
errors associated with pressure transducers. These errors, along with the flow device error
(±3%), should be taken into account at minimum and maximum airflows.

Thermal Dispersion
Thermal dispersion devices measure airflow through the use of thermistors in the air-
stream. The thermistors are typically used in pairs. The first is used to measure the tem-
perature of the airstream. The second is heated above ambient temperature. The voltage
across the heated thermistor is measured and the power dissipated to the airstream is cal-
culated. From the power being dissipated to the airstream, the velocity can be calculated.
Typically, several sets of thermistors are used to create a traverse based on the size of
the duct. For small ducts (4 to 16 in. [100 to 400 mm] diameter), typically one or two sets
of thermistors are used. Microprocessor-based thermal dispersion devices can measure
airflow with an accuracy of ±2% of reading when calibrated against National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST) traceable standards (ASHRAE 2013). The air velocity
can be determined from 50 to 10,000 fpm (0.25 to 50 m/s) with an accuracy of ±3% of

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Table 11-1 Typical for

Pressure Sensor 1 in. (250 Pa) Span
Definition Corrective Measure
Characteristic Transducer,
Transducer ±0.4% Accuracy
Errors
Relationship of calibration Select appropriate span
Nonlinearity ±0.38% FS
curve to a straight line and accuracy
Maximum difference from Select appropriate span
Hysteresis increasing pressure and and accuracy; negligible ±0.10% FS
decreasing pressure compared to nonlinearity
Select appropriate span
Difference in readings
Nonrepeatability and accuracy; negligible ±0.05% FS
under same conditions
compared to nonlinearity
Change in reading due to Auto zero or keep at ±0.03% FS/°F
Thermal Effect
change in temperature constant temperature (±0.05% °C)
Change from one period to
Long-Term Stability the next with no Auto zero ±0.5% FS/yr
recalibration
Factory set 0 compared to Auto zero or field set
Zero Offset ±0.2% FS
actual 0 at start-up
FS = full scale

reading. The engineer should check the manufacturer’s accuracy and speed of response to
changes in airflow, as all thermal dispersion devices do not have the same accuracy and
speed of response. Some thermal dispersion devices have sensor-to-output errors around
2% of reading with temperature compensation and no drift over time.
Vortex Shedding
Vortex shedding devices measure airflow by measuring the pressure pulses or vortices
formed on the leeward side of an obstruction in the airflow and calculating the airflow
velocity based on the pulses. Vortex shedding is good for measuring velocities from 450
to 6000 fpm (2.3 to 30.5 m/s) with an accuracy of ±2.5% to 10% of reading (ASHRAE
2013). Below the specified sensing range a vortex shedder turns off and stops communi-
cating data, in contrast to other devices that continue to operate with reduced perfor-
mance. The devices are usually built with two acoustic sensing elements in the airstream
responding to two points in the velocity profile of the terminal. Response time for vortex
shedders is typically slower than that of velocity pressure sensors.

SOURCE CONTAINMENT AND

EXHAUST DEVICE CONTROLS
Because of the critical nature of the exhaust equipment needed to maintain contain-
ment of chemical, biological, and particulate contaminants, the development of a labora-
tory airflow control system typically starts with the control of fume hoods and other
exhaust devices. Maintaining source containment requires proper control of the exhaust
volume out of these local containment devices. Though fume hoods are the most common
type of exhaust equipment specific to laboratories, there are several other types of exhaust
devices that must be considered when designing the control system for a laboratory,
including snorkel exhausts, BSCs, and flammable and solvent storage cabinets, as well as
direct equipment exhausts (canopy hood or hard ducted). In addition to source contain-

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Figure 11-1
Typical
Constant-
Volume
Fume Hood

ment exhaust, general exhaust from the space is used for maintaining ventilation rate and/
or pressure relationships. Information on fume hoods and other types of exhaust equip-
ment can be found in Chapter 5.

FUME HOODS
Constant-Volume Fume Hood Control
Constant-volume fume hoods or bypass hoods are typically vertical sash hoods with a
bypass section located above the sash opening. As the sash opens, it blocks off the bypass
opening, allowing the exhaust system to pull air through the face of the fume hood. As the
sash is closed, the reverse happens. This provides a manual method of controlling where the
exhaust airflow comes from. Constant-volume fume hoods do not provide a constant face
velocity because the bypass is typically much smaller than the potential open sash area.
A fume hood monitor that measures face velocity through a sidewall sensor or mea-
sures the exhaust airflow can be used to provide a local visual and audible alarm. The
alarm setpoint may be for a reduced and excessive flow or face velocity level, such as at
80% and 120% of the desired value.
Constant-volume flow can be accomplished many different ways depending on the
type of exhaust system. With a single fan per hood, the flow can be set by balancing the
fan with no additional controls required. With a constant-volume manifolded system, a
manual balancing damper can be used. Figure 11-1 shows a schematic of a typical con-
stant-volume hood.
When a constant-volume fume hood is connected to a VAV exhaust system, a control
system is required. One method of control is to measure the exhaust flow from the hood
and modulate a damper to maintain a constant airflow (pressure-independent control).
Figure 11-2 shows a typical control schematic for a constant-volume hood.

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Figure 11-2
Typical Control
Schematic for
Constant-
Volume
Fume Hood

VAV Fume Hood Control

VAV fume hoods vary the exhaust airflow from the hood and maintain a specified
face velocity at the hood opening as the sash position is varied. On a manifolded exhaust
system, a central exhaust fan with a variable-frequency drive (VFD) or outdoor air bypass
dampers is used to vary the total system volume from the building by maintaining a set-
point exhaust pressure at some point in the exhaust ductwork. Occasionally, although
much less prevalent, a single-exhaust-fan-based fume hood system may vary fan speed
directly to control the hood’s airflow without a damper or airflow control device.
As with any laboratory hood, the primary goal is to contain pollutants to maintain the
health and safety of laboratory personnel. VAV fume hoods achieve this goal by ensuring
that the proper hood face velocity is maintained at all times. The face velocity needed for
safety can be actively and continually verified. Typically, the hood controller also indi-
cates proper function to the user, with an alarm for high or low face velocity. Face veloc-
ity alone does not ensure containment, but face velocity can be an indicator that
conditions at a hood that previously maintained effective containment have changed. Sen-
sors should be verified to be operating correctly at least once a year.

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An important goal of VAV hoods is to minimize system energy use. By controlling

the exhaust airflow needed to maintain safety in the laboratory and not exhausting addi-
tional air, VAV fume hoods require less makeup air. This reduces the energy consumption
of the exhaust fans and supply fans and the conditioning (heating, cooling, and humidity
control) of the supply air. Because laboratories typically use 100% outdoor air and as a
result have an HVAC energy consumption that is 5 to 10 times that of a typical commer-
cial building, the energy reduction associated with VAV control is significantly more than
that attainable in a typical office building that uses a large portion of recirculated air.
VAV or restricted-bypass hoods are designed to allow the exhaust airflow to be varied
as the hood sash is moved. VAV hoods can have vertical sashes, horizontal sashes, or
combination sashes. With restricted-bypass hoods, the bypass area is smaller and is typi-
cally uncovered only when the sash is fully closed. This allows the control system to vary
the exhaust flow from the hood while maintaining a constant face velocity and to main-
tain a minimum flow when the hood is closed.
There are two ways of controlling the face velocity of a VAV fume hood: directly
measuring air velocity and controlling the damper or calculating the required exhaust
flow based on the desired face velocity and measured open sash area to control the air-
flow to the calculated exhaust airflow setpoint.
Measurement of the fume hood face velocity is typically accomplished using a
small air velocity sensor (hot-wire or vane anemometer), which is placed in an opening
in the sidewall of the fume hood. Controllers using sidewall sensing typically modulate
a variable-speed hood fan, damper, or other airflow control device in the fume hood
exhaust to maintain face velocity at setpoint. Sidewall sensors have been found to give
accurate results with different sash types and positions in hoods up to 8 ft (2.4 m) wide
(Zhang and Agarwal 1993). Sensor location is important, and the sensor should be
located per the manufacturer’s instructions for accurate results. A fume hood monitor
and/or controller that measures face velocity through a sidewall sensor also provides a
local visual and audible alarm. Figure 11-3 shows a typical control schematic for a VAV
hood with a sidewall face velocity sensor.
Measuring the sash position and calculating the open area of the sash to set the
exhaust airflow is accomplished by first determining the sash position is using a potenti-
ometer or other variable-resistance means attached to the sash. The sensor reads the posi-
tion of the sash and calculates the open area of the fume hood face based on the known
width. An airflow measurement station or venturi valve in the exhaust duct measures the
airflow from the fume hood. The controller calculates the desired setpoint for the exhaust
flow rate by multiplying the open area of the fume hood by the desired face velocity. The
controller then modulates the exhaust damper or airflow control valve to the airflow
desired setpoint. A fume hood monitor can use a sidewall velocity sensor for verifying the
face velocity, or the monitor can compare the flow measurement to the calculated set-
point. Figure 11-4 shows a typical control schematic for a VAV hood with a sash position
sensor.

VAV Fume Hood Face Velocity Setback

For safety purposes, fume hood sashes should be closed when the hoods are not in
use, as the hood sash presents a physical barrier between the chemicals in the hood and
the room occupants. However, when there is poor sash management and sashes are left
open when the hoods are not in use, face velocity setback can be used to reduce the
exhaust flow. Energy is saved by reducing the hood makeup air when it is the driving fac-
tor for determining the supply air to the space. This energy-saving measure typically only

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Figure 11-3
Typical
Control
Schematic for
VAV Fume
Hood with
Sidewall
Face Velocity
Sensor

saves energy if the hood sashes are left open; VAV hoods typically exhaust their minimum
volume of air when the hood sashes are closed.
Hood face velocity can typically be safely reduced from 100 to 60 fpm (0.5 to 0.3 m/s)
when there is no activity in front of the hood. An occupancy sensor aimed at the area
directly in front of the hood can be used to set the face velocity setpoint back when the
hood is not in use. Alternatively, a room occupancy sensor can be used to set the hood
face velocity back when no one is in the laboratory room.

VAV Fume Hood Flow Range

An important set of parameters for a VAV fume hood system is the maximum and
minimum flow rates and flow range of the system. The maximum flow rate may be set for
the maximum opening of the hood but is often set for the working height of the hood,
such as 18 in. (450 mm). In the latter case, if the sash is raised above this point for exper-
iment setup, then the face velocity will be reduced. Chemicals should not be used in the
hood if it is open above the height used for design. Typically sash stops are provided to
prevent the hood from being raised above the design height (typically 18 in. [450 mm]).
A more important parameter from an energy-efficiency standpoint is the minimum
flow setpoint. Previous recommendations from standards such as NFPA 45 and ANSI/

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Figure 11-4
Typical
Control
Schematic for
VAV Fume
Hood with
Sash Position
Sensor

AIHA/ASSE Z9.5 provided guidance of 25 cfm/ft2 (12 L/s·m2) of hood bench area, or
about 250 cfm for a 6 ft hood (118 L/s for a 1.8 m hood). Over the last 10 years, empirical
research studies have shown that this level, which is related to concerns over the lower
explosive limit (LEL) for most spills or excessive use of solvents in a hood, is overly con-
servative. The guidance changed in the 2011 edition of NFPA 45 and the 2012 edition of
ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5. The latter now requires determining the minimum based on the
possibility of an explosion and other considerations. It notes that values in a range of 150
to 375 hood air changes per hour have been used. For a typical 6 ft (1.8 m) benchtop
hood, this corresponds to a range of 100 to 250 cfm (47 to 118 L/s), or about 10 to
25 cfm/ft2 (5 to 12 m3/h·m2) of bench area. It is up to the safety professionals and the
design team to determine the flow value for a particular installation. Issues to be consid-
ered include but are not limited to frequent use of very corrosive acids (such as acid
digestion) that could corrode the fume hood liner, control limits of the fume hood airflow
control devices, the ability to maintain laboratory offset or pressure, and use of large
quantities of highly volatile solvents. This reduced minimum ventilation when the hood
sash is closed can provide significant energy savings when the fume hood sashes are
closed.

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VAV System Response Time

System response time is an important factor for maintaining proper airflow velocity
and direction to prevent spillage from the fume hood during disturbances, such as open-
ing the sash from closed to fully open. Careful selection and programming of controllers
are important to provide a fast and accurate response to minimize or eliminate fume hood
spillage. ASHRAE Standard 110 (ASHRAE 1995) defines an acceptable response time
for a VAV hood as the time needed for the face velocity to stabilize within 10% of the
design value from the time of the disturbance. This is determined while the sash is opened
from a working height of 25% open to fully open at both 1.0 and 1.5 ft/s (0.30 and 0.46
m/s). The response time of the control system should maintain proper safety and pressur-
ization differentials when the system is disturbed. Response times on the order of 3 s or
less are typically acceptable (AIHA 2012).
OTHER EXHAUST DEVICES
In addition to controlling fume hoods, the control of other equipment, including snor-
kel exhausts, BSCs, flammable and solvent storage cabinets, and direct equipment, must
be properly integrated into the control of the primary air systems for laboratories to main-
tain proper room balance. Additional general information on these types of equipment
can be found in Chapter 5.
Snorkel Exhausts
Snorkel exhausts are used to provide small, movable exhaust intakes for benchtop
laboratory equipment. Though they remove heat and nontoxic particle emissions, they do
not provide adequate protection against harmful chemicals. The typical control of these
systems is the use of a switchable independent exhaust fan or the use of a manual damper
to connect to a manifolded exhaust system. Sometimes the snorkels are provided with an
automatic airflow control device to allow one or several snorkels to be opened or closed
with a wall switch. See Figure 11-5 for a typical control schematic for a two-position
snorkel.

Figure 11-5
Typical Control
Schematic for
Two-Position
Snorkel

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Biological Safety Cabinets

Biological safety cabinets (BSCs) are used to protect laboratory workers and/or the
research work being performed from various biological agents. BSCs have higher static
pressure drops than fume hoods, and they can add up to 2 in. (500 Pa) of static pressure
requirement to the exhaust system. When using a manifolded exhaust system, the extra
differential pressure should be considered. Connecting a BSC and a general exhaust to the
same duct requires a significant pressure drop through the control damper of the general
exhaust device to match that of the BSC. This additional pressure drop can lead to noise
and control issues.
As discussed in Chapter 5, there are three levels of safety cabinets—Class I, Class II,
and Class III—which provide increasing levels of protection. Some BSCs recirculate
some or all of the exhaust air back into the laboratory once it has been filtered through a
high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter, while others exhaust all of the air to the
atmosphere after being HEPA filtered. Exhaust from BSCs is either through dedicated
exhaust stacks or a manifolded system, which only serves biological exhaust sources of
similar hazard level. Figure 11-6 shows a typical control schematic for a BSC.

Figure 11-6
Typical
Control
Schematic
for BSC

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Class I cabinets provide worker protection against low- and moderate- level biologi-
cal agents. They do not filter or treat the supply air that is introduced to the cabinet and
should not be used for high-risk biological substances, because disruptions in the inward
airflow to the cabinet can allow airborne particles to escape through the inlet. The exhaust
air is HEPA filtered. Because the air entering the cabinet is not filtered, these cabinets do
not provide protection for the product. Class I cabinets use constant-volume or possibly
two-state control with a fixed opening (no sash).
Class II cabinets are used for moderate-risk biological agents; they use HEPA filtered
supply and exhaust air. There are currently four types of Class II cabinets, Types A1, A2,
B1, and B2, each which uses a different combination of recirculated air and filtering.
Each type of Class II cabinets has its benefits, is used for different types of work, and has
a sash that can be opened for performing work. Class II cabinets use constant-volume or
possibly two-state control with a movable sash and a filtered bypass opening.
Class II Type A1 cabinets recirculate 70% of the air within the cabinet, and 30% is
exhausted through a HEPA filter. Typically these units discharge the air into the room and
do not require any external control.
Class II Type A2 cabinets recirculate 70% of the air within the cabinet, and 30% is
exhausted through a HEPA filter. These units discharge the air into the room or are
exhausted to the outdoors. The control system controls the exhaust to a constant or possi-
bly two-state volume when it is exhausted to an dedicated exhaust fan or a manifolded
system.
Class II Type B1 cabinets recirculate 40% of the air within the cabinet, and 60% is
exhausted through a HEPA filter. These units are exhausted to the outdoors. The control
system controls the exhaust to a constant or possibly two-state volume when it is
exhausted to an dedicated exhaust fan or a manifolded system. The control system needs
to be able to shut off the airflow to allow for decontamination of the BSC.
Class II Type B2 cabinets exhaust 100% of the air through a HEPA filter. These units
are exhausted to the outdoors. The control system controls the exhaust to a constant or
possibly two-state volume when it is exhausted to an dedicated exhaust fan or a mani-
folded system. The control system needs to be able to shut off the airflow to allow for
decontamination of the BSC.
Class III cabinets provide a physical barrier between the user and the biological sub-
stance. The typical device is a glove box with HEPA-filtered supply air and HEPA-filtered
exhaust air. The control system controls the exhaust to a constant volume when it is
exhausted to an dedicated exhaust fan or a manifolded system. The control system needs
to be able to shut off the airflow to allow for decontamination of the BSC.
Flammable and Solvent Storage Cabinets
Flammable and solvent storage cabinets protect laboratory personnel from the dan-
gers of stored gases and chemicals, including possible explosions and volatile fumes.
These cabinets may come with a variety of features, such as fire sprinklers, access open-
ings, and safety controls. Flammable and solvent storage cabinets exhaust air from a high-
strength (explosionproof) cabinet, provide supply air (typically room air) through a fil-
tered opening in the cabinet, and are maintained at a slightly negative pressure to prevent
fumes from entering the laboratory.
Sometimes these cabinets are vented to the outdoors. When they are, both vents
should be piped to the outdoors. Venting only one outdoors will draw air into the labora-
tory since the room is usually under negative pressure.
An alternative is to provide for active exhaust either through an independent exhaust
fan or the use of a manual damper to connect to a manifolded exhaust system. When a

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manual damper is used, its minimum value is set to provide the design airflow. Depending
on the location of the damper, the damper can be opened farther in the case of an emer-
gency, such as a spill inside the storage cabinet. The fan for the main exhaust system is
run continuously, because turning off the exhaust to the storage cabinet could allow flam-
mable vapors to build up to dangerous levels. Figure 11-7 shows a typical control sche-
matic for a flammable and solvent storage cabinet.
Direct Equipment Exhaust
Direct equipment exhaust is used for pieces of equipment that generate considerable
amounts of heat, humidity, or pollutants. By providing adequate direct exhaust, the heat/
humidity gain from the equipment does not contribute a load to the space. However, addi-
tional supply air is required to make up for the exhaust air. Equipment that may have
direct exhaust includes large furnaces, ovens, centrifuges, autoclaves, and glassware wash
machines. Equipment may have either direct duct connection or a canopy hood.
The typical control of these systems is by an independent exhaust fan or by an air
control device connected to the manifolded exhaust system that enables the exhaust
whenever the equipment is operating. Independent exhaust fans are typically wired to
automatically turn on when the equipment is operating, or they have a separate switch to

Figure 11-7
Typical
Control
Schematic for
Flammable
and Solvent
Storage
Cabinet

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enable the fan. When an air control device is used to connect to a manifolded exhaust sys-
tem, the device can be either opened manually by the operator or, preferably, automati-
cally by an actuator, which monitors the on-off status of the equipment. The fan for the
main exhaust system is run continuously while the equipment requires direct exhaust, and
an alarm or interlock device may sometimes be used to ensure that while the equipment is
running it has exhaust from the main system. For equipment that stays hot for a consider-
able time after being turned off, such as a large furnace or autoclave, direct equipment
exhaust may use a delay timer to continue providing exhaust for a certain length of time
after equipment shutoff. Figure 11-8 shows a typical control schematic for a canopy hood
used for direct exhausting.
GENERAL LABORATORY EXHAUST
Whereas equipment exhausts such as fume hoods provide ventilation to a confined
area within the laboratory, general laboratory exhaust provides ventilation to the labora-
tory as a whole. General laboratory exhaust serves two purposes: it allows additional ven-
tilation of the room to remove odors and contaminants that were not captured by the
equipment exhausts, and it allows for higher supply airflows to provide the necessary
cooling in cases where the cooling load, not the exhaust airflow, dominates the design of
the laboratory systems.
Typical control of general laboratory exhaust is through the use of a manifolded
exhaust system and balancing dampers for a constant-volume system or airflow control
devices for a VAV system. General laboratory exhaust is typically combined with the
fume hood exhaust flow in the same manifolded exhaust system. Exceptions to this are
when the fume hood exhaust needs to be specially treated, such as with radioisotope fume
hoods or perchloric acid fume hoods. Another reason might be the use of an enthalpy
wheel, which is typically only used with room exhaust air to reduce the chances of intro-
ducing contaminants into the room supply air.

Figure 11-8
Typical
Control
Schematic
for Canopy
Hood Used
for Direct
Exhausting

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ROOM PRESSURIZATION CONTROL

Laboratories require accurate control of the pressure differentials between adjoining

spaces. Room pressurization is controlled in a laboratory to ensure the safety of the occu-
pants, protect the environment, and protect the research that is being conducted. A rapid
increase in exhaust airflow from the room (e.g., opening a sash on a fume hood) requires
a similarly large increase in supply air to the room. Pressurization is used to prevent trans-
fer of pollutants to and from unwanted areas. Differential pressure is created by maintain-
ing a differential airflow between the exhaust and supply airflow. Spaces such as
cleanrooms and tissue culture and laser laboratories typically must be positively pressur-
ized to prevent unwanted pollutants from entering from surrounding areas, while most
other laboratories must be negatively pressurized to prevent airborne pollutants generated
in the laboratories from migrating to other areas of the building. Figure 11-9 shows how
room pressurization is used to prevent contaminants from spreading.
A typical value for room pressurization differential is 0.05 in. w.g. (12.5 Pa) for stable
flow control with a single-stage pressurization control (Sun 2003). This differential pres-
sure has been found to keep contaminants out of cleanrooms as doors open and close. For
multiple staged rooms of pressure control, this value may vary from 0.03 to 0.08 in. w.g.
(7.5 to 20 Pa). Differential pressure should not exceed 0.30 in. w.g. (75 Pa), as this could
make it difficult to open and close typical doors. The maximum delta pressure should be
determined by the door opening force and should take into account the force of any auto-
matic door openers.
The room differential pressure can be determined by using the following equation
from Chapter 53 of ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications (2015a):

2P
V = 776CA ----------- (I-P)


V = CA 2P
----------- (SI)


Figure 11-9
Room
Pressurization
to Prevent
Contamination
Spread

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where
V = volumetric flow rate, cfm (m3/s)
C = flow coefficient (typically 0.65)
A = flow area (leakage area), ft2 (m2)
P = pressure difference across flow path, in. w.g. (Pa)
 = density of air entering flow path (0.075 lbm/ft3 [1.2 kg/m3] for standard air)

Figure 11-10 shows a graph of the airflow required to maintain various differential
pressures for various leakage areas. In determining the amount of offset air needed to
obtain the desired pressure differential, the leakage area is the most difficult number to
estimate. But, it is the most basic mechanical parameter in a pressurization design.
Designers need some estimate or range of values in order to design the system. Leakage
area is dependent on actual building construction. Leakage rates can be in the range from
3.4 to 31.8 in.2 per 100 ft2 (0.0022 to 0.22 m2 per 10 m2) of surface area (Geeslin et al.
2008).
To specify a pressurization control system, a designer considers the following:
• Pressurization relationships desired between spaces
• Expected range of leakage values
• Pressurization control sequence for normal operation
• Potential airflow reset strategies for unoccupied conditions
• Desired operation in the event of failures or degraded operation
• Performance specifications of the airflow control components

There are three widely known methods of maintaining room differential pressure:
direct pressure control, volumetric offset control, and cascade control. This chapter dis-
cusses these methods in the following subsections; see Chapter 16 of ASHRAE Hand-
book—HVAC Applications (2015b) for more detailed descriptions as well as the criteria
for selecting a method.

DIRECT PRESSURE CONTROL

Direct pressure control is accomplished by measuring the differential pressure
between the room and the reference space (typically the adjacent space) and controlling
the exhaust or supply flow to maintain the differential setpoint. Measuring and tracking

Figure 11-10
Leakage Area
versus Flow
Rate

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all the exhaust and supply airflows is not necessary with direct pressure control. Measur-
ing of the clean supply airflow is needed to maintain minimum ventilation rates.
Figure 11-11 shows a typical control schematic for direct pressure control.
Direct pressure control is subject to disturbances of the pressure in the reference
space and changes in the leakage area of the room. As doors to the room open and close,
the leakage area of the room changes and requires a greater differential airflow to main-
tain differential pressure. With a door open, the airflow required to maintain the differen-
tial pressure may exceed the capacity of the air system. A door switch is sometimes used
to freeze the control outputs when the door is open. The system is also subject to changes
in the reference space pressure. Opening and closing doors, elevator movements, wind,

Figure 11-11
Typical Control Schematic for Direct Pressure Control

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and other factors can affect the reference space pressure. Direct pressure control systems
respond to these fluctuations, adjusting airflows to achieve room pressure setpoint.
In a negatively pressurized laboratory, the supply terminal is usually selected as the
room pressure control device. This is based on consideration of failure modes in the event
that either the supply or exhaust falls short of the setpoint (which is based on minimum
exhaust requirements, minimum ventilation rate, or differential pressure). In dynamic,
manifolded VAV systems, with energy-conserving strategies implemented at the fans, the
possibility of a particular terminal being temporarily starved is very real. If the exhaust
falls short, the supply terminal continues to control pressure. If the supply falls short, the
room pressure goes more negative than desired. This set of failure conditions is usually
preferred to the reverse for safety reasons. Too much negative pressure can lead to issues
with opening doors, excess infiltration, or even damage to walls and ceilings.

VOLUMETRIC OFFSET CONTROL

Volumetric offset control is accomplished by measuring all the supply and exhaust
flows in the space and maintaining a set differential flow rate between them, thereby
maintaining room pressure differential. Measuring and tracking all the exhaust and sup-
ply airflows is necessary with volumetric offset control. The offset is often determined
based on the number of doors (typical offset values are 75 to 100 cfm [35 to 47 L/s] per
door) to adjacent spaces with differing pressurization requirements, or the balancer may
adjust the offset to obtain a desired differential room pressure. In determining the offset,
the accuracy of control must also be taken into consideration. Figure 11-12 shows a typi-
cal control schematic for volumetric offset control.
This method does not recognize changes in the pressures of adjacent spaces. A room
pressure monitor with an alarm can be provided to verify room pressure is being main-
tained. The supply air is controlled to meet the maximum of the thermal demand airflow
requirements, the minimum ventilation rate, and the makeup air needed for the hood
exhaust and other exhaust devices. The controller maintains the general exhaust at the
minimum flow necessary to maintain the desired room offset. The application of the off-
set depends on the relative pressurization of the room. For example, a negatively pressur-
ized room that has a minimum ventilation rate of 1000 cfm (470 L/s) and an offset of
100 cfm (47 L/s), the offset is typically applied so the total exhaust is 1000 cfm (470 L/s)
and the supply is equal to 900 cfm (425 L/s). If the same room were designed to be posi-
tively pressurized, the total exhaust would be 900 cfm (425 L/s) and the total supply
1000 cfm (470 L/s). This minimizes the amount of supply air that needs to be conditioned
and supplied to the space.
Flow measurement is subject to errors in measurement. If a room has a total supply of
1000 cfm (470 L/s) and a total exhaust flow of 1200 cfm (566 L/s) and a measurement
error of ±5%, the nominal differential flow rate is 200 cfm (94 L/s) with a worst-case
error of ±110 cfm (52 L/s). This numerical example illustrates that performance of a vol-
umetric offset control system is sensitive to the accuracy of the individual flow control
components. ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5 (AIHA 2012) suggests calculating volumetric off-
set control performance specifications from pressurization requirements.
The following process, illustrated in Figure 11-13, gives designers a methodical way
to specify control components so that the resulting volumetric offset system performs as
intended.
1. Define pressurization relationships between spaces. The desired pressure rela-
tionship, or direction of airflow, must be identified between any pair of adja-
cent spaces in the vicinity of the laboratory. ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5 (AIHA
2012) suggests expressing this information directly on a floor plan to clarify

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intentions for all contractors, commissioning authorities, and representatives of

laboratory users.
2. Identify supply and exhaust terminals for each space. The list of the supply and
exhaust terminals for each space, and the required range of flow rates, will
become the fully specified “box schedule” by the end of the process.
3. Select pressurization level and accuracy. The designer selects the nominal
value of the offset by considering the expected leakage area and the desired
level of pressurization. Then, with reference to the same leakage curve, the
designer specifies the allowable control range for that offset value. As the
previous numerical example shows, the performance of the control system is

Figure 11-12
Typical Control Schematic for Volumetric Offset Control

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Figure 11-13
Specifying
Control
Components
for Volumetric
Offset

sensitive to the accuracy of the individual flow control components; therefore

the designer is advised to allow a fairly wide tolerance on the small offset
between two much larger flow values. Tolerance values of 20% to 30% of the
nominal offset are often found to be workable.
4. Calculate flow accuracies. The chosen airflow tolerance is allocated to each of
the airflow control terminals in the room. If they have approximately the same
flow range, it makes sense to allow equal tolerance on each one.
5. Check for practicality. The designer should check the preliminary performance
specifications against what is known to be practically available and within the
intended project budget. It is particularly important to check the accuracy spec-
ifications at the high and low ends of the flow range for each terminal. If the
numbers are reasonable, the job is done. If the accuracy calculated for any of
the terminals seems unattainable or impractical, the specifier should adjust the
design before putting the project out to bid.

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6. Adjust as needed. If the designer finds the required accuracy is impractical,

there are many possible ways to remedy it, such as the following:
• Adjust offset and corresponding tolerance.
• Choose pressure feedback instead of volumetric offset control.
• Resize terminals to get more accurate flow control.
• Reselect sensors to increase accuracy.
• Reduce airflow ranges.
• Add leakage, move design point.
The designer can experiment with these modifications and recalculate the flow
control specifications to find a workable design.

In a negatively pressurized laboratory, a supply terminal is usually selected as the

flow tracking device. This is based on consideration of failure modes in the event that
either the supply or exhaust falls short of the setpoint (which is based on minimum
exhaust requirements, minimum ventilation rate, or minimum volumetric offset). The
designer specifies that if the exhaust flow fails to meet the setpoint, the supply terminal
continues to track the actual flow, maintaining the desired pressurization. If the supply
falls short, the room pressure goes more negative than desired. This set of failure condi-
tions is usually preferred to the reverse for safety reasons. Too much negative pressure
can lead to issues with opening doors, excess infiltration, or even damage to walls and
ceilings. (It is possible to design more complex sequences that maintain the desired offset
when either fan system lacks capacity. Typically that complexity is only chosen when
very special hazards are involved.)

CASCADE CONTROL
For tightly constructed rooms where the leakage can be very small, volumetric offset
control cannot typically provide a stable differential pressure because of the small offset
flow rates that are needed. For these situations, a cascade control system should be con-
sidered. Cascade control can also be used to verify the offset control is working correctly
and account for changes in building pressure relationships. A cascade control system is
accomplished by combining volumetric offset control and direct pressure control. The
differential pressure sensor is used to reset the offset over time to maintain the proper dif-
ferential pressure. Figure 11-14 shows a typical control schematic for cascade control.

DILUTION VENTILATION AND

MINIMUM VENTILATION RATES
Minimum ventilation rates should be established that provide a safe and healthy envi-
ronment under normal and expected operating conditions. The dilution ventilation pro-
vided by this airflow is no substitute for the containment performance of a laboratory
fume hood or other primary containment device regardless of the room ventilation rate.
The appropriate ventilation rate for clearing a room of fugitive emissions or spills varies
significantly based on the amount of release, the chemical’s evaporation rate and hazard
level, and the ventilation system effectiveness.
Fixed minimum airflow rates in the range of 6 to 12 air changes per hour (ach) when
the space is occupied have been used in the past. However, recent university research
(Klein et al. 2009) showed a significant increase in dilution and clearing performance
when the ventilation rate was increased from 6 to 8 ach, with diminishing returns above
12 ach. Similarly, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) (Schuyler 2009) showed that
increasing the laboratory’s dilution ventilation rate from 4 to 8 ach reduced the back-

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Figure 11-14
Typical Control Schematic for Cascade Control

ground contaminant level by greater than a factor of 10. This indicates that minimum ven-
tilation rates at the lower end of the 6 to 12 ach range may not be appropriate for all
laboratories. Minimum ventilation rates should be established on a room-by-room basis
considering the hazard levels of the materials expected to be used in the room and the
operations and procedures to be performed. As the hazard levels, materials, and use of a
room change, an increase or decrease in the minimum ventilation rate should be evaluated.

UNOCCUPIED SETBACK CONTROL OF MINIMUM VENTILATION RATES

Some laboratories use a high minimum ventilation rate during occupied periods and
when the laboratory is unoccupied, as indicated by a time clock or room occupancy sen-
sors, the minimum ventilation rate is set back to a lower value, reducing the total airflow

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to the space provided the hood exhaust and thermal demands are also reduced. This
approach may save significant amounts of energy, but designers must apply it carefully.
The concept behind this method of achieving reduced ventilation is that the laboratory
workers are the prime source of contaminants in the room, and when they are not there,
working, the strength of the source is greatly reduced, resulting in less of a need for venti-
lation. There are laboratory rooms where this reasoning is sound; however, there are also
cases where it does not apply because of the materials and processes that remain in the
room after the workers leave.
This design concept needs to maintain low, safe concentrations of contaminants in the
air at all times. It is not part of this concept to allow increased contamination levels on the
grounds that the workers are absent. Some of the conditions that preclude use of this con-
cept are laboratory spaces where there is a possibility of fugitive emissions during unoc-
cupied times, the use of chemicals stored outside the hood that may leak into the space,
the operation of research experiments and chemically related operations during unoccu-
pied times, or other operations that might release chemical vapors or particulates into the
laboratory space that could increase or build up when air change rates are reduced.
For spaces where it is appropriate to use this concept, the following four design steps,
adapted from a published process for designing two-state ventilation systems (Coogan
2008), can be followed:
1. Determine if the unoccupied period presents an opportunity to reduce ventila-
tion. At this step, the ventilation designer consults with the responsible envi-
ronmental health and safety professional and a representative for the laboratory
users, such as the Principal Investigator or laboratory manager.
2. Select the minimum flow rates that apply during the occupied and unoccupied
periods. This is the same sort of analysis that applies for the minimum flow rate
without a setback. In this case, designers assess the ventilation rate and poten-
tial for contamination twice: once with the laboratory in use and once with no
one working in the laboratory.
3. Select a trigger that informs the control system when to switch between the
occupied and unoccupied settings. This is a common building automation sys-
tem (BAS) function implemented in many familiar ways: schedules, occupancy
sensors, manual switches, etc. It is important to select a trigger, or a combina-
tion of triggers, that works effectively for the particular space.
4. Design an indicator for the laboratory users. It is crucial that anyone in the
room or entering the room know that the ventilation system is in the mode that
supports their activity. If it occurs that a person is in the room while the system
is running at the unoccupied rates, the system must make this fact perfectly evi-
dent to the user. It is necessary to train workers on the meaning of the airflow
indicator and the procedure to follow if the wrong mode is indicated.

The savings potential that justifies a ventilation setback depends on the amount that
the ventilation can be reduced and the amount of reliably unoccupied operating time.
Some laboratories have a very consistent weekly work schedule; others are likely to be
used at any time of the day or night. The savings potential may also be diminished in lab-
oratories where the hood makeup requirements are greater than the room ventilation
requirements.
Note that reducing the air change rate at night or during unoccupied times can be used
safely in combination with demand-based control (discussed in the following subsection)
since in this case the laboratory is being continuously monitored. As a result, contami-

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nants will be detected and purged before they can build up in the laboratory even during
unoccupied periods—no different than the operation during the daytime.

DEMAND-BASED CONTROL
Active sensing of air quality in individual laboratories (Sharp 2010), also known as
demand-based control, is an alternative approach for dealing with the variability of appro-
priate ventilation rates, particularly when energy efficiency is important or when less may
be known about the hazard level. With this approach, the minimum airflow rate is varied
based on sensing the laboratory’s actual air quality level or “air cleanliness.” Primary con-
taminants in general laboratories include chemical, particulate, and aerosol contaminants.
Appropriate sensors used to determine the laboratory’s air quality include, for example, a
photoionization detector (PID) type total volatile organic compound (TVOC) sensor to
detect a broad range of organic as well as some inorganic contaminants. Some other
TVOC or chemical sensors may also be used to pick up other compounds of interest not
detected by a PID. A laser-based particle counter is also recommended to detect potential
particulate and aerosol pollutants. For special-purpose laboratories that have a dominant
potential contaminant, sensors should be evaluated for their ability to detect that contami-
nant. Carbon dioxide measurement is also often recommended for typical occupancy-
related ventilation, particularly where higher people density can occur, such as in teach-
ing laboratories. The engineer should work with the owner’s health and safety personnel
to determine the chemicals being used in the space and what the maximum permissible
exposure level is. The sensors selected should be evaluated for the ability to detect the
chemicals present, the ability to measure within acceptable tolerances, and on long-term
reliability and recalibration of the sensors.
When air contaminants are sensed in the laboratory above a given threshold, the min-
imum air change rate is increased proportionally to an appropriate level to purge the
room. This purge level depends on the system and airflow control device capabilities but
is typically recommended to be in the range of at least 8 ach to as high as 16 ach. When
the air is “clean” and contaminants are below the threshold, this approach can safely
reduce laboratory air change rates to as low as 2 ach or as determined by the owner’s
health and safety personnel. A commonly applied approach when the laboratory air is
clean is to operate at 4 ach during the day and reduce the air change rate to 2 ach at night,
when the hoods are more likely to be closed, the thermal loads are less, and the tempera-
ture control can be set back. Based on these airflow reductions and extensive studies of
laboratory room environmental conditions that have shown that the air in laboratories is
typically clean more than 98% of the time (Sharp 2010), the energy savings from this
approach can be very significant. In fact, for many laboratories, such as those that do not
have a high hood density, the single largest energy conservation measure that can be
applied to the laboratory is the demand-based control of the minimum ventilation rate.
For example, Figure 11-15 shows an analysis of the estimated energy savings from reduc-
ing the dilution ventilation of a typical laboratory in Boston from a fixed 6 ach to a
demand-based control approach operating when the air is clean at 4 ach during the day
and 2 ach at night. As can be seen from the figure, the HVAC energy of the laboratory is
cut by a total of 51%.
It should be noted that these systems cannot typically be used in biosafety level
(BSL) 3 or 4 laboratories, as described in Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical
Laboratories (CDC 2009), for a variety of reasons, such as the facts that no particles can
be taken out of these spaces and that it is it practical to mount the sensors themselves
inside these spaces. Also, spaces with very high hood densities, such as more than two
6 ft (1.8 m) hoods per a 250 ft2 (23.2 m2) laboratory module, are also not good applica-

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Figure 11-15
HVAC Energy
Use
Breakdown

tions for this approach, because the airflow rates are dominated by the fume hood flows
even when the sashes are closed.
In terms of implementing this approach, multiple indoor air quality sensors can be
individually mounted in each space for continuous monitoring, or else an air sampling
system can be used that draws air samples back to a central sensing station to significantly
reduce the number of required sensors. It is also recommended to sense both the supply
air going into the laboratory and the exhaust air going out of the laboratory and to subtract
the supply air levels from the exhaust air levels. The resultant differential measurement
eliminates the effect of contaminants in the outdoor or supply air that could create a false
positive across the entire building. If an air sampling system is used with this supply-
exhaust differential sensing approach, the effects of sensor drift errors can be cancelled
out for improved accuracy by using the same central sensor for the exhaust and supply
differential measurement. The engineer should review the first cost, energy savings, and
life-cycle cost of potential systems, including calibration and maintenance costs of the
sensors, to determine the long-term benefits of these systems. The engineer should also
review the chemicals being used in the space to determine if the sensors are appropriate
for the detection of contaminants, as one sensor cannot typically detect all chemicals. The
health and safety personnel will need to review the system when additional chemicals are
introduced into the laboratory space.

ROOM TEMPERATURE CONTROL

Room temperature control with constant-volume systems may be accomplished by

first fixing the supply airflow rate high enough so that all airflow requirements such as
fume hood makeup air requirements, anticipated thermal loads, and the minimum dilution
ventilation requirements can be met. A reheat control valve is then used in response to a
space temperature sensor to modulate the discharge temperature to prevent the laboratory
from being overcooled. With a VAV system, the supply volume can be reduced but the
reheat coil is often still needed since the fume hood makeup air requirements or minimum
dilution ventilation requirements are often greater than the thermal load requirements for
supply airflow.
The temperature sensor location can affect the ability to accurately control the tem-
perature in the laboratory. The sensor should be located where it can read the actual tem-
perature of the laboratory space. The pressure differential between spaces and the

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possibility of significantly different temperature requirements between adjacent spaces

associated with laboratories can pose difficulties in getting the temperature sensor to read
the actual room temperature.
For example, if a temperature sensor is located near the door of a negatively pressur-
ized laboratory space, air from the hallway continually flows into the room near the tem-
perature sensor and, depending on the location of the sensor with respect to the door and
wall configuration, the temperature sensor can read the temperature of the hallway air
instead of the laboratory space. As the temperature differential between the hallway and
the laboratory increases, the effect of the hallway air increases.
Another example is a temperature sensor mounted in or over the top of a hole in the
wall (or loose electrical box). If the temperature sensor is loose around the hole in the
wall, the negative pressure of the laboratory can cause the temperature sensor to read the
temperature in the wall cavity.
Temperature sensors should be located in the interior space of the laboratory away
from direct sunlight, away from transfer air locations, and away from heat-producing
equipment. Care should be taken to locate the sensor where it will not be blocked by
shelving and will be representative of the space temperature. In some instances, tempera-
ture sensors may be located in general exhaust ducts. Where the exhaust air is filtered at
the room level, sensors should be located after the filters.
In terms of estimating the actual versus peak laboratory thermal loads for assessing
energy usage and reheat levels, a Labs21 and University of California Davis study
(Mathew et al. 2005a, 2005b) found that the average plug and lighting load for a typical
laboratory room is 2.5 to 3.0 W/ft2 (27 to 32 W/m2), with perhaps only 20% or fewer of
laboratories having loads greater than 4 W/ft2 (43 W/m2). For these typical average
rooms, daytime normal thermal loads are less than 4 ach of conditioned supply airflow,
and for nighttime the use of a temperature setback control should push the required sup-
ply airflow down to 2 ach or less. Actual airflow turndown should be based on the mini-
mum requirements for the facility.

HYDRONIC ROOM COOLING

In laboratory spaces where the airflow required for cooling exceeds the airflow
required for ventilation or hood exhaust, local hydronic cooling approaches such as active
or passive beams or fan-coil units can be used for more energy-efficient operation. These
approaches are desirable because they decouple the cooling requirements from the air-
flow requirements so that laboratory airflow can be reduced to the minimum ventilation
level, which could be as low as 2 ach, at least when combined with demand-based control.
As a result, these approaches may provide lower first or capital costs by reducing outdoor
air to reduce the supply airflow conditioning requirements and the size of the supply and
exhaust fans. A cost analysis of a combination air/hydronic system versus an all-air sys-
tem should be performed based on the specific project.
Active or passive beam systems, often referred to as chilled beam systems, are a rela-
tively new hydronic cooling coil approach, at least as used in laboratories. These systems
are similar to the old constant-volume induction systems. To obtain greater cooling capa-
bility, laboratory applications typically use active beams that are provided with condi-
tioned air and that, through the use of multiple high-velocity nozzles, create an induction
effect that pulls room airflow through the unit’s noncondensing cooling coils as shown in
Figure 11-16.
Although the beams can be supplied with constant airflow, a more energy-efficient
approach is to vary the airflow at least within a limited range of about 2 to 1 or greater if
less cooling is needed at lower airflows. Space temperature is typically controlled by

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Figure 11-16
Typical
Cross Section
of an
Active Beam

modulating the chilled water serving the beams, and hot-water reheat control valves are
still used with the supply airflow control devices to control overcooling. The ventilation
air must handle all the latent cooling requirements of the space. The dew point of the ven-
tilation air is controlled at the air-handling unit (AHU) to dehumidify the space. The dew
point of the space should be monitored to prevent it from rising above the temperature of
the chilled-water in the chilled beam. When the space dew point rises above the chilled-
water supply temperature, the chilled water to the beam should be shut off or the chilled-
water supply temperature should be raised to above the room dew-point temperature.
When active or passive beams or fan-coil units are used in laboratory rooms having a
6 or 8 ach minimum dilution ventilation flow, the room can often have a large amount of
overcooling and thus a large amount of required reheat energy use. Furthermore, the
beams or fan-coil units are not often used, as most of the cooling is provided by the main
AHU cooling coils, and thus the beams or fan-coils are oftentimes a redundant duplica-
tion of cooling equipment. However, if demand-based control is used to bring the room
minimum flows down to, for example, 3 to 4 ach during the day and 2 ach at night, then
the amount of overcooling and required reheat energy is drastically reduced. If further
cooling is required above 2 to 4 ach, the beams or fan-coil units can appropriately provide
this peak cooling requirement without impacting the required outdoor airflow. As a result,
the HVAC system can be downsized, since the laboratory room’s thermal load is decou-
pled from the airflow, and the air system can be resized to 2 to 4 ach based only on the
dilution ventilation and fume hood exhaust requirements.
Occasionally, to try to prevent large amounts of overcooling, “neutral air,” or air at
about 65°F to 70°F (18°C to 21°C), is provided to the laboratory so that the active or pas-
sive beams or fan-coil units provide all the cooling. Reheat still should be provided,
although now it must be provided at the supply air handler. However, there are some
approaches that use various heat recovery systems to reduce the energy used to provide
this reheat, such as dual wheel designs or wraparound coils. In many cases these systems
still require some reheat energy, although they can typically provide a significant net
reduction in required reheat energy, particularly where a higher density of fume hoods
increases the requirements for supply airflow.
On the other hand, the active or passive beam systems or fan-coil units can signifi-
cantly increase the capital costs and/or complexity of the air handlers and the beams or
fan-coils because the room cooling approaches must now provide all the room cooling
instead of the supply air providing some of the cooling. When hydronic cooling is used in
spaces that require cooling year round, the use of water-side economizers should be con-
sidered. Thus, unless the minimum airflow of the room cannot be reduced to less than
about 6 ach, the use of neutral air is typically not warranted compared to using
approaches to reduce the dilution ventilation requirements to begin with. When demand-
based ventilation control is combined with hydronic cooling, the system saves more

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energy and has less capital cost because the HVAC system and the beams or fan-coil units
can be downsized. Laboratories that require decontamination (for example, BSL-3 and
BSL-4 laboratories) should not have coils in the space that cannot easily be decontami-
nated.

CENTRAL SYSTEM LEVEL CONTROL

Control of central air-handling systems in laboratories is similar to control of typical
air-handling systems in commercial buildings with a few notable exceptions. Because the
exhaust air system typically has airflow control devices throughout the system, the
exhaust fans are typically controlled based on maintaining a static pressure setpoint in the
exhaust duct. AHUs also typically provide 100% outdoor air, which means the system
sees a wide range of inlet air conditions that the unit must respond to and maintain proper
discharge air temperatures and humidity for.
To maintain a safe working environment for the laboratory personnel, central systems
serving laboratories need to automatically respond to changes in space demand and emer-
gency situations. One of the most important emergency situations is fan failure. This can
result in exhaust air not being available for laboratory equipment, such as fume hoods, or
supply air not being provided, which can create large negative pressures in the laboratory
spaces. When the supply fan fails and the exhaust fan continues to operate on a large sys-
tem, the building can become extremely negatively pressurized (up to the exhaust fan
static). This negative pressure can prevent exit doors from being able to be opened and
may cause damage to the building. Fan failures require different control responses for
one-fan and two-fan systems.
AIR-HANDLING UNIT
Supply fan controls for VAV systems typically maintain a duct static pressure setpoint
with reset based on demand position. Because the units provide 100% outdoor air, there is
no return fan control with the unit. Units are typically controlled to maintain a set dis-
charge temperature. Preheat coils should be controlled to prevent freezing of the coils.
Where standby fans or units are in place, the controls should provide isolation of units
and automatic rotation of the lead unit or fan. When switching from the lead unit or fan to
the standby unit or fan, the standby unit should be started, the isolation dampers opened,
and the unit brought under control running in parallel with the primary unit, then the pri-
mary unit should be isolated and shut down. Opening isolation dampers before the fans
start spinning can cause air to flow through the fans in reverse, turning the fans back-
wards. Turning the fans backwards before starting the fans can cause the motors to over-
load when trying to reverse the flow and can trip the circuit breakers. Selection of fans
with no stall point allows the fan to start before the isolation damper opens. Backdraft
dampers can also be used to prevent reverse flow of air.
If a standby unit is provided, when switching to the secondary unit because of fan
failure the secondary unit should start immediately and the primary unit should be iso-
lated. Another option is to operate the primary and secondary units in parallel, with each
unit carrying half the load. This lowers the static pressure drop through the filters and
coils. During a fan or unit failure, the failed unit can quickly be isolated and the other unit
ramped up to handle the full load.
Prior to starting the AHU fan, the exhaust fans should be started if the spaces are typ-
ically to be kept under negative pressure. This is especially critical in BSL-3 and BSL-4
laboratories. Starting the supply fan first creates a period of positive pressure in the spaces
until the exhaust fans are started. This may be acceptable in some spaces, but where con-

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tainment is critical exhaust fans should start. Fans should have proof of operation points
tied to the direct digital control (DDC) system.
Humidification control is important. The typical laboratory air system is 100% out-
door air. Typically, air is supplied to the terminal units at 55°F (12.8°C) year round, with
local heating coils providing the final heat. This requires large amounts of humidification
to bring the outdoor humidity up to acceptable levels for the laboratories. Supply air tem-
perature reset should be considered for raising the unit discharge temperature when
appropriate. The high-limit humidity sensor should be located far enough downstream of
the humidifier to ensure the moisture has been absorbed by the cold airstream, which is
often a longer distance than is typical. Also, smoke detector placement should follow sim-
ilar guidelines, because the humidifier fog can trip the smoke detectors.
EXHAUST FANS
In most laboratories, there is an airflow control device in the exhaust ductwork. This
device controls the airflow from the space similar to the way a VAV box controls airflow
in a typical office building. Because the airflow is controlled at the space level, the
exhaust fan is typically controlled to maintain a constant negative pressure in the exhaust
ductwork. A static pressure sensor located in the exhaust plenum should be used to main-
tain a constant negative exhaust plenum pressure setpoint. This can be achieved by modu-
lating the speed of the fan or by modulating the outdoor air bypass damper on exhaust
systems designed for constant discharge velocity. The exhaust plenum static pressure sen-
sors can be reset based on room level exhaust demand or damper position. When venturi
valves are used in the exhaust system, the reset must maintain a minimum differential
pressure across the venturi valves or multiple static pressure sensors near the end of the
duct runs. When the bypass damper modulates fully open, a fan can typically be staged
off (in multiple-fan systems) if the static pressure becomes too negative in the plenum.
When there is insufficient static pressure in the plenum and the bypass damper has modu-
lated full closed, then the next fan should be started. The bypass damper arrangement
allows outdoor air to bypass into the exhaust duct near the fan or plenum to maintain con-
stant airflow, discharge velocity, and effective stack height for each fan. In multiple-fan
systems, isolation dampers or gravity back draft dampers should be provided for each fan.
The fan should start first, then the isolation damper should open. The gravity back draft
damper ensures a smooth transition as the fan comes online. This prevents the fan from
turning backwards as well as a sudden drop in airflow from the building.
To save energy, VFDs can be added to the exhaust fans. When VFDs are used, the
minimum fan speed, discharge velocity, and effective stack height must be considered at
both maximum and minimum airflow. A combination system can be used to slow the fans
to a minimum speed that maintains minimum discharge velocity and effective stack
height, then opens the bypass damper to further lower the exhaust flow from the building.
Additional energy-saving controls for the exhaust fan may include real-time monitor-
ing of either wind speed and direction or contaminant levels in the exhaust plenum
(Carter et al. 2011). When the wind speed is low and from the right directions or if the air
in the exhaust plenum is already sufficiently diluted or “clean,” then the exhaust fan exit
velocity and flow maybe reduced because of a lower required stack height and discharge
velocity.

EMERGENCY MODES OF OPERATION

When designing the control systems for the laboratory equipment, emergency situa-
tions should be addressed in the control sequences at the room level, at the system level,

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and at the building level. Emergency situations include chemical spills, fan failure, actua-
tor failure, valve failure, network failure, and power failure.
During chemical spills in the space, a manual emergency button on the wall can be
used to change the ventilation rate from a minimum value to maximum flow as well as
shut down power to the laboratory space. The emergency button should not shut down
power to the control system. If demand-based control ventilation is being used, the sys-
tem can automatically increase the ventilation rate based on the detection of an increased
concentration of contaminants.
Failure of a fan should initiate alarms, isolate the fan, and start backup fans if pro-
vided. If backup fans are not provided, then if an exhaust fan fails the supply fan should
be stopped to prevent positively pressuring the laboratory spaces. If the supply fan fails,
the exhaust fan should typically be stopped to prevent depressurizing the building, which
can lead to damage and prevent exit doors from being opened. In critical spaces such as a
BSL-3 space, backup fans should be provided. Where redundant fans are operated in par-
allel and one fan fails, the fan should be isolated and the remaining fan(s) ramped up in
speed to handle the load.
Power failures stop all systems unless they are on emergency power, in which case
they should be restarted based on the start-up sequence. If the supply and exhaust fans are
on emergency power, it is important that the entire control system down to the space level
is on emergency power in order to maintain control of the system. Power failures should
not cause loss of programming or setpoints. A restart sequence should be considered. For
example, to maintain negative space pressurization, exhaust fans should start first, then
the supply fans.

ANIMAL FACILITIES

In animal laboratories, temperature and humidity often must be maintained at a spec-

ified control point as part of the research. Different temperatures may be needed for dif-
ferent types of animals, and ventilation and air-conditioning loads often vary with the
type of animal and activity level. Some animals require changing temperatures and
humidity levels throughout the day. Also, the types of animals housed in the laboratory
may change several times throughout the life of the laboratory. Consultation with labora-
tory researchers is necessary to ensure that the HVAC system will be able to provide the
conditions necessary for the type of work that will be performed in the laboratory during
its lifetime. Designing the system for current and future needs in mind includes sizing the
heating and cooling systems to account for the maximum anticipated loads and allowing
for a wide range of temperature and humidity setpoints, a range of ventilation rates, and a
flexible ventilation system that can be easily reconfigured.
Additionally, regarding specific ventilation levels for animal facilities, a guideline of
10 to 15 ach outdoor air has been used for secondary enclosures (animal holding rooms)
for many years (ILAR 2011). The control systems used to provide these ventilation levels
were typically constant-volume airflow control systems. However, although effective in
many settings, these fixed-flow guidelines do not consider the range of possible heat
loads; the species, size, and number of animals involved; the type of bedding or frequency
of cage changing; the room dimensions; or the efficiency of air distribution from the sec-
ondary to the primary enclosure. In some situations, such a flow rate might overventilate
a secondary enclosure that contains few animals, wasting energy, or underventilate a sec-
ondary enclosure that contains many animals, allowing heat and odor to accumulate.

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As such, lower ventilation rates might be appropriate in the secondary enclosure or

room provided that they do not result in harmful or unacceptable concentrations of toxic
gases, odors, or particles. Active sensing of contaminants in the secondary enclosure and
varying the air change rates based on the room environmental conditions is one approach
that can be considered to meet these requirements in a more energy-efficient manner.
Another approach to reducing the secondary enclosure ventilation rates is to provide ven-
tilated cage racks to enhance ventilation at the primary enclosure level. To implement this
manual or automated control of ventilation rates in animal facilities, the eighth edition of
Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (ILAR 2011), by the Institute for Lab-
oratory Animal Research (ILAR) of the National Research Council of the National Acad-
emy of Sciences, now recommends the use of VAV for controlling the airflow in vivarium
facilities in a more performance-based approach to ventilation:
Modern heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems (e.g.,
variable air volume, or VAV, systems) allow ventilation rates to be set in
accordance with heat load and other variables. These systems offer con-
siderable advantages with respect to flexibility and energy conservation,
but should always provide a minimum amount of air exchange, as recom-
mended for general use laboratories. (ILAR 2011, p. 6)
It is important to note that Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals is one
of the most widely recognized and respected references for the design and operation of
animal facilities. It includes data on temperature and humidity requirements along with
monitoring requirements.

REFERENCES

AIHA. 2012. ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5-2012, Laboratory ventilation. Falls Church, VA:

American Industrial Hygiene Association.
ASHRAE. 1995. ASHRAE Standard 110-1995, Method of testing performance of labo-
ratory fume hoods. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2015a. Chapter 53, Fire and smoke control. In ASHRAE handbook—HVAC
applications. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2015b. Chapter 16, Laboratories. In ASHRAE handbook—HVAC applications.
Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE 2013. Chapter 36, Measurement and instruments. In ASHRAE handbook—
Fundamentals. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
Carter, J., B. Cochran, and J. Reifschneider. 2011. Saving energy in lab exhaust systems.
ASHRAE Journal 53(6):26–36.
CDC. 2009. Biosafety in microbiological and biomedical laboratories (BMBL), 5th Edi-
tion. DHHS Publication No. (CDC) 21-1112. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. [Link]/bio
safety/publications/bmbl5.
Coogan, J. 2008. Constant flow, variable flow and all the space between. Presented at the
Labs21 2008 Annual Conference, San Jose, California. [Link]/elibrary/
[Link].
Geeslin, A., A. Streifel, and G. Nelson. 2008. Air leakage analysis of special ventilation
hospital rooms. ASHRAE Transactions 114(2).
ILAR. 2011. Guide for the care and use of laboratory animals, 8th ed. Washington, DC:
Institute for Laboratory Animal Research, Division on Earth and Life Studies,

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National Research Council, National Academies Press. [Link]

olaw/[Link].
Klaczek, W., M. Ackerman, P. Fleming, and B. Fleck. 2006. VAV airflow sensor response
in relation to “poor” upstream duct geometry. ASHRAE Transactions 112(1).
Klein, R., C. King, and A. Kosior. 2009. Laboratory air quality and room ventilation
rates. Journal of Chemical Health and Safety (9/10):36–42.
Liu, R., J. Win, A. Regnier, X. Zhou, and C. Klassen. 2012. Stability and accuracy of VAV
box control at low flows. RP-1353. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
Mathew, P., S. Greenberg, D. Sartor, D. Frenze, M. Morehead, and W. Starr, Jr. 2005a.
Right-sizing laboratory HVAC systems, Part 1. HPAC Engineering 9:24–30.
Mathew, P., S. Greenberg, D. Sartor, D. Frenze, M. Morehead, and W. Starr, Jr. 2005b.
Right-sizing laboratory HVAC systems, Part 2. HPAC Engineering 10:34–39.
Schuyler, G. 2009. The effect of air change rate on recovery from a spill. Presented in
Seminar 26 at the 2009 ASHRAE Winter Conference in Chicago, IL.
Sharp, G.P. 2010. Demand-based control of lab air change rates. ASHRAE Journal
52(2):30–41.
Sun, W. 2003. Development of pressurization airflow design criteria for spaces under
required pressure differentials. ASHRAE Transactions 109(1).
Zhang, Z., and J.K. Agarwal. 1993. Continuous monitoring of fume hood face velocity
with a side wall sensor. ASHRAE Transactions 99(1).

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Airflow Patterns
and Testing
Procedures

OVERVIEW
12
Proper airflow and room pressure relationships are key to the design and safe opera-
tion of laboratories. Important elements of these include the following:
• Airflow patterns and direction
• Testing, adjusting, and balancing
• Laboratory testing requirements

Airflow patterns are used in a laboratory to provide separation between contaminants

and occupants to ensure a safe working environment for the laboratory personnel and to
provide an appropriate environment to ensure the integrity and accuracy of work per-
formed in the laboratory. Airflow must be maintained in a specific direction and at a spe-
cific velocity to protect against harmful substances and is influenced by many aspects of a
laboratory, such as equipment placement and traffic flows. Once the desired airflow pat-
terns and direction are determined, testing procedures must be developed and followed so
that the airflow patterns are maintained for the life of the laboratory. These procedures
include general testing, adjusting, and balancing (TAB) procedures as well as testing
requirements specific to laboratories.

AIRFLOW PATTERNS AND DIRECTION

Airflow patterns and direction must be maintained to provide personnel protection
and protect research from contamination. Key factors for the protection of laboratory per-
sonnel are the hood face velocity and the location and type of the supply air diffuser in the
room. Fume hoods must maintain a specified face velocity, typically around 100 fpm
(0.5 m/s), to keep the substances used in the hood from escaping to the rest of the room.
Improper placement or selection of a diffuser can result in disturbing the airflow near the
hood face, resulting in contaminants from the hood being entrained into the room. Non-
laboratory personnel are protected from laboratory contaminants through a combination
of physical barriers (walls) and airflow direction (nonlaboratory spaces are typically pos-
itively pressurized relative to laboratory spaces).
Protecting the research being conducted in the laboratory from contamination is
important for many types of laboratories. It is especially important for cleanrooms, where
the research inside must be protected from the less clean air surrounding the laboratory. It
[Link] Page 208 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:39 AM

is also important for animal laboratories, where the animals also may need to be protected
from the less clean air surrounding the laboratory or from contaminants generated by lab-
oratory personnel or other animals. In both cases, loss of this protection can ruin the
research being conducted. This is especially true for animal research, where months or
years of research are lost when cross-contamination between subjects occurs.
In this section, the following elements of providing personnel protection and protect-
ing research from contamination are discussed:
• Minimizing the spread of contaminants
• Determining the proper airflow pattern
• Air introduction
• Special requirements for critical systems

MINIMIZING THE SPREAD OF CONTAMINANTS

Minimizing the spread of contaminants is achieved by not using recirculated air in
laboratory work areas and by maintaining airflow direction from clean areas to dirty areas
so that the people and the work performed in the clean areas are not affected by laboratory
procedures.

Use of Recirculated Air

A room in a laboratory building can have either once-through airflow or a portion of
recirculated air, depending on the uses of the room. Typically, all laboratory rooms,
chemical storage rooms, and laboratory support areas use 100% outdoor air or once-
through ventilation. This way contaminants are not spread beyond the room in which they
are released. However, most buildings that contain laboratories also contain offices, meet-
ing rooms, and other areas where hazardous materials are not found. These nonlaboratory
areas can use recirculated air, although it may be desirable to have higher ventilation rates
in these areas than if they were in a typical commercial building. Also, it is advisable to
have sufficient barriers between areas where recirculated air is used and areas where haz-
ardous materials are used. For example, offices adjacent to laboratory spaces with hazard-
ous materials may not be a good choice for using recirculated air, as a minor spill in the
laboratory or a disruption of inward airflow to the nearby laboratory could result in con-
taminants being transferred to the offices. On the other hand, offices grouped together and
separated from laboratory spaces would be an acceptable choice for using recirculated air.

Airflow from Cleanest to Dirtiest

The integrity of the room envelope is critical in providing the separation needed
between contaminants and occupants in a given laboratory space. The envelope is the
physical barrier between adjacent spaces and, if it is tight and properly sealed, the correct
airflow direction can be effectively maintained with a smaller difference in supply and
exhaust air volumes.
In laboratories, airflow direction is used to provide a secondary barrier to control the
spread of contaminants to other areas. Pressure differentials are maintained to ensure that
airflow is from the cleanest areas to the dirtiest areas. Once air has flowed to the dirtiest
area, it is exhausted and new clean air is introduced to the clean areas.
For laboratories other than cleanrooms, a negative pressure is maintained to ensure
that air flows into the laboratory from the cleaner surroundings, thus preventing danger-
ous chemicals, which were not exhausted by fume hoods, from migrating to the rest of the
building. In these laboratories, the general exhaust for the room will eventually remove or
dilute the accidentally released chemicals.

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Figure 12-1
Flow from Clean to Dirty

For cleanrooms, which need to be cleaner than their surroundings, a positive pressure
is maintained to ensure air flows from the cleanroom to the surrounding areas. In clean-
rooms, the contaminants that are contained by airflow direction are in the less clean,
unfiltered air from surrounding areas in the building and outside.
Figure 12-1 shows two types of flow from clean to dirty.

DETERMINING THE PROPER AIRFLOW PATTERN

The general goal of maintaining airflow patterns is to provide safe conditions by con-
trolling the movement of hazardous and unwanted substances. Determining the proper
airflow pattern needed to maintain the separation between contaminants and occupants in
a laboratory building, even during disturbances, is dictated by several variables, including
the types of substances handled or created in the laboratory; and the type, size, and num-
ber of hoods and protective exhaust systems; and the acceptability of air transfer.
Types of Substances Handled or Created
Early in the planning stage, the types of substances handled or created in each space
of a laboratory must be determined so that the proper airflow patterns and setpoints for
the laboratory can be chosen to prevent the transmission of contaminants. Areas of simi-
lar hazard type and level can be grouped together. However, areas containing substances
that could adversely interact must be separated (i.e., not connected to the same mani-
folded exhaust system) so that exhaust airstreams from the rooms do not mix. Also, the
substances that are used in the laboratory may determine the ventilation air changes and
relative pressure of the laboratory.
Type, Size, and Number of Hoods and Protective Exhaust Systems
The type of exhaust hood determines many characteristics of the room airflow pat-
tern. First, there is the general choice of a constant-volume or variable-air-volume (VAV)
system. Laboratories with VAV systems will have changing airflow patterns as the system
changes from minimum flow to maximum flow, and the proper flow directions must be
maintained throughout the operating range; constant-volume systems will have a more
consistent airflow pattern.
The number of hoods may present challenges if a large number are to be placed in
one room, as airflow patterns to each hood need to be maintained so that none of them

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Figure 12-2
Conflicting
Airflow
to Fume
Hoods

have disturbances in face velocity. Close coordination of the exhaust hood and supply
sources during design is needed to ensure that each hood can draw air from the room
without drawing in air needed to maintain the proper airflow patterns for a nearby exhaust
hood. Figure 12-2 shows conflicting airflow to two fume hoods. For additional informa-
tion on diffuser location and selection, see the Zone Air Distribution section of Chapter 6.
Acceptability of Air Transfer
Air transfer involves allowing air from one area to be transferred to another area in
order to maintain pressure relationships. In some areas of a laboratory, the use of transfer
air is acceptable—for example, between a corridor and a laboratory, between two labora-
tories with similar hazard levels that use compatible chemicals, and from a laboratory that
uses low-toxicity materials to a laboratory with moderately toxic materials. In other cases,
no air transfer between spaces may be permissible. Examples of cases where air transfer
should not be used include from laboratory to nonlaboratory areas (except for clean-
rooms), from areas of high hazard level to areas of low hazard, and between two areas of
different types of hazard, such as from a biological laboratory area to a chemistry labora-
tory area. Figure 12-3 shows acceptable and unacceptable cases of air transfer.

AIR INTRODUCTION
Choosing the method most appropriate to the type of laboratory for introducing air
into a laboratory space is critical so that the desired face velocity for the exhaust equip-
ment is not disturbed. To obtain proper air introduction into a laboratory, the concept of
challenge velocity must be understood, as well as how type, throw, and placement of dif-
fusers and temperature gradients affect turbulence and cross drafts.
Challenge Velocity
Challenge velocity interrupts the airflow across the face of a fume hood or biological
safety cabinet (BSC) and causes a disturbance that results in spillage from the hood. Dis-
turbances include the velocity of air from supply diffusers, occupants walking past the
hood, or the opening of the door to the laboratory. To prevent hood spillage, the allowable
velocity of a disturbance at the hood should be at most 20% of the design face velocity of
the hood. For example, if the design face velocity of a hood is 110 fpm (0.56 m/s), the
maximum velocity of a disturbance is 22 fpm (0.11 m/s). The throw pattern from the sup-
ply diffusers should be less than this value where the pattern intersects the hood face.

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Figure 12-3
Acceptability of Air Transfer

Type, Throw, and Placement of Diffusers

In laboratories, large quantities of supply air must be introduced to maintain pressure
relationships while exhaust equipment is operating. However, the large amount of air
must be introduced at a low velocity to prevent creating turbulence and cross drafts in the
room, as high-velocity airstreams that intersect fume hood and BSC openings could dis-
turb the airflow into exhaust devices. Therefore, the traditional high-velocity blade diffus-
ers used in most buildings should be avoided in laboratory spaces, as their throw pattern
would likely create a disturbance in the exhaust equipment airflow. For this reason, non-
aspirating diffusers are recommended for laboratories.
Diffuser placement in a laboratory differs from that of a typical building. In typical
buildings, equal diffuser spacing is used so that the entire room is covered by the throw
from the diffusers and the air in the room is thoroughly mixed. This maintains an even
temperature distribution and ensures that all areas of the room are ventilated and the occu-
pants are comfortable. Laboratories, on the other hand, must maintain safety through
proper operation of the fume hoods. Diffusers in laboratories should be placed far enough
away from exhaust equipment and intakes that they do not cause any interference with the
airflow into the exhaust equipment and that their throw pattern does not provide a suffi-
cient challenge velocity to disrupt exhaust airflow patterns under any operating condition.
Locations for diffusers should be selected so the velocity profile (both horizontal and ver-
tical) that represents 50% of the face velocity, typically 50 fpm (0.25 m/s), does not inter-
sect the sash area of the fume hood or BSC.
For additional information on locating diffusers with respect to exhaust sources and
selecting diffuser types and throws for laboratories, see the Zone Air Distribution section
of Chapter 6.
Temperature Gradients
Temperature gradients in a laboratory can create unwanted airflow patterns as the
warmer air rises and displaces cooler air. To minimize possible disturbances to the
exhaust equipment airflows created as cool air replaces warm air, temperature gradients

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should be kept to a minimum. This can be achieved by providing direct exhaust for high-
heat-producing equipment and proper diffuser selection and location.
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CRITICAL SYSTEMS
Critical laboratory systems may have special requirements to maintain airflow pat-
terns for proper control of hazardous materials. These requirements include the use of air
locks and multiple-speed fans.
Air Locks
Air locks are frequently used in laboratories where the disturbances created from
opening doors could result in undesirable or unsafe conditions and to contain the spread
of contaminants. Examples include a laboratory with hazardous materials that can’t be
allowed to escape without treatment (e.g., a biosafety level [BSL] 3 or 4 laboratory as
described in Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories [CDC 2009]), a
laboratory with a high pressure differential to maintain, or the need to prevent contami-
nants from entering the laboratory (e.g., with a cleanroom).
Air locks consist of a series of two doors separated by a small vestibule. When occu-
pants enter or leave the laboratory, they pass through the first door and wait in the area
between the doors until the first door is completely closed. Once the first door has closed,
the occupants can open the second door and enter or leave the laboratory. Depending on
the nature of the hazards that require the use of air locks, either there can be a physical
mechanism that locks one door while the other is open or the occupants can be responsi-
ble for only opening one door at a time, in which case an alarm sounds when both doors
are open. Pressure gages are often provided in the air lock to show that the pressure differ-
ential is being maintained.
Multiple-Speed Fans
Multiple-speed fans may be used in critical areas to provide extra airflow in the event
of an emergency, such as a large chemical spill. In the event of an emergency, the extra
fan capacity can be used to increase the pressure differential of the laboratory and
increase the air change rate to remove the spilled chemicals.

TESTING, ADJUSTING, AND BALANCING

The balancing of general HVAC equipment in a laboratory is similar to that for con-
ventional buildings, provided that the equipment is not exposed to hazardous substances
from the laboratory and that the laboratory is not in operation. However, if equipment is
exposed to hazardous substances, procedures are needed to prevent or control the release
of contaminants and ensure the safety of the testing personnel. Also, if the laboratory is in
operation, the equipment should only be tested if it will not affect the conditions and
safety of the laboratory and if the testing personnel will be safe.
For laboratory health and safety HVAC equipment, there are well-defined procedures
that should be followed for proper operation of the equipment. Testing, adjusting, and
balancing (TAB) of HVAC systems in a laboratory consists of the following:
• Air and hydronic system balancing
• Ductwork pressure testing
• Equipment balancing
• Conformance to general TAB standards

Designers should taylor the TAB requirements to the needs of each specific laboratory.

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AIR AND HYDRONIC SYSTEM BALANCING

The keys to the successful TAB of air and hydronic systems include proper design of
airflow differentials, adequate access points to obtain accurate measurements, early selec-
tion of the TAB contractor, and clearly defined TAB procedures.
Proper Design of Airflow Differentials
Successful TAB begins during the design stage with the proper selection of airflow
differentials (or pressure differentials) needed to contain the spread of contaminants.
Because of the critical nature of laboratories, it is recommended that the TAB contractor
be required to balance to the following criteria:
• Supply diffusers. The listed airflow is the maximum (minimum for cleanrooms)
that can be supplied. The actual acceptable value is the listed value to –10%
(+10% for cleanrooms) of the value.
• Exhaust points. The listed airflow is the minimum (maximum for cleanrooms)
that can be exhausted. The actual acceptable value is the listed value to +10%
(–10% for cleanrooms) of the value.

When these criteria are used, the pressurization relationship between laboratories is
maintained. If these are not used and the typical ±10% of the design value is used by the
TAB contractor, there will be many instances of laboratories with airflow in the wrong
direction, resulting in loss of contaminant control.
Documenting the TAB criteria during design aids in ensuring the building as a whole
works properly. Using the above criteria in a building with 50,000 cfm (23 600 L/s) of
exhaust air and 45,000 cfm (21 200 L/s) of supply air to laboratory spaces, the design
airflow differential is 5000 cfm (2400 L/s). However, during TAB, the total exhaust air-
flow could be as high as 55,000 cfm (26 000 L/s) and the supply airflow as low as
40,500 cfm (19 100 L/s), resulting in the building being negatively pressurized by
14,500 cfm (6900 L/s). Conversely, using the incorrect TAB criteria could result in the
building being positively pressurized by –4500 cfm (–2100 L/s). This example shows
how laboratory buildings can become so negatively pressurized. Though the system was
designed to compensate for 5000 cfm (2400 L/s) negative building differential, it can be
balanced to a 14,500 cfm (6900 L/s) negative differential. The design of the central sys-
tems (chillers, boilers, coils, fans, and heat recovery systems) should have been sized for
the larger pressure differential and balanced to maintain a positive, or at least a neutral,
building pressure.
Access Points to Obtain Accurate Measurements
Another important step in the design of air and hydronic systems, both for laborato-
ries and buildings in general, is to ensure that adequate test access points for making mea-
surements are provided. For air systems, this means providing sufficient lengths of
straight ductwork near equipment to make accurate measurements and allowing sufficient
space to gain access to the straight length of ductwork. For hydronic systems, this means
providing straight lengths of piping with pressure and temperature ports in the necessary
locations and ensuring that they are accessible.
Early Selection of the TAB Contractor
It is important to select a TAB contractor early in the construction phase so that he or
she has an opportunity to review the design documents and HVAC system installation.
Including the TAB contractor early in the project enables him or her to provide input on
the field requirements, such as required balancing devices and proper test port locations,

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needed to be able to successfully and accurately balance laboratory systems. This way
any modifications needed for balancing the systems can be made in the construction
phase rather than waiting until construction is complete before discovering whether the
TAB contractor can actually balance the laboratory systems.
Clearly Defined TAB Procedures
The selected TAB contractor must submit the TAB plan, which should include how it
will specifically meet the requirements of the project specifications. This TAB plan must
detail the step-by-step procedures to be followed so that the results can be verified and the
system can be retested and balanced in the future (e.g., yearly) by the same or a separate
firm. Review and input from the architect, engineer, laboratory personnel, and commis-
sioning authority are very valuable in conveying the requirements of the laboratory that
must be verified and the reasoning behind the requirements to the TAB contractor.

DUCTWORK PRESSURE TESTING

Ductwork pressure testing is necessary to ensure that high-quality, low-leakage duct-
work was constructed, particularly for exhaust ductwork. Generally, the design of duct-
work includes an anticipated leakage rate, which must then be compared to the actual
leakage rate to determine if the necessary airflows can be provided to the appropriate
spaces.
Because laboratory exhaust contains hazardous materials and exhaust equipment
often needs a relatively high static pressure at the hood or cabinet to operate properly,
tightly sealed exhaust ductwork is extremely important to physically and economically
provide a high static pressure at the piece of equipment. Also, since large quantities of
supply air are used for once-through ventilation, significant energy is needed to condition
and move the supply air. Tightly sealed supply ductwork in a laboratory helps minimize
energy losses more dramatically than in a typical building that uses recirculated air.
For both supply and exhaust ductwork testing, care should be taken to prevent dam-
age to the ductwork during the pressure testing (e.g., it develops leaks or overpressuriz-
ing reduces its strength). Details on how to pressure-test ductwork and the typical
acceptable leakage rates can be found in the Duct Construction section of Chapter 6.
One last consideration in the TAB of exhaust systems is the sealing of test holes
downstream of any exhaust fan. At these locations the ductwork is positively pressurized,
and inadequate sealing of the test ports may result in contaminating the space. In some
instances, such as BSCs, the test ports should be welded shut to eliminate any possibility
of duct leakage. In other systems with low-toxicity chemicals, high-quality plugs that will
not react with the exhaust airstream can be used.

EQUIPMENT BALANCING
Equipment balancing for laboratories is performed on two categories of equipment:
general HVAC equipment (such as chillers, boilers, and air handlers) and laboratory
health and safety HVAC equipment (such as fume hoods and BSCs).
General HVAC Equipment
General HVAC equipment in a laboratory can be tested in much the same way as that
in a typical building, provided a few extra safety steps are followed. For example, testing
and balancing should only be performed when the laboratory is unoccupied and all haz-
ardous materials have been safely stored so TAB activities will not disturb them. Also, for
their own protection, TAB personnel should be provided with all necessary safety equip-
ment and informed of safety procedures when entering laboratory areas. Finally, TAB

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personnel need to be aware of the hazards associated with working with general building
equipment that is essential for laboratory safety, such as high-efficiency particulate air
(HEPA) filters for air handlers and general building exhaust equipment.
Laboratory Health and Safety HVAC Equipment
It is critical for laboratory health and safety HVAC equipment to be properly tested
and balanced to ensure that design values are met and laboratory personnel will be prop-
erly protected. TAB for laboratory equipment has different requirements than that for typi-
cal HVAC equipment. Therefore, procedures have been incorporated into a variety of
standards, such as ASHRAE Standard 110 for fume hood performance and velocity testing
(ASHRAE 1995) and NSF/ANSI 49 for BSC certification for velocity and filter leakage
(NSF 2014), as well as others. In cases where a standard is not available to prescribe a
TAB procedure, there are best-practice publications, such as SEFA 1, Recommended Prac-
tices for Laboratory Fume Hoods (SEFA 2010), which may be used. Also in the case of
equipment not covered by a standard, the laboratory designer, safety officer, and occupants
should be consulted to determine how the equipment is used, the design values needed for
safety, and the procedures to test and balance the equipment to the design values.
Laboratories, as most commercial buildings, rarely operate under full design condi-
tions. However, laboratories have significantly more complex HVAC systems that must
operate in unison regardless of the current conditions. It is important to consider TAB
activities for nondesign conditions, especially room pressure differentials, fume hood per-
formance/face velocity testing, and vented BSCs.
Many actions can cause airflows in a laboratory room to change and create changes in
pressure differentials, including leaving doors open, opening and closing fume hood
sashes, turning on direct equipment exhaust, and activities in the adjacent laboratory
rooms. Therefore, room pressure differentials should be verified under these conditions
during testing and balancing to ensure that negatively pressurized areas will maintain the
appropriate negative pressure and that positively pressurized areas will maintain the
appropriate positive pressure under all operating conditions.
Fume hoods typically operate either at the minimum open position, at a working
height, or at the maximum open position, with brief periods to move between these three
heights. Each of these three heights result in different flow characteristics for the fume
hood. Therefore, fume hood face velocity testing and fume hood performance testing
should be performed at these three heights. Face velocity and performance testing are dis-
cussed in the Laboratory Testing Requirements section of this chapter.

GENERAL TAB STANDARDS

There are several standards and documents that provide guidance for general TAB
activities and testing of airflow patterns. These include those developed and published by
organizations such as National Environmental Balancing Bureau (NEBB), Associated Air
Balance Council (AABC), and ASHRAE.
National Environmental Balancing Bureau (NEBB)
The National Environmental Balancing Bureau (NEBB) is a nonprofit organization
that establishes and maintains industry standards for testing, adjusting, and balancing of
air and hydronic systems and for cleanroom performance testing. They also offer a certifi-
cation program for TAB firms and have developed several standards that relate to labora-
tory testing, including the following:
• Procedural Standard for Testing, Adjusting and Balancing of Environmental
Systems (NEBB 2015). This standard provides an overview of the NEBB pro-

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gram, contains suggested TAB specifications, and defines instrumentation

requirements and TAB reporting forms. It also provides procedures for prelimi-
nary TAB work, air system TAB, hydronic system TAB, and TAB of outdoor air
ventilation rates.
• Procedural Standards for Certified Testing of Cleanrooms (NEBB 2009). This
publication provides standards for testing procedures as well as informational
materials for cleanrooms. Some of the testing procedures included in this publi-
cation are airflow test procedures, HEPA filter installation leak testing, room
cleanliness classification testing, enclosure pressurization and integrity testing,
temperature and humidity testing, and lighting level testing. Information on
equipment and instrumentation, fundamentals of cleanrooms, cleanroom design,
and laboratory/health facility cleanrooms is also included.

Associated Air Balance Council (AABC)

The Associated Air Balance Council (AABC) has developed requirements for total
system balancing and special systems testing. The following publications and documents
have been developed by AABC:
• National Standards for Total System Balance (AABC 2002). This publication
defines the minimum requirements for total system balancing and contains
information on special systems testing such as laboratory fume hoods and clean-
rooms. AABC defines total system balance as the process of testing, adjusting,
and balancing HVAC systems according to the design intent.
• Technician Training Manual (AABC 2004a). This manual provides detailed, in-
depth information on total system balancing for training new technicians.
• Test and Balance Procedures (AABC 2004b). This publication details the mini-
mum procedures required to test and balance air and water systems, HVAC sys-
tem components, and other specialty systems. It also specifies required
instrumentation and test procedures.

ASHRAE
The ASHRAE standard related to TAB is ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 111, Measure-
ment, Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing of Building HVAC Systems (ASHRAE 2008).
The purpose of this standard is to provide uniform procedures for measurement, testing,
adjusting, balancing, evaluating, and reporting the performance of building heating, venti-
lating, and air-conditioning systems in the field.

LABORATORY TESTING REQUIREMENTS

Fume hoods, BSCs, and room pressure relationships are the main components of a
laboratory that need to be tested on a regular basis, typically annually, in order to ensure
that the safety requirements in the laboratory are being met. The varied periodic testing of
laboratory equipment and systems is diagrammatically represented in Figure 12-4 and
includes fume hood face velocity and performance testing, BSC performance testing, and
verification of room pressurization.
FUME HOOD FACE VELOCITY AND PERFORMANCE TESTING
Regular testing is needed to ensure that fume hoods properly protect laboratory work-
ers from the chemicals that they use. Testing of fume hoods is specified in ASHRAE
Standard 110, Method of Testing Performance of Laboratory Fume Hoods (ASHRAE
1995). For more information see Chapter 5 of this Guide.

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Figure 12-4
Periodic
Laboratory
Equipment and
System Testing

BIOLOGICAL SAFETY CABINET PERFORMANCE TESTING

BSC performance testing is conducted to ensure that cabinets are providing protec-
tion from biological aerosols. Testing protocols are specified in NSF/ANSI 49, Biosafety
Cabinetry: Design, Construction, Performance, and Field Certification (NSF 2014).
Depending on the class of BSC, the test parameters may be different because each class
of cabinet offers slightly different protective barriers.
The purpose of BSC performance testing is to ensure that the cabinet meets predeter-
mined criteria and listed requirements established by NSF/ANSI 49. Assuming that these
criteria are met, a tested unit is determined to have the ability to provide a defined level of
protection when made available for use in the laboratory. Following the acceptance test-
ing, the cabinet unit is then listed and bears an NSF 49 seal.

VERIFICATION OF ROOM PRESSURIZATION

Room pressurization is used either to prevent substances not captured by a fume hood
from migrating to the rest of the building or to maintain a cleaner environment in the labo-
ratory than the surrounding areas. Supply and exhaust airflows may change over time due
to normal wear of the HVAC system. The building envelope and pressure sensor calibration
may also change over time and affect room pressurization. Therefore, room pressurization
should be tested and verified that it meets the necessary requirements. Both instrument test-
ing and (visual) flow direction testing are used to verify room pressurization.

Instrument Testing
Laboratories must maintain a pressure differential to maintain airflow direction from
cleanest to dirtiest. For most laboratories, a minimum of 0.01 in. w.g. (2.5 Pa) is needed to
provide this airflow. Laboratories that use highly hazardous materials will likely require
greater pressure differentials, up to 0.05 in. w.g. (12.5 Pa) or higher. A pressure differen-
tial of 0.01 in. w.g. (2.5 Pa) is intended to provide a 100 fpm (0.51 m/s) velocity through a
0.125 in. (3.2 mm) crack (e.g., under a door), while the actual velocity will vary with the
integrity of the envelope construction.

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Instrument testing of room pressurization uses a manometer to verify the pressuriza-

tion of the laboratory. The manometer should be accurate to ±1%, and the precision
should be ±0.005 in. w.g. (1.25 Pa). The room pressurization should be tested under the
maximum open, minimum open, and typical working positions of the fume hood sashes
(ASHRAE 1992).
Flow Direction Testing
Flow direction in laboratories can be visually verified. For example, smoke testing
can be used to visually demonstrate that the pressure differential is being maintained for
the room and that there is no air leaving a laboratory space and migrating to another part
of the building. Flow direction testing can be accomplished by using smoke candles
around openings to the laboratory to verify flow direction. The typical openings to be ver-
ified under the various operating conditions listed previously are:
• Door (closed and open)
• Electrical outlets
• Windows
• Other penetrations (piping, wiring, duct)

REFERENCES
AABC. 2002. National standards for total system balance. Washington, DC: Associated
Air Balance Council.
AABC. 2004. Test and balance procedures. Washington, DC: Associated Air Balance
Council.
AABC. 2004. Technician training manual, 2d ed. Washington, DC: Associated Air Bal-
ance Council.
ASHRAE. 1992. ASHRAE Standard 41.2-1987 (RA 92), Standard methods for labora-
tory airflow measurement. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 1995. ASHRAE Standard 110-1995, Method of testing performance of labo-
ratory fume hoods. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2008. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 111-2008, Measurement, testing, adjusting,
and balancing of building HVAC systems. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
CDC. 2009. Biosafety in microbiological and biomedical laboratories (BMBL), 5th Edi-
tion. DHHS Publication No. (CDC) 21-1112. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. [Link]/bio
safety/publications/bmbl5.
NEBB. 2009. In Procedural standards for certified testing of cleanrooms, 3d ed. Gaith-
ersburg, MD: National Environmental Balancing Bureau. Available from
[Link]/procedural-standards.
NEBB. 2015. Procedural standard for testing, adjusting and balancing of environmental
systems, 8th ed. Gaithersburg, MD: National Environmental Balancing Bureau.
Available from [Link]/procedural-standards.
NSF. 2014. NSF/ANSI 49-2014, Biosafety cabinetry: Design, construction, performance,
and field certification. Ann Arbor, MI: NSF International.
SEFA. 2010. SEFA 1-2010, Recommended practices for laboratory fume hoods. Garden
City, NY: Scientific Equipment Furniture Association.

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O&M for
Ventilation and
Exhaust Systems

OVERVIEW
13
Laboratory ventilation systems require regular and appropriate maintenance to ensure
proper operation and performance. Proper operation is required to protect people working
with potentially hazardous materials and ensure effective and efficient operation over the
life cycles of the systems. Poor or ineffective maintenance can lead to premature degrada-
tion of the systems and high costs to renovate and upgrade them following degradation.
Furthermore, the maintenance helps protect the return on investment.
According to ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5 (AIHA 2012), all laboratory facilities should
develop and implement a laboratory ventilation management program (LVMP). The
LVMP should include a description of the systems, define operating specifications, define
performance criteria, describe required maintenance tasks, provide a schedule for con-
ducting the tasks, and provide standard operating procedures (SOPs) for all routine test
and maintenance methods.
Rather than waiting for major problems to occur, maintenance measures such as mon-
itoring, testing, calibrating, cleaning, replacements, and repairs should be performed on a
regular basis (weekly, monthly, and annually). This provides assurance that the laboratory
will maintain precise conditions for an extended period of time.
The main elements of operation and maintenance (O&M) that should be addressed
for laboratories are as follows:
• Maintenance of equipment and systems
• Decontamination of existing laboratories
• Cost information
• Training

MAINTENANCE OF
EQUIPMENT AND SYSTEMS

Routine maintenance measures are needed for various pieces of laboratory equipment
and systems, including fume hoods, biological safety cabinets, and ventilation and
exhaust systems. Established standards, codes, and guidelines provide requirements and
recommendations that should be followed for the safe operation of these equipment and
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systems. The following subsections summarize and provide resources for assessing these
requirements and recommendations.
FUME HOODS
Over time, regular use of fume hoods can cause the flow to vary from the design
specifications due to degradation of airflow controls and problems with the operation of
the exhaust fans, including belts, fan speed, and operation of outdoor air bypass dampers.
Airflow controls are especially critical with variable-air-volume (VAV) fume hoods, as
they rely on sensor readings to determine the proper airflow needed to maintain a safe
face velocity. If the sensor becomes damaged or goes out of calibration, a VAV fume hood
can expose laboratory occupants to potentially hazardous contaminants. Also, if the fume
hood flow is higher than necessary, energy will be wasted and the room can become
improperly balanced.
All fume hoods should be tested and have their performance verified at least annually.
Typically exhaust flow, face velocity, cross-draft test using smoke, and airflow monitor
calibration are tested. Many institutions have a standard annual testing protocol, and guid-
ance for fume hood testing and requirements can also be found in the following publica-
tions:
• ASHRAE Standard 110-1995, Method of Testing Performance of Laboratory
Fume Hoods (ASHRAE 1995)
• National Standards for Total System Balance (AABC 2002)
• Procedural Standards for Fume Hood Performance Testing (NEBB 2009)
• MD 15128, Laboratory Fume Hoods: Guidelines for Owners, Design Profes-
sionals and Maintenance Personnel (PWGSC 2013)
• ANSI/ASSE Z9.14, Testing and Performance-Verification Methodologies for
Ventilation Systems for Biosafety Level 3 (BSL-3) and Animal Biosafety Level 3
(ABSL-3) Facilities (ASSE 2014)
• NFPA 45: Standard on Fire Protection for Laboratories Using Chemicals
(NFPA 2015)

BIOLOGICAL SAFETY CABINETS

Biological safety cabinets (BSCs) protect laboratory users from biological aerosols.
These cabinets, like fume hoods, need to be inspected, tested, and recalibrated periodi-
cally. NSF International states that the cabinets should be field-tested at least annually
(NSF 2012). According to NSF/ANSI 49, “recertification should be performed whenever
HEPA/ULPA filters are changed, maintenance repairs are made to internal parts, or a cab-
inet is relocated. More frequent recertification should be considered for particularly haz-
ardous or critical applications or workloads” (NSF 2014, p. F1).
The following are the tests required for NSF/ANSI 49 field testing:
• Downflow velocity profile test
• Inflow velocity test
• Airflow smoke patterns test
• High-efficiency particulate air/ultra-low particulate air (HEPA/ULPA) filter leak
test
• Cabinet integrity test (positive-pressure plenum cabinets only)
• Site installation assessment tests, including alarm functions, blower interlock,
and exhaust system performance

For worker comfort and safety, tests on lighting intensity, vibration, noise level, elec-
trical leakage, ground circuit resistance, and polarity may be conducted.

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VENTILATION AND EXHAUST SYSTEMS

A laboratory ventilation system should ensure that occupied spaces get the correct
amount of outdoor air while maintaining the appropriate temperature and humidity levels
for acceptable thermal comfort and experimental quality. The exhaust system expels the
air from the laboratory and containment devices to the outside of the building. The
exhaust system also works in tandem with the ventilation system to provide the correct
pressure relationships for the laboratory spaces. However, without periodic maintenance
of the key components of the ventilation and exhaust systems, the requirements for safe
and reliable operation will not be met.
The following are some of the items to include in a maintenance plan:
• Fans, motors, and drives
• Supply and exhaust filters
• Dampers
• Airflow monitoring stations
• Humidifiers
• Supply and exhaust air terminal units
• Controls and alarm devices (verify operation and calibration)
• General check of all devices in the airstream

Resources for laboratory O&M requirements and recommendations for ventilation

and exhaust systems include ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5, Laboratory Ventilation (AIHA
2012), and ANSI/ASSE Z9.14, Testing and Performance-Verification Methodologies for
Ventilation Systems for Biosafety Level 3 (BSL-3) and Animal Biosafety Level 3 (ABSL-3)
Facilities (ASSE 2014).

DECONTAMINATION OF
EXISTING LABORATORIES
During its lifetime, a laboratory will most likely need to be decontaminated. Common
reasons for decontamination include the following:
• Changes in the type of work performed
• Renovation or remodeling of the laboratory workspace
• Maintenance of laboratory equipment

Decontamination procedures should be established and documented to assist mainte-

nance staff in providing proper maintenance to the laboratory equipment. Coordination of
decontamination amongst maintenance staff and laboratory users is needed to minimally
impact the work being performed in the laboratory.

COST INFORMATION
In addition to the initial cost of designing and constructing a laboratory, there are sev-
eral costs associated with using the laboratory after completion, including the costs of
operation, energy, and maintenance. Because laboratory HVAC systems are generally
more complex and energy intensive than those of typical buildings and their continued
operation is essential for safety, it is important to budget appropriate funds for the O&M
of a laboratory, which includes the provision for sufficient qualified personnel. Coordina-
tion between laboratory designers, personnel, and maintenance staff can reduce costs by
making the laboratory easier to operate and to maintain.

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OPERATION COST
The cost of operation includes the costs associated with the operation of the equip-
ment and systems of a laboratory, the salaries of the maintenance staff (or the cost to sub-
contract maintenance assignments), and other expenses for running the laboratory, such
as the costs for non-energy utilities and general building supplies. Energy costs and main-
tenance costs are major categories of the cost of operation.

ENERGY COST
The energy cost of a laboratory is the cost associated with purchasing electricity, nat-
ural gas, and other fuels to operate the laboratory. Because of the large amounts of
exhaust air and the typical use of 100% outdoor air for laboratory spaces, energy costs for
laboratories are higher than those of typical buildings. The O&M staff should closely
monitor the monthly energy costs, as large increases or decreases may identify possible
HVAC system problems.
There are many steps that maintenance personnel can take to reduce energy costs,
such as regularly changing filters and keeping air passages clean and open. Laboratory
users should close fume hood sashes when appropriate. A direct digital control (DDC)
system can greatly simplify the optimization of laboratory operation and energy minimi-
zation.

MAINTENANCE COST
Maintenance cost includes the costs of repair/replacement parts and materials for the
HVAC system. Because laboratories have high concentrations of HVAC equipment, the
time and cost to provide maintenance can be significant. Therefore, a carefully planned
and executed preventive maintenance program should be used, as it will reduce time and
costs for maintenance and ensure a safe working environment in the laboratory. Docu-
mentation during design and construction, in the form of the Basis of Design (BOD), as-
built drawings, and O&M manuals, is essential to ensuring that maintenance personnel
have the necessary resources to maintain the laboratory. Additional costs invested in
maintenance can result in significant savings in energy costs.

TRAINING
Training is required throughout the life of any building to keep the maintenance staff
and occupants of the building informed of the procedures for safe, energy-efficient, and
cost-effective use of the building’s HVAC system. Training is especially important for
laboratory maintenance staff and occupants because laboratories use many hazardous
substances, use more energy than a typical commercial building, and have HVAC sys-
tems that can be dangerous or costly to fix if used improperly. Training is also important
for laboratories with frequent changes in occupants, such as a teaching or research labo-
ratories.

MAINTENANCE STAFF
To safely and cost-effectively operate a laboratory, the maintenance staff must be
properly trained in the operation of building equipment and systems. Maintenance staff
should be aware of the hazardous materials used in the laboratory and how they affect
maintaining the HVAC system.
Training should be customized to provide the level of detail that the maintenance staff
needs, as they may or may not already be familiar with operating the equipment installed

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in the laboratory. If they have already used the same type of equipment, general back-
ground information on the equipment is not needed.
Trainees should be allowed to work with the equipment during training so that they
can actually see what the trainer is talking about and have their questions answered. It is
unlikely that the maintenance staff will be able to remember or comprehend all of the
information that is presented to them during training. Therefore, they should be made
aware of the reference materials available to them, such as O&M manuals, and have a
chance to use them. Training can be recorded for review and training of new staff.
Finally, maintenance staff should be informed of the preventive maintenance that is
required for the laboratory equipment. Maintenance procedures, including work to per-
form, notification of laboratory users, and documentation of work and testing procedures,
should be discussed.
OCCUPANTS
To operate a laboratory safely, laboratory users must know the proper procedures for
operating the laboratory equipment to minimize the risk of accidents. Items such as fume
hood operation, keeping doors closed to maintain pressure differentials, and limits on
where various materials can be used must be discussed. Laboratory users should also be
aware of the procedures for reporting a potentially dangerous condition so that mainte-
nance personnel can take corrective action.
Laboratory users should know the proper emergency procedures to minimize the
impacts of an accident. Regular reviews of emergency procedures should be performed to
sharpen emergency actions, to determine possible improvements, and to develop new pro-
cedures when the type of work performed in the laboratory changes. The reviews should
also cover use of emergency announcement systems and evacuation procedures.
Finally, laboratory users need to be aware of the impact their actions have on energy
usage. For example, they should be aware that leaving fume hood sashes open unneces-
sarily will cause a significant amount of energy to be used to condition and move air.

REFERENCES
AABC. 2002. National standards for total system balance. Washington, DC: Associated
Air Balance Council.
AIHA. 2012. ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5-2012, Laboratory ventilation. Falls Church, VA:
American Industrial Hygiene Association.
ASHRAE. 1995. ASHRAE Standard 110-1995, Method of testing performance of labo-
ratory fume hoods. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASSE. 2014. ANSI/ASSE Z9.14-2014, Testing and performance-verification methodolo-
gies for ventilation systems for biosafety level 3 (BSL-3) and animal biosafety level 3
(ABSL-3) facilities. Park Ridge, IL: American Society of Safety Engineers.
NFPA. 2015. NFPA 45: Standard on fire protection for laboratories using chemicals.
Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association.
NEBB. 2009. Procedural standards for fume hood performance testing. Gaithersburg,
MD: National Environmental Balancing Bureau. Available from [Link]/
procedural-standards.
NSF. 2014. NSF/ANSI 49-2014, Biosafety cabinetry: Design, construction, performance,
and field certification. Ann Arbor, MI: NSF International.
PWGSC. 2013. MD 15128-2013, Laboratory fume hoods: Guidelines for owners, design
professionals and maintenance personnel. Gatineau, Quebec, Canada: Public Works
and Government Services Canada.

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Laboratory
Commissioning
Process

OVERVIEW
14
Environmental control and monitoring of laboratories are considerably more compli-
cated than for most other buildings because of the stringent requirements of HVAC sys-
tems to meet temperature, relative humidity, ventilation rates, directional airflow control
and indication, differential pressure control and indication, building equipment depen-
dency integration with the architectural features, and fire and life safety integration.
These requirements become more challenging as the scope and complexity of building
control systems and associated control strategies expand. Other special needs inherent in
laboratory facilities include redundancy, emergency or standby power, energy recovery,
and waste treatment, and some laboratories may have additional considerations such as
chemical and biological hazards, special filtration, and energy efficiency.
Commissioning has become a necessary methodology for delivering operable labora-
tories and complying with the requirements of certifying agencies. Commissioning is a
quality-assurance-focused process for enhancing the delivery of a project. The process
focuses on verifying and documenting that the laboratory and all systems and assemblies
are planned, designed, installed, tested, operated, and maintained to meet the Owner’s
Project Requirements (OPR) (ASHRAE 2013a). The process is most successful when
implemented throughout all phases of the project: planning, design, construction, accep-
tance, and occupancy and operation. The process verifies that at the end of the project the
owner receives the operating facility that was expected at the beginning.
This chapter provides a general overview of the commissioning process and guidance
for commissioning of the most common laboratory systems, including descriptions of
important commissioning tasks for each phase of a typical laboratory project and how the
commissioning process can be effectively applied to existing laboratory facilities. The
sections include the following:
• Commissioning process
• Predesign phase
• Design phase
• Construction phase
• Acceptance phase
• Occupancy and operations phase
• Commissioning of existing buildings (retrocommissioning)
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COMMISSIONING PROCESS
The general phases of the commissioning process are predesign, design, construction,
acceptance, and occupancy and operation. While some owners adopt commissioning dur-
ing the design or construction phases, the greatest benefits of commissioning are achieved
by starting in the predesign phase of the project, when the facility owner is defining the
project requirements. In so doing, maximum benefits have proven to be achieved through-
out the lifetime of the building.
ASHRAE Guideline 0, The Commissioning Process (ASHRAE 2013a), describes the
commissioning process used to verify that facilities and systems meet the OPR.
Guideline 0 is part of the Total Building Commissioning Process as defined by the
National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS). ASHRAE Guideline 1.1, HVAC&R Tech-
nical Requirements for the Commissioning Process (ASHRAE 2007), provides the tech-
nical requirements for commissioning HVAC&R systems in accordance with the process
described in Guideline 0. These documents combine to form the basis of commissioning
for many types of facilities, including the general process for laboratories. ANSI/
ASHRAE Standard 202, Commissioning Process for Buildings and Systems (ASHRAE
2013b), was developed as a minimum standard for commissioning.

PREDESIGN PHASE
The goals and expectations of the owner are documented during the predesign phase
in a significant document known as the Owner’s Project Requirements (OPR). This docu-
ment describes the functional, operational, and maintenance requirements of the labora-
tory—how it will be used and operated. The commissioning Basis of Design (BOD) is the
engineer’s response to the OPR defining how the OPR are intended to be met. The BOD
is a living document and must be updated as the project progresses. The commissioning
plan, described further in the last subsection of this section, is also drafted during this
phase.
ESTABLISHING PROJECT GOALS AND EXPECTATIONS
The building project goals must be stated in clear and concise terms as early in the
project as possible to make certain that all the design and construction work performed
meets the goals of the owner. While the project goals change during the project, as the
owner becomes aware of the implications of the initial project goals, documenting
changes and maintaining a current OPR enables everyone involved in the project to work
toward the same goals. A number of tools are available to document the updating of the
OPR and BOD, including workshops, surveys, and interviews.
In addition to the OPR items described in ASHRAE Guidelines 0 and 1.1, the OPR
for laboratories should identify the following:
• Risk assessment or information needed for the risk assessment
• Safety features
• Flexibility, reliability, and redundancy
• Economics
• Functional performance
• Standard operating procedures (SOPs) related to how the users function in the
laboratory within the limitations of the systems in the research facility
• Training requirements of the owner and users

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Risk Assessment
Ideally the OPR should include a risk assessment for the facility; if one is not pro-
vided, the information needed to perform the risk assessment should be included in the
OPR. The risk assessment documents the risks associated with the chemicals being used
and the procedures being performed in the room that could impact the laboratory person-
nel, the surrounding areas, and the environment. It also includes how these risks can be
mitigated without affecting the research and experiments being performed in the labora-
tory. The planned usage of the laboratory must be detailed as thoroughly as possible to
verify that the designed and constructed laboratory system can meet the requirements.
These details can, for example, be the expected use of chemicals (especially perchloric
acid), the mixture of chemicals, the efficacy of the biological hazard, the level of cleanli-
ness required, the types of animals involved, the decontamination methodology, operating
parameters, etc. More details provided at this stage will help verify that the risks are
determined accurately and that the design of the system can mitigate these risks.
Chapter 4 discusses risk assessment in more detail.
Safety Features
The owner should list any special safety features required for the laboratory. Based on
the risk assessment, additional safety features to handle emergencies such as spills, fires,
explosions, malfunctioning of fans or motors, and room pressure problems can be identi-
fied. These features help the laboratory systems handle abnormal situations while mini-
mizing risk to the users and the environment. The object of the safety features is to make
sure that the users are safe, the environment is protected, and the research is sustained
from release of contaminants even in extreme situations.
Flexibility, Reliability, and Redundancy
Flexibility of the design is important for the laboratory to be able to meet changing
criteria, as the laboratory’s function may change over time. The flexibility of the system
may require additional cost, but good planning can considerably ease the process of add-
ing to the system or making a change to the system.
Reliability is an important issue for laboratory systems, because failure of the system
can have catastrophic consequences. In critical systems that deal with highly toxic materi-
als or where a shutdown could be extremely expensive, redundant system or component
configurations are often necessary. This redundancy ensures that maintenance can be
done without shutting down the system and that the system will function even in the case
of component failure. The level of reliability must be determined since systems can only
approach 100% reliability.
Economics
As in any project, economics is a constraint that determines what can actually be
accomplished. The owner always has a limited amount of funds available, and the project
must meet this criterion as well as the other criteria. Often, the cost of the requirements
exceeds the funds available. While compromises are then made, the safety of the users
must be maintained. It is important to update the OPR every time something is compro-
mised and to explain the reason for the compromise so that all project participants under-
stand what is changed and why it was changed to avoid future misunderstandings or
discussions (lawsuits) about changes.
Functional Performance
The functional performance to be met by the system must be documented to make
certain that all the participants clearly understand what the design and installation must

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achieve. Functional performance includes the flexibility, reliability, and safety functions
with a main focus on the operational requirements. The functional requirements should be
as detailed as possible to make certain that the design and construction team can meet the
requirements throughout the project.
Standard Operating Procedures
Standard operating procedures (SOPs) must be documented to inform users of the
proper procedures for handling chemicals and conducting research and experiments in a
safe manner. The SOPs should include limits on the chemicals allowed in the space;
instruction on handling of equipment, mixing or dispensing of chemicals, operation of the
safety equipment, and operation of the containment equipment (fume hoods, snorkels,
etc.); and information about emergency procedures in the event of a spill or accident.
Training Requirements
Training requirements for both laboratory users and the owner should be developed
and documented so they can be included in the construction documents. The level of
existing personnel training should be documented, as this allows tailored development of
training materials for the users and owners.
COMMISSIONING PLAN
The commissioning plan outlines the organization, schedule, allocation of resources,
and documentation of the commissioning process. The initial commissioning plan is
developed during the predesign phase; it is later ratified by the construction team. Part of
the plan includes a review of lessons learned from previous laboratory projects that could
be useful in the current project. Additionally, training requirements are identified along
with other documentation to identify scope.

DESIGN PHASE
At the beginning of the design phase, the engineer develops the Basis of Design
(BOD). During the design phase, the construction documents are developed in accor-
dance with the BOD to meet the OPR and communicate the engineer’s design to the con-
tractor and owner.
BASIS OF DESIGN
The BOD is developed in response to the OPR. It is a narrative discussing the systems
selected and how they will meet the OPR. Systems that were rejected and the reasons they
were rejected are also included. The BOD can be subdivided into two major sections:
design intent and design criteria.
Design Intent
The design intent should include an overview of the laboratory control system with
general sequences of operation including failure modes. It should also address the risk
assessment and how the systems selected will minimize risk. Specific components of the
system that should be addressed include the following:
• Airflow and temperature control system selection and operations
• Relative pressure control methodology (e.g., airflow offset, direct pressure con-
trol, adaptive offset control, and enhanced differential pressure control)
• Redundancy of equipment (e.g., air-handling units, exhaust fans)
• Emergency power requirements
• Exhaust plume height and dilution

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• Materials of construction (e.g., ductwork, grilles, registers and diffusers, airflow

control devices)
• Air change rates (occupied and unoccupied)
• Emergency modes of operation
• Failure scenarios
• Energy-saving features
• Testing, adjusting, and balancing (TAB) requirements
• Commissioning requirements
• Instrumentation required for measurement and verification as well as ongoing
commissioning
• System maintenance (a review of the differing maintenance requirements for the
major equipment selected for the design and the alternatives that would be
acceptable during the construction phase)

Design Criteria
As part of the BOD, the design criteria states the codes, standards, guidelines, etc.
that are to be followed/complied with in designing the building systems. The BOD may
also include a list of manufacturers’ names and equipment model numbers for the equip-
ment the system was designed around. Any assumptions used in the design of the HVAC
systems should be included. In addition to the general HVAC information, the following
specific information concerning laboratories should be included:
• Fume hood airflow rates and sash types
• Biological safety cabinet (BSC) types and airflow rates
• Source capture devices (e.g., snorkels, storage cabinets, canopy hoods) and air-
flow requirements
• Ventilation rates for occupied, unoccupied, and emergency modes
• Pressure relationships/directional airflow control
• Exhaust reentrainment avoidance for stack heights and intake locations
• Envelope differential pressure requirements and indication
• Corridor and vestibule door interlock scenarios for laboratory ingress and egress
• Alarm notification and user dissemination

CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS
Drawings and specifications are the main construction documents developed during
the design phase. These documents are used for bidding and the construction of the proj-
ect and are based on the OPR and BOD. The commissioning requirements for the labora-
tory building project must be integrated into these documents during the design phase so
that all parties involved are aware of the quality process used to achieve the goals and
expectations of the owner. The commissioning plan is further developed, along with test-
ing procedures.
Construction documents should be reviewed to verify the system design meets the
OPR. Specific items that should be verified include the following:
• Hoods and BSCs are located away from the doors and frequently traveled paths.
• Diffusers are selected and located such that terminal velocities do not interfere
with the fume hoods and BSCs.
• Control components and sequences are clearly defined for each mode of oper-
ation.
• Fume hood monitoring uses face velocity measurement or flow verification
based on calculated values based on sash position.

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• Sufficient straight duct has been provided before all air control devices for TAB
to verify airflow rates with duct traverses.
• Airflow measurement stations are specified for ongoing commissioning activities.
• Airflow station accuracy, including transmitter and annual drift, meet the system
accuracy (±5%) throughout the full flow ranges expected.
• The room pressure control scheme can work with the room envelope construc-
tion to maintain the desired room pressure. (In tightly constructed rooms, the
amount of differential airflow to maintain the pressure relationship maybe less
than the control error on volumetric offset control systems. Direct pressure con-
trol or pressure reset of the offset maybe necessary for tightly constructed rooms
such as biosafety level [BSL] 3 laboratories as described in Biosafety in Micro-
biological and Biomedical Laboratories [CDC 2009].)
• Test and acceptance procedures are defined to include failure scenarios.
• Ductwork construction and leakage rates are clearly defined.
• Plume heights and exhaust dilution are clearly defined on exhaust fan schedules.
• Reliability and maintenance of major components have been reviewed.
• Redundancy issues have been clearly addressed.

CONSTRUCTION PHASE
Commissioning during the construction phase focuses on the quality of the installa-
tions to be in accordance with the OPR as reflected in the construction documents (i.e.,
drawings and specifications). Though they are similar to those of the design phase, the
procedures of the construction phase are different. The emphasis during construction is
on accomplishing the installation correctly the first time. Specific requirements for the
installers for the installation to meet the OPR should be clearly provided in the construc-
tion documents. Commissioning tools and techniques used during construction include
mock-ups, construction checklists, review of submittals, and system verification.

MOCK-UPS
The use of mock-ups is one way to ensure quality during construction. The contractor
is required to construct a small section of the installation that has to be approved before
the remaining construction sections are allowed. This procedure catches installation
faults that otherwise would not have been detected until a significant portion of the instal-
lation was complete. Mock-ups increase the quality and reduce the cost of the installation
for the contractor, as it makes sure the individual workers know what is required to meet
the OPR.

CONSTRUCTION CHECKLISTS
The installation of the individual components of the various systems must be verified
to meet the OPR. Individual workers accomplish this through continuous spot-checking
of work and through the use of construction checklists.

REVIEW OF SUBMITTALS
In reviewing the submittals the following should be verified:
• Systems submitted conform to the construction documents (drawings and speci-
fications) and OPR.
• Equipment and materials conform to construction documents and OPR.
• Maintenance requirements for equipment conform to the construction docu-
ments and OPR.

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• System integration is clearly defined and identified.

• Airflow measurement and control accuracy conform to the specifications.
• Operation and maintenance (O&M) documentation is complete.

SYSTEM VERIFICATION
Once all systems are installed, performance verification testing (PVT) of the labora-
tory control system sequences is accomplished. This effort entails the review of control
panel wiring and labeling to verify that they match the as-built drawings. The individual
control loops are also checked for proper operation during all modes of operation, includ-
ing failure scenarios. After the control acceptance, all air and water systems can then be
tested, adjusted, and balanced. The system TAB is then verified to confirm that the labo-
ratory has the proper flows under all conditions to maintain the health and safety of the
occupants and to meet the owner’s design intent.

ACCEPTANCE PHASE
The acceptance phase of commissioning focuses on the functional performance of the
equipment. Ideally, the commissioning process has eliminated the majority of problems
before the functional performance of the system is tested. Minor failures during the test
are corrected. Major failures require a retest. The acceptance phase focuses on functional
performance tests of HVAC equipment that are critical for laboratories, such as the con-
trol system and exhaust hoods and systems.
Functional testing of the equipment verifies that the installed equipment and systems
perform as intended. All the normal operating conditions are tested. If an operating condi-
tion cannot be tested (e.g., space cooling during the winter season) and there is no way to
simulate the necessary conditions, the functional performance test should be scheduled
for a later time when it is expected that the necessary conditions are present. In addition to
the normal operating conditions, emergency, safety, start-up, shutdown, and all other fore-
seeable abnormal operating conditions are also tested.
CONTROL SYSTEM
The laboratory control system is the “brain” of the system and integrates the
sequences of operation and how the individual pieces of equipment interact. The control
system receives information from sensors located at strategic locations throughout the
system. A control system can only function correctly if it receives correct information
from all the sensors, the control sequences are verified correct, and the equipment per-
forms the tasks the way the control system instructed it.
EXHAUST HOODS AND SYSTEMS
Exhaust systems (fume hoods, snorkels, BSCs, etc.) often have requirements that
require complex controls as well as stringent equipment performance requirements.
These requirements depend on the use of the laboratory and the specific use of the
exhaust hood. Face velocity and proper fume hood containment can be tested by smoke
tests under all normal operating conditions. In addition, the fume hoods should be tested
per ASHRAE Standard 110, Methods of Testing Performance of Laboratory Fume Hoods
(ASHRAE 1995). BSCs are tested in accordance with NSF/ANSI 49, Biosafety Cabine-
try: Design, Construction, Performance, and Field Certification (NSF 2014). The quan-
tity of hoods to be field tested versus factory tested should be determined based on a risk
assessment and owner preference. The acceptance criteria for these tests should be deter-
mined before projects are bid and included in the construction documents, with the actual

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test procedures determined when the contractor’s submittals have been accepted and the
manufacturer determined. The extent of functional performance tests for the laboratory
systems include the following:
• Part-load and full-load performance
• Fume hoods
• BSCs
• General laboratory exhaust
• Miscellaneous exhausts
• Failure scenarios

OCCUPANCY AND OPERATIONS PHASE

The last phase of the commissioning process focuses on actions needed to follow up
on warranties and making sure the expected performance is maintained for the life of the
building. The requirements of documentation and training are addressed in this phase, as
well as the need for audits of laboratory systems and ongoing commissioning.

DOCUMENTATION
Documentation should include all the necessary information to safely operate and
maintain the laboratory systems. This includes O&M manuals, as-built record drawings,
material safety data sheets (MSDSs), and any key references for specific laboratory pro-
cedures. The documentation must be well organized and include information on only the
installed components; no information on components that were not actually installed
should be allowed. The information should be concise and meet the OPR. This allows the
O&M staff to have the correct information to perform their required tasks. The documen-
tation should be compiled early during the construction process with details such as the
record drawings and the commissioning plan included.

TRAINING
The training of the O&M staff is a key factor that determines whether the laboratory
systems are operated as intended when the building is occupied. While the systems may
be capable of meeting the owner’s and occupants’ requirements, the systems will fail if
the O&M staff does not understand how to operate the systems and their equipment.
If the maintenance of systems is insufficient, dangerous conditions, as well as shorter
lifetimes of individual components, are inevitable. It is an advantage if the training
focuses on teaching the O&M staff to use the O&M manual, as such training resembles
the way staff will work during day-to-day operation.
The users of the laboratory must also be trained to be able to take advantage of the
system’s capabilities, know the system’s limitations, and understand safety procedures.

AUDITS OF LABORATORY SYSTEMS

The purpose of audits of laboratory systems is to systematically review the existing
state of the laboratory facility and determine any code-compliance issues that are related
to the safety of personnel and research; energy usage; and the storage, use, and handling
of chemicals and biohazardous materials. A report of the findings and recommendations
of the audit is an invaluable source for focused improvements. Laboratory personnel
should meet to discuss and rank the recommendations of the audit in order of priority. A
hazard and operability analysis (HAZOP) style format can be used for these meetings
(IEC 2001). Audits of laboratory systems should be performed periodically even if all the
steps of a quality control process such as commissioning were followed in the design and

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construction of the laboratory. See Chapter 4 for a discussion on risk assessment and var-
ious other hazard analysis methods.

ONGOING COMMISSIONING
The control system should monitor the system and trend lines developed to monitor the
system over time. Sensors (for airflow, pressure, temperature, relative humidity, etc.) should
be verified for accuracy and drift and recalibrated as recommended by the manufacturer.

COMMISSIONING OF EXISTING BUILDINGS

(RETROCOMMISSIONING)

Commissioning of systems in existing buildings (retrocommissioning) can be com-

pleted for two types of work on existing buildings:
• Retrofitting. Commissioning to achieve the expected performance from an exist-
ing laboratory system.
• Remodeling. Commissioning of a project to remodel an existing building that
did not have a particular laboratory systems before remodeling.

Retrofitting concentrates on upgrading the existing system to perform as designed or

to accommodate slight changes to the existing system. Training of O&M staff, improved
documentation, replacement of failing equipment, recalibration of sensors, and TAB of
air and water flows are usually the focus of these projects. Laboratory systems can cause
significant losses if they do not perform as designed. Therefore, while many of these tasks
may be considered maintenance tasks, a more thorough retrofitting will in many cases be
required at yearly intervals.
The commissioning process for remodeling of existing buildings usually follows the
same process as new building commissioning. However, if certain parts of systems are
reused, considerations such as cleanliness, integration with new components, etc., must
be considered. Remodeling also requires that contaminated equipment be handled accord-
ing to safety and health standards and codes during demolition.

REFERENCES

ASHRAE. 1995. ASHRAE Standard 110-1995, Method of testing performance of labo-

ratory fume hoods. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2007. Guideline 1.1-2007, HVAC&R technical requirements for the commis-
sioning process. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2013a. Guideline 0-2013, The commissioning process. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2013b. Standard 202-2013, Commissioning process for buildings and systems.
Atlanta: ASHRAE.
CDC. 2009. Biosafety in microbiological and biomedical laboratories (BMBL), 5th Edi-
tion. DHHS Publication No. (CDC) 21-1112. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. [Link]/bio
safety/publications/bmbl5.
IEC. 2001. IEC International Standard 61882, Hazard and operability studies (HAZOP
studies)—Application guide. Geneva: International Electrotechnical Commission.
NSF. 2014. NSF/ANSI 49-2014, Biosafety cabinetry: Design, construction, performance,
and field certification. Ann Arbor, MI: NSF International.

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HVAC System
Economics

OVERVIEW
15
Cost analysis for buildings can be divided into two categories:
• Initial cost
• Life-cycle cost

Generally, budget constraints on a project result in the initial cost of the system being
emphasized. Because of the high density of HVAC equipment in laboratories, the initial
cost to purchase equipment can be a considerable percentage of the total building cost
(between 30% and 50%). Therefore, accurate initial cost estimates are necessary to com-
plete the laboratory within the budget constraints.
First-cost analysis, while important in maintaining the budget, ignores the investment
required to operate the building, such as utility costs and maintenance costs, over the
mechanical system’s life span of 15 to 30 or more years. Because of the large amount of
HVAC equipment (and, thus, high energy consumption) in laboratories that must be rigor-
ously maintained for occupant safety, life-cycle cost is highly important in designing a
laboratory.

INITIAL COST
The HVAC system choice and layout, and thus the initial cost of the laboratory, is
affected by many factors, such as the usage patterns of the laboratory, the substances han-
dled in the laboratory, and the possibility for future expansion and changes in layout.
The usage patterns of a laboratory may dictate which system options are more attrac-
tive. For example, a laboratory where most fume hoods are continuously in use may not
benefit from the added initial cost of variable-air-volume (VAV) fume hoods, as the need
for exhaust is relatively constant.
The substances used in the laboratory may also dictate several design requirements,
such as the material to use for exhaust ductwork. Using similar chemicals, which don’t
interact, throughout the laboratory could allow manifolded exhaust to be used, whereas
chemicals that interact require separate exhaust stacks.
The possibility for future expansion and changes in layout may affect sizing factors
such as the diversity factor. A laboratory that plans to expand or reconfigure laboratory
space in the future may opt to use a higher (or no) diversity factor to allow for additional
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capacity for future work. In some cases, the diversity factor may equal 1, in that the cen-
tral equipment has the same capacity as the summed distributed systems.
Each of these factors influence the initial price of the following:
• Central air-handling equipment
• Exhaust system equipment

CENTRAL AIR-HANDLING EQUIPMENT

Central air-handling equipment for laboratories must be able to respond accurately
and quickly to changes in load. For constant-volume air handlers, this may mean rapidly
adjusting heating or cooling valves to prevent overheating or overcooling the laboratory
space. In the case of a VAV air handler, this means making rapid changes in supply air
volume when a fume hood sash is opened to maintain room pressure differentials. The
equipment selected must be able to perform these rapid changes and not be selected only
on lowest cost or familiarity alone. Last, central air-handling equipment may have special
filtering and treatment requirements that require additional equipment or add-on options
for the equipment.
Air Distribution System
The air distribution system in a laboratory often has special design requirements. For
example, diffuser type and location are important in preventing disturbances, which affect
fume hood operation. When large quantities of air must be supplied to laboratories to
make up for the exhausted air, special methods are needed to prevent temperature varia-
tions and air currents that may disturb exhaust equipment.
Constant-Volume Reheat
Constant-volume air-handling equipment with reheat may require less initial cost to
purchase the equipment, but it can use significantly more energy in laboratories with fluc-
tuating equipment usage or wide changes in outdoor air temperature throughout the year.
Variable Air Volume
While VAV equipment requires additional initial equipment, such as variable-fre-
quency drives (VFDs) and controls, and thus costs more when compared to constant-
volume equipment, this additional initial cost can be offset by the energy cost savings
over the life of the building.

EXHAUST SYSTEM EQUIPMENT

To determine the initial cost of exhaust systems, the cost of dedicated versus mani-
folded exhausts, ductwork material options, and fume hood control options should be
considered.
Dedicated versus Manifolded Exhausts
The use of dedicated exhausts can be required for certain substances or if multiple
substances that interact are to be used in the laboratory. It is also possible that the building
layout makes dedicated exhausts attractive, as in the case of a single-story building, or
impractical, as in the case of a tall multistory laboratory, where dedicated exhaust stacks
could occupy a significant portion of the floor area on upper floors. The cost-effective-
ness of dedicated exhausts is determined by the number of sources to be exhausted (each
will need a fan and a stack), the length of ductwork to the exhaust stacks, and the space
available in the building for dedicated duct runs and exhaust stacks.
The use of manifolded exhausts can be prohibited for certain substances or if the sub-
stances used in different areas of the laboratory will interact. The cost-effectiveness of

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manifolded exhaust is determined by the grouping of exhaust sources, the building layout,
and possibilities for future changes in substances used in the laboratory (there may be a
need to convert to dedicated exhausts if different substances that interact are later used).
Ductwork Material Options
As with the choice of dedicated or manifolded exhausts, some chemicals used in a
laboratory require special ductwork materials and connection methods. When a choice is
available for ductwork materials and connection methods, the material costs and installa-
tion time and cost for various options should be considered. Also, the potential for chang-
ing the chemicals that are exhausted should be considered, as some ductwork materials
limit the types of chemicals that can be handled by the exhaust system.
Fume Hood Control Options
Fume hood controls are either constant volume or VAV. While constant-volume con-
trols are simpler and less expensive for initial cost, constant-volume control may not be
economical over the life of the building. VAV controls may be more expensive for initial
cost but provide additional features, such as monitoring the face velocity of the fume
hood. For additional information on fume hood controls, see the Constant-Volume versus
Variable-Air-Volume Fume Hood Control section of Chapter 11.

LIFE-CYCLE COST
To determine the life-cycle cost of a building, both the capital and operating costs
associated with the building need to be converted to a common cost per time period using
an appropriate interest rate. Typically, the time period is for a 30-year life expectancy.
Consultations between the design team and owner are needed to estimate or calculate
numerous cost factors during life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA). Often, these cost factors
are very project specific; changes in usage patterns of the laboratory or the building loca-
tion can dramatically affect which cost factor is dominant in determining the most cost-
effective system option.
COST FACTORS
The many cost factors that are needed to calculate the cost of a building over its life-
time can be divided into three groups: design factors, economic factors, and performance
factors.
Design Factors
Design factors include items selected or determined during the design phase of a proj-
ect that can greatly affect the materials and equipment used in the laboratory and thus the
initial cost. The heat gain from laboratory equipment may be the dominant factor in sizing
equipment for some laboratories; for other laboratories, it is the rate of exhaust needed to
provide separation between hazardous materials and laboratory occupants.
The climate where the laboratory is located can significantly affect the sizing of the
heating and cooling systems for a building. Because of the need to use 100% outdoor air,
wide temperature variations throughout the year have a significant impact on laboratory
equipment sizing and heating and cooling costs. To compensate for wider variations in
temperature, additional design features may need to be considered, such as using VAV
fume hoods, improving the building envelope, and using energy recovery.
Exhaust devices such as fume hoods and biological safety cabinets (BSCs) can have
significant exhaust air requirements. This results in the treatment of outdoor air to satisfy
these requirements. Therefore, during design, the appropriate number, size, and type of

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devices should be determined. If the laboratory processes can be performed with a

smaller fume hood, for example, the energy costs would be reduced significantly com-
pared to the costs for a larger fume hood. Many laboratory processes can use BSCs that,
instead of requiring air to be exhausted through the exhaust system, recirculate air back
into the laboratory. If this type of BSC can be used, there are reductions in initial costs for
exhaust system components and controls as well as reductions in ongoing energy costs for
makeup air.

Economic Factors
Several economic factors are used to calculate the life-cycle cost of a laboratory,
including interest rate, initial system cost, the cost of maintenance, and operating and
energy costs.
The interest rate is used to determine the time value of money, such as determining
the current value of electric utility costs over the life of the building. It should be chosen
after consultation with the building owner, as organizations often have fixed requirements
on interest rates to use for cost analysis.
The initial system cost includes the purchase cost for equipment and materials, the
cost of installation, and overhead costs for the installing contractors. The whole building
does not necessarily need to be included in the cost analysis. For example, if the building
envelope is the same for all options under consideration, its initial cost may be excluded.
The cost of maintenance includes the costs associated with keeping the laboratory
equipment functioning as originally constructed. This includes replacement parts for
items that normally wear out, such as fan belts and filters, and for items that may wear
out prematurely, such as a fan or pump motor. Laboratories have higher maintenance
costs than typical buildings because there are many critical systems that require regular,
preventive maintenance to ensure that they do not fail and create unsafe working condi-
tions. Typical maintenance costs for commercial buildings should not be substituted for
careful consultation between the building owner, operation and maintenance (O&M)
staff, and designers to develop a preventive maintenance program and identify the costs
of the program.
Operating and energy costs are the costs for items such as electricity, natural gas, and
water and sewer. The costs for these items will likely vary in the future, so estimation of
an inflation rate may be needed. Reviewing the utility costs for a similar laboratory, if
possible, may be useful in estimating energy use. Some building analysis programs used
for determining heating and cooling loads can also be used to determine energy usage.

Performance Factors
Performance factors include the diversity factor, service life, average heat gains, and
the adaptability of the laboratory. In most laboratories, not all hoods will be used at the
same time. If this is the case, a diversity factor, which represents the percentage of equip-
ment that will be used at any one time, may be used to downsize central equipment, such
as air handlers, boilers, and chillers. There are some exceptions, though, when diversity
factors should not be used. This may include teaching laboratories, which may have stu-
dents using all of the fume hoods at once during a class. The owner and users of the labo-
ratory should be consulted when determining whether using a diversity factor is
appropriate.
The service life for the equipment must be considered when performing LCCA.
LCCA requires that a time period be chosen for the analysis. If the expected life of equip-
ment being analyzed is less than the time period for the analysis, the cost of replacing the

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equipment for as many times as needed to equal the time period of analysis should be
included in LCCA.
Average heat gain is the average thermal load supplied to the space, not the connected
electric load, as it is rare for all the equipment to be used at once. An average heat gain,
however, may not accurately represent a large heat-producing piece of equipment in a lab-
oratory without much other heat-producing equipment. A more accurate method of deter-
mining the heat gain in a laboratory is to determine the heat gain from each piece of
equipment and use the expected usage, which can be obtained from the building owner,
laboratory users, or equipment manufacturers. However, this may also present challenges,
as heat gain values from equipment may not be available or the number of pieces of
equipment may change.
Because life-cycle cost considers the life span of the building, the amount of adapt-
ability for the laboratory should be considered, as it is likely the type of work performed
in the laboratory will change at some point during the life of the building. The building
owner and occupants should be consulted to determine the level of adaptability needed to
allow for future changes in laboratory uses.

EXAMPLE LCCA CALCULATION

This example is intended to provide guidance on the procedure to use in determining
the life-cycle cost of a laboratory.
In the planning stage, the design team suggested two different approaches for the
design of the mechanical system for the laboratory. One system emphasized an energy-
conservation design and the other was of a more traditional design. The owner wanted to
know which system design option had the lower life-cycle cost. The lifetime for both
mechanical systems was the same and inflation was not considered in this example.

• Given economic factors:

• Interest rate = 8%
• Service life = 20 years
• System 1
• Mechanical system initial cost = $1,250,000
• Energy cost = $65,000/year
• Maintenance cost = $150,000/year
• System 2
• Mechanical system initial cost = $1,100,000
• Energy cost = $95,000/year
• Maintenance cost = $145,000/year

The economic formula that can be used to calculate the life-cycle cost for this sce-
nario is shown in Equation 15-1:

 1 + i n – 1
LC = IC + AC  --------------------------- (15-1)
i   1 + i n

where
LC = life-cycle cost
IC = initial cost
AC = annual cost (energy cost + maintenance cost)
i = interest rate in absolute value (e.g., 8% = 0.08)
n = number of years

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System 1 life-cycle cost:

20
 1 + 0.08  – 1
LC = 1,250,000 +  65,000 + 150,000   --------------------------------------------
20
0.08   1 + 0.08 
= 3,411,000
System 2 life-cycle cost:
20
 1 + 0.08  – 1
LC = 1,100,000 +  95,000 + 145,000   --------------------------------------------
20
0.08   1 + 0.08 
= 3,456,000
The energy-efficient System 1 had the lower life-cycle cost with these parameters.

What would the life-cycle costs of the systems be if the interest rate were 12%?

System 1 life-cycle cost:

20
 1 + 0.12  – 1
LC = 1,300,000 +  65,000 + 150,000   --------------------------------------------
20
0.12   1 + 0.12 
= 2,905,000

System 2 life-cycle cost:

20
 1 + 0.12  – 1
LC = 1,100,000 +  95,000 + 145,000   --------------------------------------------
20
0.12   1 + 0.12 
= 2,892,000

The traditional system 2 has the lower life-cycle cost with the higher interest rate.

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Microbiological
and Biomedical
Laboratories

OVERVIEW
16
Microbiological and biomedical laboratories deal with microorganisms that in many
cases can cause disease in humans and in some cases cause disease in plants or animals.
Such laboratories are often referred to as biological containment laboratories, biocon-
tainment laboratories, or containment laboratories. In these laboratories, the harmful
organisms must be handled correctly to protect laboratory personnel as well as to prevent
release of the organisms from the laboratory and avoid potential exposure to the general
public. The method of handling the organisms greatly depends on the microorganism and
its means of causing infection.
This chapter contains information on the classifications of biological contaminants
and discusses requirements to provide a basis for the design of microbiological and bio-
medical laboratories. This information is divided into the following sections:
• Biosafety level classifications
• Users’ program requirements
• Engineering considerations
• Special animal considerations
Because it is very important to contain the contaminants within the biocontainment
laboratory and laboratory animal areas, issues discussed and illustrated in previous chap-
ters such as space pressurization, system reliability, proper controls, and redundancy
apply for microbiological and biomedical laboratories. Specific details about biological
safety cabinets (BSCs) used for biological containment are covered in Chapter 5.

INTRODUCTION TO
BIOLOGICAL CONTAINMENT
This section introduces the elements, risk assessment, containment barriers, reference
standards and design guidelines, and definitions of biological containment, providing a
foundation for the more detailed Biosafety Level Classification section that follows.
ELEMENTS
Containment involves safe methods for managing infectious materials in the labora-
tory environment where they are being handled or maintained. The three elements of con-
tainment are laboratory practice and technique, safety equipment, and facility design.
[Link] Page 242 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:44 AM

The purpose of containment is to minimize the risk of exposure to potentially hazard-

ous agents. Exposure could involve not only laboratory workers but also other individuals
working close by and in the outside environment.

RISK ASSESSMENT
A risk assessment of the procedures to be conducted by the laboratory should be per-
formed by the appropriate laboratory and biosafety professionals to identify the most
likely risks associated with procedures involving biohazards in order to determine the
appropriate combination of the three elements of containment.
Assistance in the risk assessment process is provided by the risk ranking of biohaz-
ards into risk group (RG) classifications. Many organizations have established risk groups
for biohazards, and each begin with a ranking of lowest (RG1) to highest (RG4). The risk
group classifications of various national and international organizations can be found at
the websites or in the publications listed here:
• American Biological Safety Association (ABSA), Risk Group Classification for
Infectious Agents, [Link]/riskgroups (ABSA n.d.)
• World Health Organization (WHO), Laboratory Biosafety Manual, Third Edi-
tion, [Link]/csr/resources/publications/biosafety/[Link]?ua=1
(WHO 2004)
• National Institutes of Health (NIH), NIH Guidelines for Research Involving
Recombinant or Synthetic Nucleic Acid Molecules (NIH 2013a)
• Government of Canada, Chapter 4, Risk Groups, Containment Levels, and Risk
Assessments, of Canadian Biosafety Standards and Guidelines (CBSG) (Gov-
ernment of Canada 2013)
• Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand, AS/NZS 2243.3:2002, Austra-
lian/New Zealand StandardTM: Safety in laboratories, Part 3: Microbiological
aspects and containment facilities (SA/SNZ 2002)
• European Union, Directive 2000/54/EC (EU 2000)
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Biosafety in Microbiologi-
cal and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL), [Link]/biosafety/publications/
bmbl5 (CDC 2009a)
The design professional needs to work closely with the laboratory users and owners
and compliance officers to understand what facility features are needed for containment
and to accommodate the required biosafety protocols based on the risk assessment.

CONTAINMENT BARRIERS
The primary factor in designing a biocontainment laboratory is protection of labora-
tory workers, the environment, and the public from accidental exposure to potentially bio-
hazardous agents. Primary and secondary barriers must be in place to prevent accidental
personnel exposure to or environmental release of contaminated materials. Effective con-
tainment requires strict adherence to the following principles regarding the hierarchy of
containment barriers:
• Primary Containment. Protection of personnel and the immediate laboratory
environment from exposure to infectious agents by the use of containment
equipment such as the following:
• BSCs (the primary containment device for the control of infectious
splashes or aerosols in the laboratory)
• Safety centrifuges
• Sealed sonicators, blenders, and homogenizers

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• Sealed tubes and transport carriers

• Safe sharps, needle boxes, medical waste bags, etc.
• Secondary Containment. Protection of the environment external to the labora-
tory from exposure to infectious materials provided by a combination of facility
design features and operational practices (protocols) such as the following:
• Specialized ventilation systems to ensure unidirectional airflow from lower
to higher hazard spaces
• Air treatment systems to decontaminate or remove agents from exhaust air
• Controlled access zones
• Integrity of the laboratory room envelope (sealing of penetrations through
walls, floors, and ceiling)
• Air locks as laboratory entrances and exits
• Separate buildings or modules to isolate the laboratory

REFERENCE STANDARDS AND DESIGN GUIDELINES

Adhering to the following nationally recognized reference standards and design

guidelines helps reduce the health and safety risks posed by biocontainment laboratory
facilities. In the United States, prudent guidelines for working with microorganisms are
provided by several sources, the most predominant of which include the following:
• CDC, Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL)
(CDC 2009a)
• NIH, Division of Technical Resources, Design Requirements Manual (NIH 2013b)
• United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Manual 242.1, ARS Facilities
Design Standards (USDA 2012)
• Federal Select Agent Program (FSAP), CDC and USDA Animal and Plant
Health Inspection Services (APHIS), Regulations 7 CFR Part 331, 9 CFR Part
121, and 42 CFR Part 73 (FSAP 2014a)
• CDC, “Primary Containment for Biohazards: Selection, Installation and Use of
Biological Safety Cabinets” (Currently published as Appendix A of BMBL but
planned as a future separate publication) (CDC 2009b)
• Institute for Laboratory Animal Research (ILAR), Guide for the Care and Use
of Laboratory Animals (ILAR 2011)
• American Committee of Medical Entomology (ACME), American Society of
Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, “Arthropod Containment Levels (ACLs)”
(ACME 2003)
• Institutional Biosafety Committee (IBC), Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
(RPI), “NIH Risk Group Classifications” (IBC 2010)
• American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA), ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5,
Laboratory Ventilation (AIHA 2012)
• American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE), ANSI/ASSE Z9.14-2014, Test-
ing and Performance-Verification Methodologies for Ventilation Systems for
Biosafety Level 3 (BSL-3) and Animal Biosafety Level 3 (ABSL-3) Facilities
(ASSE 2014)

DEFINITIONS
The following are definitions of some of the biological agents that may be used in the
facility being designed:
• Select agents. Certain “biological agents and toxins have been determined to
have the potential to pose a severe threat to both human and animal health, to

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plant health, or to animal and plant products” (FSAP 2014b). These biological
agents have been classified as select agents and toxins and are regulated under
the Federal Select Agent Program (FSAP) ([Link]/[Link]).
• Vector-borne diseases (VBDs). VBDs are bacterial and viral diseases transmitted
by organisms such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. For more information, visit
the website of the Division of Vector-Borne Diseases (DVBD) of the CDC:
[Link]/ncezid/dvbd/[Link].
• Zoonotic agent (zoonoses). Zoonotic agents are infectious agents that can be
transmitted between (or are shared by) animals and humans (Olsen 2000). For
more information, visit the Zoonotic Diseases Tutorial website at [Link]
[Link]/pbs/zoonoses.

BIOSAFETY LEVEL CLASSIFICATION

Biocontainment laboratories are designed for researching a wide range of microor-
ganisms from those that are not known to cause diseases in humans (lowest risk) to those
that can cause life-threatening diseases (highest risk). In addition to pathogens that cause
diseases in humans, there are pathogens that cause animal and plant diseases. Conse-
quently, the laboratories designed for researching these pathogens must be constructed
and classified based on the nature and dangers associated with the work and materials
housed within the laboratory. Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories
(BMBL) (CDC 2009a) describes four biosafety levels (BSLs) ranging from the lowest risk
(BSL-1) to the highest risk (BSL-4) (see Figure 16-1). The objective of these guidelines is
to offer information that will reduce the spread of diseases from laboratories handling
microorganisms by recommending and/or requiring practices for the design and use of
these facilities. Figure 16-2 provides a comparison of some of the salient features of the
four BSLs. Note that not all features are necessarily described for a specific laboratory
application.
Note that the selection of a BSL for a specific research program should be made
through a risk assessment process conducted by the researchers, clinicians and biosafety
professionals responsible for the safety of the program, as stated previously.
The use of “ABSL” in the BMBL refers to animal biosafety level and applies to ani-
mal research facilities (animals used within a laboratory or an animal-specific facility).
Generally the animal biosafety guidelines incorporate the same level of secondary barrier
precautions (e.g., separation of the laboratory work area from public access), but they also
include additional requirements for animal care and husbandry practices set forth in
Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (ILAR 2011). There are many types
of animals commonly used in research laboratories. Each species has individual require-

Figure 16-1
Four
Biosafety
Levels

(CDC n.d.,
Quick Learn
Lesson)

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Figure 16-2
Four Biosafety Laboratory Levels
(CDC n.d., 4 Biosafety Lab Levels)

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ments detailed in guidelines, standards, and codes. These requirements, including those
for temperature, humidity, sound, vibration, and light, are required for healthy and
humane housing of animals.
Types of animals used in microbiological and biomedical laboratory research can
include the following:
• Invertebrates
• Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly)
• Caenorhabditis elegans (nematode worm)
• Galleria mellonella (waxworm)
• Vertebrates
• Amphibians (primarily frogs, toads, and salamanders)
• Birds
• Cats
• Dogs
• Fish
• Farm animals (large)
• Farm animals (small)
• Nonhuman primates
• Rabbits
• Reptiles
• Rodents (guinea pigs, mice, and rats)

Laboratory animal areas within research facilities have special requirements for
maintaining the health and comfort of the animals (specific to the species), for avoiding
contamination within and between individual rooms of the facility, and for providing a
safe working environment for the laboratory personnel.

(A)BSL-1
Biosafety level 1 (BSL-1) practices, safety equipment, and facilities are appropriate
when working with microorganisms that are not known to cause disease in healthy
humans. Laboratories for undergraduate, secondary educational training, and teaching are
facilities where BSL-1 can be a sufficient measure of precaution. BSL-1 does not require
any primary or secondary containment barrier, except a sink for hand washing. Very few
biomedical research laboratories operate at the BSL-1 level.

(A)BSL-2
Biosafety level 2 (BSL-2) practices, safety equipment, and facilities are appropriate
when working with indigenous moderate-risk agents that are known to cause human dis-
eases with varying severity. Laboratories for clinical, diagnostic, and teaching are facili-
ties where BSL-2 can be a sufficient measure of precaution. Procedures that can cause
splashing or aerosolization must be conducted in primary containment enclosures such as
certified BSCs. Gloves, face masks, splash shields, and gowns should be used when
appropriate. A sink for hand washing and facilities for decontamination of wastes (such
as an autoclave or other validated decontamination method) must be available.

(A)BSL-3
Biosafety level 3 (BSL-3) practices, safety equipment, and facilities are appropriate
when working with indigenous or exotic agents with a potential for respiratory transmis-
sion, which may cause serious and potentially lethal infection. Laboratories for clinical,
diagnostic, research, production, and teaching are facilities where BSL-3 can be a suffi-

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Figure 16-3
Scientist
Examining
Specimens
in a BSL-3
Laboratory

(CDC 2014)

cient measure of precaution. The primary hazards relate to autoinoculation, ingestion, and
exposure to infectious aerosols. BSL-3 places emphasis on primary containment barriers,
and all laboratory manipulation should be conducted within certified BSCs or similar
enclosures (see Figure 16-3). The room ventilation system should be designed and con-
structed to minimize the release of infectious aerosols from the laboratory should there be
an accidental release and the release of limited fugitive emissions from the primary con-
tainment device, such as a BSC. Laboratories should have restricted access. Strict atten-
tion should be given to the secondary containment barrier construction. These
laboratories operate under a defined negative pressure, which must be monitored, and
directional airflow must be maintained. Laboratory personnel must be able to verify
direction of airflow through a visual monitoring system at the laboratory entry. Visual and
audible alarms should be provided inside the laboratory to notify personnel if directional
airflow or negative pressurization has been compromised.
BSL-3 laboratories should be provided with single-pass air systems (100% outdoor
air) with no recirculation of laboratory air to other parts of the building. Additional best
practice guidance added in the fifth edition of the BMBL is that “the laboratory shall be
designed such that under failure conditions the airflow will not be reversed” (CDC 2009a,
p. 43). This requirement should be clearly defined in the design documents, because con-
sideration will need to be given as to how this will be accomplished. Most modern BSL-3
laboratories provide for a single level of high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filtration
of laboratory room exhaust air in addition to the HEPA filtration of air being rejected
from the primary containment device, such as a BSC. The use of these filters should be
determined based on a risk assessment, agent summary statement, and local standards.
Though it is not specifically mentioned as being best practice in the fifth edition of the
BMBL, standby power is typically provided to serve critical BSL-3 laboratory systems
and equipment. Other codes and standards may specifically require standby power be
provided.
Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing penetrations of the secondary containment bar-
rier must be sealed to maintain the integrity of the barrier to allow the airflow controls to

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work properly and to prevent leakage outside the containment barrier of gaseous agents
used to decontaminate the space (e.g., hydrogen peroxide vapor, formaldehyde gas, or
chlorine dioxide). It is important to note that when selecting materials that will be
exposed to bio-decontamination agents, chemical compatibility should be evaluated in
consultation with the laboratory researchers. An anteroom with interlocking doors should
be provided between the containment laboratory and adjacent noncontainment spaces.
Some facilities require shower-out capabilities, and there must be areas reserved for stor-
age of personal protective clothing, equipment, and devices. To minimize contamination,
sinks, lights, and phones should be automatically controlled or operated via hands-free
controls and floors should be seamless. Any windows should be permanently sealed, and
doors should be installed with automatic closure control and electromagnetic interlocks.
All doors should have windows to allow entering personnel to view the laboratory for
normal and emergency conditions. It is preferable that, where possible, equipment requir-
ing maintenance be located outside containment rooms in order to facilitate operation and
maintenance (O&M) functions. Where possible, duct devices and equipment should be
installed on or in uncontaminated duct. Certain control devices that must sense across the
containment barrier may require small HEPA filters in the sensing lines. BSL-3 laborato-
ries generally have dedicated exhaust and supply air systems. If building supply air is
used, a controlled bubble-tight shutoff supply damper should be considered for space iso-
lation and backflow prevention.

Enhancements to BSL-3 Laboratories

BSL-3 laboratories may need additional measures for the protection of personnel and/
or the environment. The enhancements may be required based on the agent summary
statement (from the BMBL); a risk assessment; the laboratory institution’s or funding
source’s requirements; or applicable local, state, or federal regulations. Enhancements
may include the following:
• Single-level HEPA filtration of room exhaust.
• Series and/or parallel exhaust HEPA filters.
• Supply air backflow prevention with a HEPA filter or with quick-acting, bubble-
tight, bioseal dampers at supply duct penetrations through the architectural con-
tainment barrier. These dampers automatically close if differential pressure sen-
sors indicate a loss in negative pressure control. Bioseal dampers also can aid in
the isolation of the HEPA filters when it is time to decontaminate them prior to
changeover.
• Additional HVAC redundancy.
• Shower-in/out capability.
• Clean and dirty change rooms.
• Effluent decontamination system (EDS) (chemical or heat treatment)
• Special room sealing for decontamination operations.

When HEPA filters are provided, the housing assembly should include the following:
• Prefilter section, especially if single-stage HEPA filtration is used
• Inlet and outlet
• Gastight isolation dampers
• Inlet and outlet decontamination (decon) ports
• Consideration for bag-in/bag-out arrangement
• Scan section or means for leak testing and validating filters

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Most HEPA filters used are rated at 99.97% efficient for 0.3 m particles, which is
considered the filter’s most penetrating particle size (MPPS), the particle size at which
penetration of particles through the filter is highest. HEPA filters must effectively trap
hazardous bacteria and viruses to provide personnel protection. Although an individual
virus particle ranges in size from 0.005 to 0.1 m, viruses generally only survive to travel
through the air as part of larger particles (0.3 m or larger), for example, attached to
mucous particles. Because it is difficult to disperse or aerosolize single viral particles and
because of the particle collection mechanisms of HEPA filters, particles larger and
smaller than a filter’s most penetrating size are collected with great efficiency. HEPA fil-
ters should be tested and validated annually.

BSL-3Ag (BSL-3 AGRICULTURAL LARGE-ANIMAL FACILITIES)

BSL-3Ag practices, safety equipment, and facilities are appropriate when working
with high-consequence livestock pathogens that pose a substantial economic risk to the
agricultural industry. Some BSL-3Ag agents also cause disease in humans; these are
known as zoonotic agents. Where studies involving these high-risk agents are performed
using large agricultural animals, the rooms act as a primary containment barrier, much
like a BSC in BSL-1, -2, and -3 laboratories. Therefore, additional protocol and opera-
tional requirements, as well as additional levels of engineering measures, are needed to
protect the environment. Personnel change and shower rooms should be provided to con-
trol access to the containment spaces. Doors entering and leaving the containment space
should be air pressure resistant (APR) and have either compressed-gasket or inflatable-
gasket seals. All penetrations must be sealed and the entire containment boundary should
be pressure decay tested as defined by the USDA Manual 242.1, ARS Facilities Design
Standards (USDA 2012), to verify integrity. The supply and exhaust systems must be
dedicated to the BSL-3Ag zone and must be interlocked to prevent a reversal of direc-
tional airflow and positive pressurization of the containment space. A visible means of
displaying pressure differentials must be provided inside and outside of the containment
space to assure workers that it is safe to enter the space. Supply and exhaust air to and
from the containment space must be HEPA filtered. Single HEPA filtration on the supply
and double (in-series) HEPA filtration on the exhaust are typically required as a minimum
for high-risk areas.
Depending on the research program, parallel HEPA filters may be desired on the sup-
ply and exhaust. Installing a parallel filter arrangement allows filter maintenance, decon-
tamination, change, and/or certification if continuous operation of the space is required or
desired and is based on research program activities and needs.
Higher-risk areas may include areas where large amounts of aerosols containing
BSL-3Ag agents could be expected, such as large-animal rooms, contaminated corridors,
necropsy areas, and carcass disposal facilities. The risks associated with the agent used
may also be a factor. The HEPA filter requirements should be reviewed with the appropri-
ate biosafety personnel for each facility. HEPA filters should be designed to allow in-
place scanning of the filters for efficacy testing as well as in-place decontamination. The
HEPA filters are to be located as near as possible to the containment space to minimize
the length of potentially contaminated ductwork. All ductwork serving the containment
spaces between the rooms and the HEPA filters must be welded, tested, and certified as
gastight. All liquid effluent leaving the containment space must be treated through an
EDS (see Figure 16-4) prior to discharge to the normal sanitary sewer system. Likewise,
all solids, such as straw and bedding, must be decontaminated prior to disposal. HEPA fil-
ters are to be provided on all plumbing vents from the containment space. If there is a
chance of the vent filters becoming wetted, special attention should be paid to the HEPA

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Figure 16-4
Heat Treatment EDS Schematic
(Reprinted with permission from Applied Biosafety [de Kok-Mercado, et al. 2011])

filter materials. A means for safely disposing of carcasses must also be provided. The car-
cass disposal methodology should be reviewed thoroughly with both the appropriate
facility personnel and the local environmental and waste regulatory authorities.
Work with high-consequence agricultural pathogens is done in small animal models
or in other primary containment devices such as BSCs, the work may be performed in
ABSL-3 facilities with additional enhancements that include the following:
• Personnel change and shower rooms. APR doors are not required at the boundary.
• Supply and exhaust HEPA filters (one filter on the supply and one on the
exhaust). The requirement for these filters should be coordinated with the appro-
priate facility personnel. Filter housings must be arranged to support the ability
to scan the filters in place and to decontaminate the filters prior to removal.
• Dedicated single-pass supply and exhaust systems that are interlocked to pre-
vent reversal of airflow from containment spaces. Exhaust ductwork between
the containment space and the HEPA filter is pressure decay tested.
• An EDS. All liquid effluent leaving the containment space must be treated
through an EDS prior to discharge to the normal sanitary sewer system.

BSL-4
Biosafety level 4 (BSL-4) practices, safety equipment, and facilities are appropriate
when working with very dangerous and exotic agents that pose a high individual risk of
life-threatening disease that may be transmitted via the aerosol route or for which there
are no available vaccines or treatment. Agents with a close or similar antigenic relation-
ship to BSL-4 agents should be handled at this level. The primary hazards relate to auto-

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Figure 16-5
Essential
Features of a
BSL-4 Facility

(Reprinted with
permission from
Applied Biosafety
[de Kok-Mercado,
et al. 2011])

inoculation, mucous membrane or broken skin exposure to infectious droplets, exposure

to infectious aerosols, and physical contact. All manipulation of BSL-4 agents poses a
danger to the personnel, the community, and the environment. Figure 16-5 shows the
essential features of a BSL-4 laboratory.
All BSL-3 requirements apply to BSL-4 laboratories. Recommended operating
requirements for the design and operation of BSL-4 laboratories are presented in the fifth
edition of BMBL (CDC 2009a). BSL-4 laboratories should, in general, be located in sepa-
rate buildings or in completely isolated zones with precisely operated ventilation and
waste management systems. In BSL-4 laboratories, as a minimum supply and exhaust
ducts should be constructed of Type 304L stainless steel with welded seams and joints to

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prevent air leakage. Alternative duct material can be used based on risk, ability to with-
stand pressure and decontamination chemicals, and other considerations.
All BSL-4 facility design criteria and operational procedures must be documented.
The facility systems must be tested to verify that the design and operational parameters
have been met prior to operation and that all systems are fully functional prior to use.
Facility protocols and operating parameters must also be reverified annually. Appropriate
communication systems (e.g., voice, fax, and computer) must be provided between the
laboratory and the outside. Provisions for emergency communication and access/egress
are to be considered.
Upon commissioning and every year thereafter, BSL-4 ducts between the room and
the HEPA filters should be pressure decay tested. While the actual testing methods should
be approved by the responsible biosafety professional, examples of duct testing require-
ments are available from the Department of the Army in Table C-1 of Army Pamphlet
385-69, Safety Standards for Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (U.S. Army
2013), and from the USDA Agricultural Research Service in Manual 242.1, ARS Facili-
ties Design Standards (USDA 2012). After the HEPA filters installed at the containment
boundaries of BSL-4 spaces, ducts may be galvanized steel.
BSL-4 laboratories typically fall into two design classifications: cabinet laboratories
and suit laboratories. Cabinet laboratories have customized glove boxes (certified gastight
Class III BSCs that provide the highest attainable level of protection to personnel and the
environment) connected in long lines. In suit laboratories, scientists wear impervious,
positively pressurized spacesuit-type garments (breathing suits) with a transparent face-
plate and breathing air hoses and conduct their work in Class II Type B2 BSCs located in
a dedicated containment laboratory.
Both cabinet and suit laboratories share many similar safeguards and detailed levels
of operational dependability and support of the environmental systems, and each offers
advantages depending on the type of research conducted.
Cabinet Laboratories
A BSL-4 cabinet laboratory either is located in a separate building or consists of a
clearly demarcated and isolated zone within a building, such as in a BSL-3 enhanced
space. For these laboratories housing Class III glove box lines, laboratory doors must
have locks in accordance with the institutional policies supporting biosecurity protocol.
Rooms in the facility must be arranged to ensure sequential passage through an inner
(dirty) changing area to a personal shower and an outer (clean) change room prior to exit-
ing the room(s) containing the Class III BSCs. (Many times the changing area is
designed, constructed, and operated as a BSL-3 enhanced laboratory space).
Class III BSCs are totally enclosed, ventilated cabinets that provide for the work to be
performed through the use of attached gloves (see Figure 16-6). These cabinets are gas-
tight enclosures, maintained under a negative pressure, with supply air HEPA filtered and
with exhaust air passed through two HEPA filters in series. Transfer boxes or ports allow
for passage of materials and equipment into and out of the work zones while maintaining
the negative pressure. These Class III cabinets can be assembled in a process line to facil-
itate research functions.
In a BSL-4 cabinet laboratory, an automatically activated emergency power source
must be provided for, at a minimum, the following systems: laboratory exhaust, life sup-
port, alarms, lighting, entry and exit controls, BSCs, and door gaskets. Monitoring and
control systems for air supply, exhaust, life support, alarms, entry and exit, and security
systems should be on an uninteruptible power supply (UPS) of adequate capacity to allow
for an orderly exit from the laboratory.

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Figure 16-6
Components of a Class III BSC
(Reprinted with permission from Applied Biosafety [de Kok-Mercado, et al. 2011])

A double-door autoclave, dunk tank, fumigation chamber, or ventilated anteroom/

air lock must be provided at the containment barrier for the passage of materials, supplies,
or equipment. Liquid effluents from cabinet room sinks, floor drains, autoclave chambers,
and other sources within the cabinet room and inner (dirty) change room must be decon-
taminated by a proven method, preferably heat treatment, before being discharged to the
sanitary sewer system.
The walls, floors, and ceilings of the laboratory must be constructed to form a sealed
internal shell to facilitate fumigation and prohibit animal and insect intrusion. The inter-
nal surfaces of this shell must be nonporous and resistant to chemical liquids, vapors, and
gases used for cleaning and decontamination of the area. Floors must be monolithic,
sealed, and coved. All penetrations in the internal shell of the laboratory and inner change
room must be sealed airtight and gastight. All penetrations must be fitted with two back-
flow prevention devices in series. Consideration should be given to locating these devices
outside of the containment area to facilitate inspection and maintenance. Atmospheric
venting systems must be provided with two HEPA filters in series, sealed up to the second
filter and resistant to moisture accumulation.
Decontamination of the entire Class III cabinet laboratory must be performed using a
validated gaseous or vapor method when there have been significant changes in cabinet
usage, before major renovations, or for maintenance shutdowns. Design of cabinet venti-
lation systems should consider purge of gaseous vapors resulting from the decontamina-

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tion process. If Class II BSCs are needed in the cabinet support laboratory, they must be
installed so that fluctuations of the room air supply and exhaust do not interfere with
proper operations.
A central vacuum system is not recommended. However, if used, it must not serve
areas outside the cabinet laboratory. Two in-line HEPA filters must be placed near each
use point, and the filters must be installed in such a manner as to permit in-place decon-
tamination and replacement.
A dedicated nonrecirculating ventilation system is required for a cabinet laboratory.
Only laboratories with the same HVAC requirements (i.e., other BSL-4 and ABSL-4 lab-
oratories) may share ventilation systems, and only if each individual laboratory system is
isolated by gastight dampers and HEPA filters. The supply and exhaust components of the
cabinets and general space ventilation system must be designed to maintain the cabinets
and the laboratory at negative pressures relative to surrounding areas and provide differ-
ential pressure/directional airflow between adjacent areas within the cabinet and labora-
tory sections.
Redundancy level is directly or indirectly related to the capacity N required (needed)
for stated operating conditions. The minimum redundancy for a BSL-4 facility is N+1, in
which any single point of system failure is backed up by a spare device or piece of equip-
ment ready to start. N+1 redundant supply fans are recommended to enable maintenance
to be performed without affecting overall system performance. N+1 redundant exhaust
fans are required. Supply and exhaust fans must be interlocked to prevent positive pres-
surization of the laboratory.
The ventilation system serving the cabinets and general laboratory space must be
monitored and alarmed to indicate malfunction or deviation from design setpoints. A
visual indicating device, incorporating a magnetically coupled indicating mechanism and
a sealed differential pressure diaphragm, must be installed near the clean change room so
that proper differential pressures within the laboratory may be verified. Consideration
should be given to providing monitoring and/or alarming of pressures within the cabinet
laboratory. Supply air to and exhaust air from the cabinet laboratory, inner change room,
and fumigation/decontamination chambers must pass through HEPA filters. The air
exhaust discharge must be located away from occupied spaces and building outdoor air
intakes.
All HEPA (Type 1, Class A) filters should be located as near as practicable to the cab-
inet or laboratory in order to minimize the length of potentially contaminated ductwork.
All HEPA filters must be tested and certified annually. The HEPA filter housings should
be designed to allow for in situ decontamination and validation of the filter prior to
removal. HEPA filter housings should be constructed of stainless steel with gastight isola-
tion dampers, decontamination ports, and the ability to scan each filter assembly for
leaks.
Class III BSCs must be directly and independently exhausted through two HEPA fil-
ters arranged in series. Supply air must be provided in such a manner that prevents posi-
tive pressurization of the cabinet. It is recommended that supply air and exhaust operation
be interlocked to prevent overpressurization of the cabinet in the event of multiple fan
failures.
Pass-through dunk tanks, fumigation chambers, or equivalent decontamination meth-
ods must be provided so that materials and equipment that cannot be decontaminated in
the autoclave can be safely removed from the cabinet laboratory and passed into the lower
classified room housing the cabinet line.
Autoclaves that open outside of the laboratory must be sealed to the primary wall
using a bioseal gasket that is durable and airtight. The autoclave doors must be inter-

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locked so that only one can be opened at any time and must be automatically controlled
so that the outside door to the autoclave can only be opened after the decontamination
cycle has been completed.
The entire cabinet line and the supporting facility must be tested to verify that the
design and operational parameters have been met prior to operation. Facilities must also
be reverified annually.

Suit Laboratories
A BSL-4 suit laboratory is housed in a separate building or in a clearly demarcated
and isolated environmental zone within a building. Suit laboratories are typically
accessed by passing through a series of interlocking spaces entered through APR bound-
ary doors with security locks meeting the institutional policies supporting biosecurity
protocol. The laboratory rooms in the facility must be arranged to ensure exit by sequen-
tial passage through a chemical shower, an inner (dirty) change room, a personal shower,
and then an outer (clean) changing area (see Figure 16-7). The BSL-4 suit laboratory uses
structural containment to provide a static barrier by being constructed of materials that
have a low permeability by design and are provided with internal surface coatings that
provide the required airtightness and gastightness.
Entry into a BSL-4 laboratory must be through a defined entrance air lock fitted with
APR doors (also called bioseal doors; see Figure 16-8) and a decontamination shower for
cleaning of a suit prior to removal and reuse. There are two types of APR doors: 1) a pos-
itive-seal gasketed door that has a turning wheel and lugs to mechanically clamp the door
shut and 2) a door with inflatable gaskets that seal the air lock gastight when the door is
closed.
Personnel who enter the BSL-4 laboratory area must wear a positive pressure suit fur-
nished with HEPA-filtered breathing air (see Figure 16-9). The breathing air systems must
have redundant air compressors, failure alarms, and emergency backup. Because the labo-
ratory areas are fitted with APR doors and the spaces are sealed tight, laboratory pressur-
ization and directional airflow must be considered in conjunction with the HVAC control
systems design (i.e., active differential pressure control versus cascade air movement).
A chemical shower that provides full-body coverage spray capability with inflatable
gasket seals and double interlocking doors controlled to prevent simultaneous opening
must be provided to decontaminate the surface of the positive pressure suit before the lab-
oratory technician enters or leaves the laboratory. See Figure 16-10 for a diagram of a

Figure 16-7
Layers of Containment in a BSL-4 Suit Laboratory
(NIAID n.d.)

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Figure 16-8
Inflatable-Gasket APR Door System
(Reprinted with permission from Applied Biosafety [de Kok-Mercado, et al. 2011])

typical chemical shower. A method for decontaminating positive pressure suits as well as
the shower room and/or decontamination area itself, such as a gravity-fed supply of
chemical disinfectant or a hand-spray mechanism, is required in the event of an emer-
gency exit or failure of the chemical shower system.
The facility must be fitted with an automatically activated emergency power source to
ensure full operation of the laboratory exhaust system, life support systems, alarms, light-
ing, entry and exit controls, BSCs, and door gaskets. Monitoring and control systems for
each support system such as air supply, exhaust, life support, alarms, entry and exit, and
security systems must be on a UPS, to eliminate transient/transfer upset, and an emer-
gency generator in case of prolonged outages.
Double-door autoclaves, dunk tanks, or fumigation chambers must be provided at the
containment barrier of a BSL-4 laboratory for the passage of materials, supplies, or
equipment. The walls, floors, and ceilings of the laboratory must be constructed to form a
sealed internal shell to facilitate fumigation and prohibit animal and insect intrusion. All
penetrations in the internal shell of the laboratory, suit storage room, and inner change
room must be sealed. All drains in the laboratory must be connected directly to the liquid
waste decontamination system. Atmospheric sewer vents and other service lines must be
protected by two HEPA filters, in series up to the second filter, and have protection
against cabinet moisture accumulation and degradation and insect and animal intrusion.

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Figure 16-9
Laboratory
Technicians
Working
in a BSL-4
Suit Laboratory

(CDC 2014)

Services that penetrate the laboratory walls, floors, and ceiling, such as plumbing and gas
services, must provide assurance that no backflow from the laboratory occurs by fitting
the penetrations with two backflow prevention devices in series.
Decontamination of the entire laboratory must be performed using a validated gas-
eous or vapor method when there have been significant changes in laboratory usage,
before major renovations or maintenance shutdowns, and in other situations, as deter-
mined by a risk assessment. Consideration of the gaseous or vapor decontamination purg-
ing is required in HVAC sizing, equipment selection, and operational controls.
BSCs and other primary containment barrier systems must be installed so that fluctu-
ations of the room air supply and exhaust do not interfere with the laboratory pressure sta-
bility or proper operation of the BSCs.
A central vacuum system is not recommended, but if provided it must not serve areas
outside the BSL-4 laboratory. Two in-line HEPA filters must be placed near each use
point. Filters must be installed to allow in-place decontamination and replacement.
The BSL-4 suit laboratory ventilation system must be designed to provide for a
dynamic air barrier in addition to the structural static barrier envelope. This system must
be dedicated and nonrecirculating. Only laboratories with the same HVAC requirements
(i.e., other BSL-4 and ABSL-4 laboratories) may share ventilation systems, and only if
each individual laboratory system is isolated by gastight dampers and HEPA filters. Sepa-
rate supply and exhaust components of the ventilation system must be designed to main-
tain the laboratory at negative pressure in relation to surrounding areas and to provide
differential pressure/directional airflow to ensure airflow toward areas of the highest
potential risk within the laboratory. Differential pressure conditions are typically defined
across internal areas.

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Figure 16-10
Typical
Chemical
Shower

(Courtesy of
ccrd Partners,
Consulting
Engineers)

For suit laboratories, N+1 redundant supply fans are recommended and N+1 redun-
dant exhaust fans are required. Supply and exhaust fans must be interlocked to prevent
positive pressurization of the laboratory due to exhaust fan failure. The ventilation system
must be monitored and alarmed to indicate malfunction or deviation from design parame-
ters. Visual monitoring devices incorporating a magnetically coupled indicating mecha-
nism must be installed near the clean change room and doors so that proper differential
pressures within the laboratory may be verified.
All supply air to the laboratory and the decontamination shower must pass through a
single HEPA filter. All exhaust air from the suit laboratory, decontamination shower, and

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Figure 16-11
Double HEPA
Laboratory
Exhaust
Filtration
System

(Reprinted with
permission from
Applied Biosafety
[de Kok-Mercado,
et al. 2011])

fumigation or decontamination chambers must pass through two HEPA filters, in series,
before discharge to the outdoors (see Figure 16-11). Prefilters of the same standard for
both supply and exhaust HEPA filters are recommended to prolong the life of the main fil-
ter set. All exhaust air discharge must be located away from occupied spaces and outdoor
air intakes. All HEPA filters must be located as near as practicable to the laboratory in
order to minimize the length of potentially contaminated ductwork. All HEPA filters must
be tested and certified annually. Provisions should be considered for decontamination of
lengths of potentially contaminated duct. The HEPA filter housings should be designed to
allow for in situ decontamination and validation of the filter efficacy prior to removal. The
design of the HEPA filter housing must have gastight isolation dampers, decontamination
ports, and the ability to scan each filter assembly for leaks. Structural barrier air leakage
testing is to be undertaken to identify leakage rates and source areas. Integrity testing can
be accomplished using a pressure decay process in an equilibrium pressure/flow test.
Class II BSCs can be connected to the laboratory exhaust system by either a thimble
(canopy) connection or a direct (rigid duct) connection. Provisions for proper cabinet per-
formance and air system operation must be verified and coordinated with the overall
BSL-4 laboratory design and functional analysis.
Pass-through dunk tanks, fumigation chambers, or equivalent decontamination meth-
ods must be provided so that materials and equipment that cannot be decontaminated in
the autoclave can be safely removed from the BSL-4 suit laboratory.
Liquid effluents from chemical showers, sinks, floor drains, autoclave chambers, and
other sources within the laboratory must be decontaminated by a proven method, prefer-
ably heat treatment, before being discharged to the sanitary sewer system. Pressure

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effects of the ambient pressure and HVAC system pressure controls must be considered
in the design of the room pressurization system and impact to liquid level maintenance
for P-trap depths. Deep-seal P-traps are required in all instances due to the relative pres-
sures encountered.
A double-door pass-through autoclave must be provided for decontaminating materi-
als passing out of the laboratory. Autoclaves that open outside of the laboratory must be
sealed to the primary wall and provided with a sealed control panel and frame bioseal that
must be durable and airtight. The autoclave doors must be interlocked so that only one
can be opened at any time and must be automatically controlled so that the outside door to
the autoclave can only be opened after the decontamination cycle has been completed.
Gas and liquid discharge from the autoclave chamber must be decontaminated via a
closed system. When feasible, autoclave decontamination processes should be designed
so that overpressurization cannot release unfiltered air or steam exposed to infectious
material to the environment.

CONTAINABLE SPACES
The USDA and NIH classify some spaces as containable spaces for laboratories
working with high-consequence agricultural pathogens. According to USDA Manual
242.1, ARS Facilities Design Standards:
In certain facilities, it may be desirable for some spaces surrounding the
containment area to act as tertiary barriers. Examples could be: mechani-
cal and utility spaces; interstitial spaces housing ventilation ductwork
and utility piping; and attics and double-walled construction surrounding
the primary containment zone. No research work or housing of animals
takes place in these areas, so they would not be expected to be contami-
nated. These areas are not considered containment spaces but, if venti-
lated, are referred to as “containable” spaces. These areas are kept under
negative pressure and their exhaust systems are equipped with HEPA fil-
ters. Penetrations into these areas were sealed at the time of construction
to allow decontamination, but these areas are not required to pass a pres-
sure decay test. Persons leaving these areas are not usually required to
shower before leaving the facility. (USDA 2012, p. 225)
The spaces that should be made containable and their required features should be
coordinated with the appropriate biosafety office and can include sealing of all penetra-
tions to allow for gaseous decontamination, negative pressurization, exhaust HEPA filters,
showers, and change rooms. It may be appropriate to include some of these features for
certain spaces that do not need to be classified as containable.

USERS’ PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS

To provide the proper HVAC systems for a laboratory, it is critical to understand the
use of the building and the needs of the users. Extensive discussions with research or
diagnostic program and biosafety personnel are needed to identify their processes, pro-
gram requirements, the nature of the research, and protocols. Some of the topics to dis-
cuss are the following:
• What are the flow diagrams for materials, personnel, live animals, carcasses,
animal bedding, samples, laundry, feed, waste, etc.? (This is important because
the designer matches the HVAC and plumbing requirements to the biocontain-
ment needs. An example flow diagram is shown in Figure 16-12.)

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Figure 16-12
Animal Facility
Diagrammatic
Model
Showing
Basic Flows
and
Relationships

(Reprinted with
permission from
National Institute
of Building
Sciences,
Whole Building
Design Guide
[Stark et al. 2010])

• What are the pressure relationships between the rooms? Are there any relation-
ships that are especially critical and require air locks or other features?
• What organisms are involved and what is the nature of containment? What is the
nature of potential accidents so that plans can be put in place to help protect
against accidental release of contaminants?
• Are there cross-contamination concerns with animals in adjacent rooms?
• What is the method of decontaminating the rooms? Are there any concerns with
compatibility of materials or equipment? Are decontamination ports into the
room or ductwork needed? Will the building exhaust be used to evacuate the
room after the decontamination process?
• What certification requirements will the occupants need to comply with? What
standards or regulations do they need to conform to?
• What is the level of redundancy and emergency power required?
• What is the length of process or experiment in the room? Can the system be shut
down for replacing filters between experiments or do redundant filters need to
be provided?

The answers to the above questions provide the background to understanding the
users’ requirements. Room data sheets are also used to gather the technical requirements
of each space. Sample room data sheets for various types of laboratories are available

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with this Guide at [Link]/LabDG; these sheets are from NIH Design Policy and
Guidelines (NIH 1999), and updated sheets are anticipated to be available with the forth-
coming Design Requirements Manual from NIH (n.d.).

ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS

SYSTEMS OVERVIEW
The primary functions of the HVAC systems in laboratories are to provide protection
to the people working within the laboratory and the surrounding community and to pre-
vent cross-contamination. To support this effort, the HVAC systems supply clean ventila-
tion air, remove thermal loads, control the humidity, and remove odors and contaminants.
The engineering design should be reviewed with the facility O&M personnel, as well as
the biosafety officer, to verify that it will meet the operational objectives and comply with
the institution’s standard operating procedures (SOPs).
VENTILATION RATES
The minimum laboratory ventilation rate depends on the specific laboratory require-
ments. Chapter 16 of ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications states that “fixed mini-
mum airflow rates of 4 to 12 air changes per hour (ach) when the space is occupied have
been used in the past,” but “minimum ventilation rates at the lower end of the 4 to 12 ach
range may not be appropriate for all laboratories.” The chapter also states that “minimum
ventilation rates should be established on a room-by-room basis considering the hazard
level of materials expected to be used in the room and the operation and procedures to be
performed” (ASHRAE 2015, p. 16.8). Ventilation rates for animal rooms commonly
range from 10 to 15 ach according to Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals
(ILAR 2011), which provides additional guidance on animal-room ventilation.
During the review of the minimum ventilation rates for a specific project, all stake-
holders should understand the limited intent of the general room ventilation as opposed to
the primary containment devices such as fume hoods and BSCs. Prudent Practices in the
Laboratory: Handling and Management of Chemical Hazards (NRC 2011) provides a
clear intent for the minimum room ventilation rate:
General laboratory ventilation. This system should: Provide a source of
air for breathing and for input to local ventilation devices; it should not
be relied on for protection from toxic substances released into the
laboratory; ensure that laboratory air is continually replaced, preventing
increase of air concentrations of toxic substances during the working
day; direct air flow into the laboratory from non-laboratory areas and out
to the exterior of the building. (NRC 2011, p. 297, emphasis added)
The actual ventilation rate will therefore need to be carefully evaluated, taking into
account the energy impact of higher ventilation rates. The final selected ventilation rate
and total supply air provided will be dependent on several factors, including the following:
• Local facility requirements or a risk assessment for minimum airflows.
• Heating and cooling loads including heat gain from laboratory equipment. Care
should be taken here to allow for future scientific programmatic changes within
a facility.
• Animal species and their populations, both from current design and future flexi-
bility standpoints.
• Recommended or required ambient temperature and humidity levels.
• Animal microenvironment (individually ventilated cages versus static cages).

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• Airborne contaminants.
• Total exhaust requirements—from equipment, such as BSCs and fume hoods,
and general laboratory exhaust required to maintain containment.

Though some existing research facilities may still incorporate recirculation air with
proper dilution and filtration, the National Research Council handbook Biosafety in the
Laboratory: Prudent Practices for Handling and Disposal of Infectious Materials (NRC
1989) indicates that ventilation systems that serve “laboratory activities that pose the risk
of infection via airborne aerosols or droplets” should “provide directional airflow from
‘clean’ to ‘contaminated’ areas, and the air should not be recirculated” (p. 20). In some
instances it may be possible to use recirculated air if approved by the Authority Having
Jurisdiction and the appropriate biosafety professional.
Separation of human occupancies and animal areas is required for human comfort,
health, and safety. Physical separation, in addition to separation of ventilation and sanita-
tion services, is required to avoid contamination of the human-occupied areas. In addi-
tion, certain animals themselves might have to be separated from other animals. Where
select agents are involved (FSAP 2014a, 2014b), there are also requirements to provide
separation for security and access control purposes.
Physical separation can be achieved by housing the laboratories and/or animal spaces
in a separate building, wing, floor, or room. Good design should ensure that animal hous-
ing areas are located close to the laboratories but are separated by a barrier. The separa-
tion of animals from laboratories should be reinforced with proper differential pressure or
directional airflow control. Depending on the animal species and agent used, the animal
holding areas may need to be maintained at a lower pressure than the laboratory.

SPACE PRESSURIZATION AND AIRFLOW

Space pressurization in biocontainment laboratory design is a method of reducing
infiltration and preventing the flow of air from less clean and contaminated areas to
cleaner areas. The direction of the airflow can be monitored by pressure sensors net-
worked to local or centralized alarms. This enables fast response to any loss of negative
pressure. Space pressurization in low-hazard laboratories is usually accomplished by
exhausting a different volume of air than is supplied (volumetric airflow tracking). If
more air is exhausted than supplied, the space is negatively pressurized; if less air is
exhausted than supplied, the space is positively pressurized. Another control method is
the use of a variable-air-volume (VAV) system with a room static pressure sensor to main-
tain a constant pressure differential in the room/area relative to its surroundings (differen-
tial pressure sensing). Cascaded pressure control combines the two control methods,
using airflow tracking to ensure fast and stable control response and room differential
pressure sensing to adjust the airflow tracking offset to maintain the room differential
pressure at the desired setpoint.
Room envelope integrity is a critical factor in controlling indoor/outdoor pressure dif-
ferential and in controlling the sources of airflow into and out of the laboratory. Air
should enter and leave through the designated HVAC systems rather than leaks in the
envelope. Current architectural envelope designs and commissioning practices should be
able to achieve a minimum safe pressure differential level of 0.02 up to 0.20 in. w.g. (5 up
to 50 Pa) for an added margin of safety.
Airflow offset between supply and exhaust is needed to maintain space negative pres-
sures. The quantity of air needed to create the pressure difference is directly related to the
leakage area of the space. In spaces that are tightly constructed, such as BSL-3 and BSL-4

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secondary containment barriers, this leakage area is extremely small or negligible.

Because the leakage paths in such spaces are very limited, a small offset in airflow can
cause significant pressure differentials. Volumetric airflow tracking is therefore ineffective
as a space pressurization method in low-leakage containment spaces. Similarly, differen-
tial pressure control and cascade pressure control are unsuitable for these tightly sealed
environments where momentary upset conditions can quickly affect the targeted pressure
relationship. To maintain a setpoint pressure or pressure differential within the laboratory,
it may be necessary implement a pressure control strategy that uses incremental damper
and/or feedback controls. The terminal units that serve the supply and exhaust system
need to have a suitable response time to maintain the required pressurization control.
Where spaces are extremely tight, engineers may also need to consider application of trim
volume control devices (i.e., one larger valve operates as constant flow while a trim valve
modulates to maintain pressure difference). An alternative is to consider design of engi-
neered transfers that allow larger differential between the supply airflow and exhaust air-
flow. These engineered transfers require HEPA filtration on BSL-3Ag and BSL-4 spaces
where the room envelope is acting as the primary containment barrier.
To measure and control pressurization relationships, a common reference point is
needed. The outdoor-air building pressure is commonly used to provide this common
pressure reference point. One method of obtaining the building pressure is to use one or
more wind-shielded sensors on top of a 20 ft (6 m) pole located on a building’s roof.
Another is to provide reference pressure ports manifolded to a common header to dampen
the effect of wind on any one face of the building. Another method is to place a sensor at
each floor level on each exterior-wall exposure (north, south, east, and west orientations).
High-speed direct digital controllers enable the sensors to make real-time measurements.

SOLID WASTE DECONTAMINATION METHODS

The following solid waste decontamination procedures are among the methods used
in laboratory and animal facilities. Discussion with the appropriate laboratory and bio-
safety personnel should be conducted to identify the appropriate method for a specific
application.
• Steam sterilization (moist heat). Autoclaving (a procedure where pressurized
steam is applied in a heated vessel for 30 min or longer) is used in many labora-
tories. Alternative methods are boiling a vessel for 30 min in water containing
sodium bicarbonate or using a pressure cooker.
• Dry heat. Dry heat forced-air convection sterilizers are also now available that
use hot air rather than steam. The sterilization process involves three steps:
warm-up, soaking, and cooldown. This process significantly reduces the time
required for sterilization and cooldown and eliminates hot steam release.
• Dunk tanks and air locks/pass boxes. Materials that cannot be autoclaved or
exposed to high heat may be able to be decontaminated chemically in a dunk
tank or gaseously in an air lock or pass box with hydrogen peroxide or other gas-
eous decontamination methods.
• Incineration. Waste can be burned instead of being sterilized. However, the
waste must be contained in a leakproof container if incineration takes place out-
side the containment zone.
• Alkaline hydrolysis. This method is one method used for the disposal of animal
carcasses and uses a pressurized vessel, heat, and sodium hydroxide or potas-
sium hydroxide to sterilize and break down the carcasses.

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Waste should be separated into containers for each category of waste: noncontami-
nated waste, sharps, contaminated material for autoclaving and reuse, contaminated mate-
rial for disposal, and others. Ventilation needs in areas such as those for red bag storage,
incineration, rendering, and liquid effluent decontamination should be considered, as
these areas may be exposed to contaminants in the event of an incident. These areas may
require washdown provisions, closure and isolation provisions, etc. In addition, ventila-
tion rates should be sufficient to ensure adequate purge of contaminants and odors.

SYSTEM REDUNDANCY MEASURES

System redundancy measures used in microbiological and biomedical laboratories
usually depend on how critical the continuous operation of the HVAC system is for the
laboratory to function safely. They also depend on how extensive the economic losses
will be if the HVAC system or one of its components fails or is shut down for mainte-
nance. Although the implementation of these measures, which includes backup compo-
nents and emergency power, will decrease the chance of system failure, the possibility
cannot be completely eliminated. Because biocontainment facilities rely on directional
airflow as one of the primary engineering controls for maintaining containment, exhaust
system failure will cause significant negative effects on containment. This may result in
contaminants flowing from negative-pressure containment areas to cleaner adjacent areas
as well as in allowing contamination within a space to build up beyond permissible
thresholds to potentially unsafe levels. Failure of supply air systems, cooling equipment,
and heating equipment can be critical if it lasts for an extended period of time. This can
result in unacceptably high temperatures and humidity. For example, in animal facilities,
loss of supply air systems and temperature controls can result in loss of animals and
research. Such catastrophic events should be evaluated in the risk assessment process.
Emergency Power
Emergency power equipment is designed to keep the laboratory systems from shut-
ting down when the normal electrical power supply fails. The emergency power system
can be designed to supply enough energy to keep all systems running or to supply only
enough power to keep vital systems and components running. The highest priority should
be given to life safety systems and the continued operation of the ventilation system to
maintain directional airflow and containment. Emergency power must be provided to all
high-hazard areas to maintain continuous operation of exhaust fans and life-support
equipment, including breathing-air compressors, monitoring and alarm systems, lighting,
entry and exit controls, communication systems, and BSCs. It should be noted that sys-
tems will shut down briefly then restart on emergency power. Provision of UPSs for all
controls and control devices has proved extremely useful in minimizing the restart time of
mechanical systems after a power outage.
Multiple or Redundant Fan Systems
Failure or shutdown of the exhaust system in dirty and contaminated areas will likely
cause the most problems or health hazards. Without the exhaust fans, the negative pres-
sure in the dirty and contaminated areas will dissipate. This can cause odors and patho-
gens to infiltrate the cleaner areas and thereby create potentially unsafe environments.
Infiltration from the contaminated areas will begin immediately after the exhaust system
fails or is shut down. Installation of backup fans and appropriate controls in addition to
emergency power generation equipment and on-site fuel storage will provide continuous
operation of the exhaust system in most circumstances.

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Some national codes such as 2015 International Mechanical Code® (IMC®) (ICC
2015) may require the installation of redundant exhaust fans where subducts replace fail-
closed fire/smoke dampers. Elimination of fail-closed dampers is recommended to
remove the potential for loss of airflow from a laboratory due to a damper accidentally
closing.

AIR DISTRIBUTION
The primary functions of the air distribution system are to distribute the supply air to
all areas of the room without causing draft or temperature discomfort and to aid in the
adequate capture and purging of light aromatic components, such as ammonia, resulting
from urine and of heavy components resulting from solids. For rooms with open cages,
conventional air distribution devices will not distribute the air equally to the cages due to
the arrangement of the cages relative to each other.
Some items to consider when determining the air distribution strategy and device
selections are as follows:
• Air distribution for animal comfort and removal of contaminants
• Confirming that the air distribution does not interfere with the operation of a
nearby BSC or fume hood
• Not interfering with the directional airflow, such as blowing air toward a door

For more information on air distribution refer to Chapters 6 and 17.

OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Proper O&M of the laboratory systems facilitate a longer service life, reduce the
number of emergency situations, and enable the systems to work according to the owner’s
requirements. Topics of special importance to the O&M of HVAC systems serving labo-
ratory areas include monitoring and alarm requirements, component services, penetration
seals, control systems, and documentation.
Monitoring and Alarm Requirements
A system failure can cause a health hazard for the occupants and/or loss of contain-
ment. Therefore, there is a need for monitoring and alarming of critical equipment such as
fans, and there should be a plan for how to handle the situation if an emergency occurs.
Component Services
Where possible, install devices on the clean side of the HEPA filters. All components
that are likely to be contaminated should be installed for easy access and safe handling.
Proper clearance and ease of access to components requiring servicing is essential.
Filters likely to be contaminated should be installed in such a way that they can be
removed without exposure to laboratory or maintenance personnel. Consult with the facil-
ity owner regarding whether he/she prefers the use of bag-in/bag-out filters or shutting
down the system and decontaminating the filters and housing before removal. In the case
of prefilters, it may be advantageous to install the prefilters within containment areas so
that the HVAC system does not need to be shut down for frequent removal and replace-
ment.
Penetration Seals
Ductwork and HVAC components that will be contaminated should be properly
sealed to avoid leakage and contamination of areas through which the ductwork passes
and contamination of the supply air. The contaminated parts of the HVAC system should
be kept under negative pressure, and the clean parts should be kept under positive pres-

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sure. After cleaning and maintenance, it is important to make sure the access panels and
other openings or connections are properly sealed. All electrical conduits and plumbing
penetrations should be sealed to prevent room-to-room cross-contamination.
Control Systems
Control systems play a very crucial part in the maintenance of proper equipment
operation, containment, monitoring, and alarms. Control components should be robust,
installed in accessible locations, and checked for calibration and operation periodically.
Control system design intent should be documented and confirmed during commission-
ing. The control system documentation should include sequences for normal and abnor-
mal modes of operations. Each failure mode should be documented for performance
impact to system stability.
In addition to installing equipment that can handle abnormal operating conditions,
laboratory control systems must be able to handle all potential conditions that are likely to
occur. The systems must be tested in all modes of operation to ensure that the desired
capabilities function properly. See Chapter 11 for details on laboratory control systems.
Documentation
Proper documentation for the design, construction, and commissioning of the labora-
tory HVAC system should be maintained for the owner and operating personnel. The doc-
umentation includes how the systems are intended to function as well as the design
parameters. Proper updating of the construction documents is important so that the facil-
ity operators have accurate as-built drawings. The completed commissioning report and
testing and balancing report are very helpful to confirm that the system was operating cor-
rectly when the project was completed, and they also serve as a baseline for future perfor-
mance comparisons.

SPECIAL ANIMAL CONSIDERATIONS

OPERATIONAL AND SAFETY PROTOCOLS

The spread of pathogens and zoonotic agents must be controlled to avoid infecting
disease-free animals and humans. Depending on the pathogen, disease can spread in dif-
ferent ways, such as through the air, direct contact, indirect contact, intermediate hosts,
placental transmission, or a combination of these methods. The sensitivities of a pathogen
to temperature, pressure, pH, and chemicals must be determined for inactivating the
pathogen in rooms and on equipment that have been contaminated. Pathogens are less
sensitive to inactivating methods as their associated risks of spread increase. This can
result in an increased severity of the disease and thereby increased stringency of precau-
tions. Special stringent precautions must be taken if a pathogen can cause health risks for
humans. These are primarily accomplished through the use of operational and safety pro-
tocols and need to be coordinated with the design intent.
Understanding these protocols is very important to providing the proper infrastruc-
ture. Some examples of aspects to consider include the following:
• Decontamination of the contaminated materials (cages, carcasses, clothing,
trash, samples, equipment, electronics) and their removal from the containment
area (dunk tanks, pass-through boxes, autoclaves, interlocking doors with inter-
locking air supply/exhaust, etc.)
• Entry of laboratory personnel, animals, and materials into the space and how
this affects pressurization relationships
• Liquid waste treatment

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• Provisions for room decontamination (the method of decontamination and the

required features, such as ports located outside the containment area or in the
ductwork)
• Required pressure relationships between the spaces and the potential need for air
locks or pressurized vestibules
• Washdown requirements for animal holding areas
• Showering requirements
• Maintenance provisions for critical equipment (access from within or outside
the containment area)
• Type(s) of BSCs required

VENTILATED CAGE RACK SYSTEMS

For small animals, filtered cage systems may be used for housing. The systems may
use a forced ventilation system to provide sufficient air to maintain contamination thresh-
olds and maintain temperature control. Typically, ventilated racks are provided with mul-
tiple closed cages that are provided with supply and exhaust air connections from
manifolds that are integral to the rack.
There are four common methods used for cage rack ventilation (see Figure 16-13):
• Circulating air with rack-mounted supply and exhaust fans. Supply air is prefil-
tered and passes through final HEPA filters. Exhaust air is also HEPA filtered to
remove contaminants prior to discharging clean air to the animal holding room.
• Circulating air with rack-mounted supply and exhaust fans, but rather than dis-
charging to the room, the exhaust is connected to the building exhaust system
via a thimble connection or capture hood.
• Supplying conditioned air from the room by rack-mounted supply fans with
contaminated air discharged from the racks by rack exhaust fans connected
directly to the building exhaust system.
• Rack-mounted supply and exhaust fans connected directly to the building system.

Figure 16-13
A Typical
Cage Rack
System
for Mice

(Wilkins and
Waters 2004)

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The diffusers and exhaust openings used with these systems should be located and
constructed so that they prevent the creation drafts but provide for a uniform low-velocity
ventilation throughout the occupied spaces. In addition, they should be easy to clean.
Care should be taken to adequately screen the room and outside openings of the ventila-
tion system to prevent the escape of animals as well as the entry of vermin. The screens
should be easily removable and cleaned periodically to avoid restricting airflow. Screen
sieve size, location, and access for service depend on room configuration, air distribution,
exhaust layout, and animal species. For instance, an insect space requires a different type
of screen size, attachment, and placement than, say, the screens serving small-animal
holding-room ventilation systems.
It is important to understand that increasing the air circulation in an animal room does
not guarantee that the animal cages receive more air. However, animal cages that have
only the top open usually have an increased amount of air circulation when there is an
increased amount of air supplied to the room.
Cage racks have grown in acceptance since they were first introduced in the 1970s
because they allow higher population densities to be housed in animal holding rooms. As
animal populations in laboratories have grown, so has the need to provide a safe and com-
fortable environment for both the laboratory workers and the animals. Ventilation systems
that deliver filtered, conditioned air to the cages and remove cage exhaust air from the
holding rooms at a low noise level are critical in maintaining safe and comfortable envi-
ronments in laboratories.
The following requirements should be considered when designing a ventilation sys-
tem for cage racks:
• Supply and exhaust airflow for each rack must be supplied at a constant volume
and precisely controlled.
• Supply air to and exhaust air form each rack must be HEPA filtered.
• Supply airflow should be on the order of 50 ach to each cage. Air changes
greater than this may cause excessive noise that can affect the animals.

In an animal holding room, the room air is typically close to the temperature and
humidity levels required for cages. Using the laboratory’s central air-handling system as
the source of supply air to the ventilated racks requires additional redundancy and envi-
ronmental controls, which can increase the installed costs. High-performance, pressure-
independent airflow controls are typically more effective than dampers and flow- or
pressure-measuring devices for connecting racks to the building system.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
Maintenance of operating systems for animal housing can be of significant operating
cost; hence, prudent engineering design should address energy efficiency either by con-
sideration of energy avoidance or by way of energy recovery. Regardless of the method
chosen, ethical treatment of the research animals is of paramount concern, and less-than-
desirable conditions should be avoided and do not represent best practices.
Each species of animal has a unique range of preferred environmental conditions that
must be present for the animal to survive and reproduce. Even within a specific species,
there is variability among subclasses. For example, a hairless mouse requires a warmer
temperature than a mouse with hair for optimal conditions. Some animals, such as squir-
rels and cottontail rabbits, can survive in captivity but will not reproduce.
Minimum space requirements are generally dependent on the size of the animal. The
HVAC system is responsible for maintaining the temperature and humidity in the animal
room (macroenvironment) and animal cage (microenvironment). The specific tempera-

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ture and humidity to be maintained are dependent upon the animal’s metabolism and
insulation level. Changes in temperature and humidity affect the amount of food con-
sumed and thus the weight of the animal. For these reasons, holding rooms in animal
facilities should be designed for flexibility to accommodate a range of species; they
should have the ability to maintain different temperatures and relative humidities to sup-
port the animal species anticipated to be housed. There are associated capital costs, oper-
ational costs, and space requirements associated with designing a flexible system; these
requirements should be coordinated with each individual facility owner and laboratory
personnel, and the limitations should be clearly defined.
Noise and vibration resulting from an HVAC system can have a direct impact on an
animal’s response to an experiment. This is because while some animals are more visu-
ally dependent, others animals rely heavily on sound for courtship, mating behavior, and
predator detection. Feeding and cleaning operations, heating and ventilation equipment,
and the animals themselves are sources of noise in an animal laboratory. Extremely high
noise levels can cause temporary and permanent hearing loss and stress reactions for both
the animals and their handlers. Noise levels should be verified for specific species prior to
design of the animal laboratory.
Lighting levels and diurnal or daily cycles preferred by an animal species depend on
their visual capability and circadian rhythm (circadian describes a periodicity that is close
to one day). The level of lighting should be kept similar to that of the animal’s natural
environment. Inappropriate light levels can result in damage to the animals’ vision and
cause them undue stress. Cycling the lighting on and off influences when the animal is
active. Many animals are active and reproduce at night.
In addition to the environmental conditions that are controlled by HVAC and electri-
cal systems (temperature, humidity, acoustics, and light), there are other conditions such
as space requirements, diet, social interaction, and reproduction that can be related to the
environmental conditions and must be accounted for. Chapter 3 of Guide for the Care and
Use of Laboratory Animals (ILAR 2011) provides detailed guidance on the appropriate
environment, housing, and management for typical laboratory animals used or produced
for research, testing, and teaching. In general, an animal does better when the environ-
mental conditions in the laboratory approximate its natural habitat.

SANITATION AND CLEANABILITY

Sanitation and the cleanability of animal areas are the most significant factors that
determine the local environmental conditions for the animals. Poor sanitary conditions
can cause toxic buildup and unacceptable odor levels that result in both animal and
human health problems. The laboratory ventilation system cannot compensate for poor
sanitation procedures.
Design issues that are critical to maintaining clean animal laboratory and animal
holding areas include the following:
• Adequate drainage (if required)
• Floors that are moisture-resistant, nonabsorbent, impact-resistant, chemically
resistant, and relatively smooth (unless a textured surface is required)
• Washable paint on ceilings and walls
• Walls that can be cleaned with chemicals and water under high pressure (typi-
cally for large-animal holding areas)
• Walls, ceilings, floors, doors, windows, and the joints between these that are free
of cracks and crevices

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Design features that are critical for maintaining clean animal laboratory and animal
holding area HVAC components include the following:
• All penetrations (including edges of diffusers and grilles) must be sealed.
• Aluminum or stainless steel air devices should be used.
• Piping, wires, and ductwork should not be exposed unless they are easily clean-
able and are provided with standoff mounting that affords easy cleaning com-
pletely around the device or assembly.
• All materials used should have smooth, nonporous surfaces that are readily
cleanable.

For some animal rooms, the exhaust ducts of the HVAC system may become exces-
sively dirty or contaminated by pathogens and, consequently, will require periodic inter-
nal cleaning. The ducts can be designed to accommodate cleaning by installing access
panels or doors so that every section of the internal ductwork can be easily reached. For
BSL-3Ag and ABSL-4 facilities, contaminated exhaust ductwork between the room and
exhaust HEPA filter must be gastight. No access panels are allowed for BSL-3Ag and
ABSL-4 laboratories, and all air balance ports should be closed in a positive manner to
eliminate inadvertent access or opening.
Provisions can be made to decontaminate or clean closed duct systems with decon-
tamination ports and condensate drainage outlets. Where access to the exhaust ducts is
needed, the distance between the room grilles and the HEPA filter bioseal damper should
be as short as possible and without excessive offsets. In ABSL-3 enhanced laboratories,
where there is a need for extensive horizontal ductwork that has to be decontaminated,
internal swabbing is more involved because of the disassembly of the duct and cut-in
needs. Consideration should be given to identifying access points and possible use of
flanged duct sections so that sections of the duct can be removed to facilitate access for
cleaning.

REFERENCES

ABSA. n.d. Risk group classification for infectious agents. Mundelein, IL: American
Biological Safety Association. [Link]/riskgroups.
ACME. 2003. Arthropod containment levels (ACLs). Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Dis-
eases. American Committee of Medical Entomology, American Society of Tropi-
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6603322163475.
AIHA. 2012. ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5-2012, Laboratory Ventilation. Falls Church, VA:
American Industrial Hygiene Association.
ASHRAE. 2015. Chapter 16, Laboratories. In ASHRAE handbook—HVAC applications.
Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASSE. 2014. ANSI/ASSE Z9.14-2014, Testing and performance-verification methodolo-
gies for ventilation systems for biosafety level 3 (BSL-3) and animal biosafety level 3
(ABSL-3) facilities. Park Ridge, IL: American Society of Safety Engineers.
CDC. n.d. 4 Biosafety Lab Levels. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
[Link]/phpr/documents/BSL_infographic_final.pdf.
CDC. n.d. Quick learn lesson: Recognizing the biosafety levels, p. 4. Atlanta: Centers for
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CDC. 2009a. Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL), 5th
Edition. DHHS Publication No. (CDC) 21-1112. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Con-

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trol and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. [Link]/
biosafety/publications/bmbl5.
CDC. 2009b. Primary containment for biohazards: Selection, installation and use of
biological safety cabinets, Appendix A of Biosafety in Microbiological and Bio-
medical Laboratories (BMBL). Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Preven-
tion. [Link]/biosafety/publications/bmbl5/BMBL5_appendixA.pdf.
CDC. 2014. Newsroom Image Library - CDC Leaders & Scientists. Atlanta: Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention. [Link]/media/subtopic/library/[Link].
de Kok-Mercado, F., F.M. Kutlak, and P.B. Jahrling. 2011. The NIAID integrated
research facility at Fort Detrick. Applied Biosafety: Journal of the American Biologi-
cal Safety Association 16(2). [Link]/abj/abj/[Link].
EU. 2000. Directive 2000/54/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18
September 2000 on the protection of workers from risks related to exposure to bio-
logical agents at work. (Seventh individual directive within the meaning of Article
16(1) of Directive 89/391/EC.) Official Journal of the European Communities L262/
21. European Union.
FSAP. 2014a. Regulations 7 CFR Part 331, 9 CFR Part 121, and 42 CFR Part 73. Wash-
ington, DC: Federal Select Agents Program, Centers for Disease Control and Preven-
tion and USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services. [Link]/
[Link].
FSAP. 2014b. Select agents and toxins list. Washington, DC: Federal Select Agents Pro-
gram, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and USDA Animal and Plant
Health Inspection Services. [Link]/[Link].
Government of Canada. 2013. Chapter 4, Risk groups, containment levels, and risk
assessments. In Canadian biosafety standards and guidelines (CBSG). Ottawa, Can-
ada: Government of Canada. [Link]
cbsg-nldcb/[Link]?page=12.
IBC. 2010. NIH risk group classifications. Troy, NY: Institutional Biosafety Committee,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. [Link]
[Link].
ICC. 2015. 2015 International mechanical code® (IMC®). Washington, DC: International
Code Council.
ILAR. 2011. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, 8th ed. Washington,
DC: Institute for Laboratory Animal Research, Division on Earth and Life Studies,
National Research Council. [Link]
[Link]
NIAID. n.d. Untitled image of BSL-4 suit laboratory room sequence. Bethesda, MD:
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health.
[Link]/SiteCollectionImages/about/organization/dir/[Link].
NIH. n.d. Design Requirements Manual (DRM). Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of
Health, Division of Technical Resources. Forthcoming. For more information, visit
[Link]/PoliciesAndGuidelines/BiomedicalandAnimalResearchFacilities
DesignPoliciesandGuidelines/Pages/[Link].
NIH. 1999. NIH Design Policy and Guidelines. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of
Health, Division of Technical Resources.
NIH. 2013a. NIH guidelines for research involving recombinant or synthetic nucleic acid
molecules. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, Office of Biotechnology
Activities. [Link]
NIH. 2013b. Design Requirements Manual. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health,
Division of Technical Resources. [Link]/PoliciesAndGuidelines/

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BiomedicalandAnimalResearchFacilitiesDesignPoliciesandGuidelines/Pages/Design
[Link].
NRC. 1989. Biosafety in the Laboratory: Prudent Practices for Handling and Disposal of
Infectious Materials. 1989. Washington, DC: National Research Council, National
Academies Press. [Link]/catalog/[Link].
NRC. 2011. Prudent Practices in the Laboratory: Handling and Management of Chemical
Hazards. 2011. Washington, DC: National Research Council. [Link]/catalog
.php?record_id=12654.
Olsen, C.W. 2000. Zoonotic diseases tutorial. Madison, WI: School of Veterinary Medi-
cine, University of Wisconsin-Madison. [Link]/pbs/zoonoses.
SA/SNZ. 2002. AS/NZS 2243.3:2002, Australian/New Zealand StandardTM: Safety in
laboratories, Part 3: Microbiological aspects and containment facilities. Sydney,
Australia: Standards Australia International Ltd.
Stark, S., J. Petitto, and S. Darr. 2010. Animal research facility. Whole Building Design
Guide. [Link]/design/animal_research.php.
U.S. Army. 2013. Safety Standards for Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories,
Army Pamphlet 385-69. Department of the Army. Washington, DC: Government
Printing Office. [Link]/pdffiles/p385_69.pdf.
USDA. 2012. Manual 242.1, ARS Facilities Design Standards. Washington, DC: United
States Department of Agriculture. [Link]/ppweb/pdf/[Link].
WHO. 2004. Laboratory biosafety manual, 3d ed. Geneva: World Health Organization.
[Link]/csr/resources/publications/biosafety/en/[Link]. Available in
languages other than English at [Link]/csr/resources/publications/biosafety/
WHO_CDS_CSR_LYO_2004_11/en/[Link].
Wilkins, C., and B. Waters. 2004. HVAC design in animal facilities. ASHRAE Journal
46(9):38.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
FASS. 2010. Guide for the care and use of agricultural animals in research and teaching,
3d ed. Champaign, IL: Federation of Animal Science Societies. [Link]/docs/
agguide3rd/Ag_Guide_3rd_ed.pdf.
PHAC. 2015. Pathogen safety data sheets and risk assessment. Ottawa, Ontario: Public
Health Agency of Canada. [Link]/lab-bio/res/psds-ftss/[Link].

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CFD Modeling of
Laboratory
Ventilation

OVERVIEW
17
The laboratory ventilation system is the primary means for the removal of airborne
contaminants generated within a laboratory. The system’s ability to remove the contami-
nants from the laboratory space is defined as the ventilation effectiveness. As designers
consider reducing ventilation rates to make the laboratory more energy efficient, model-
ing the ventilation effectiveness becomes a critical design issue.
Previous chapters in this Guide provide information on best-practice approaches to
laboratory ventilation. Specifically, Chapter 4 discusses minimum air change require-
ments and Chapter 12 describes airflow patterns within the laboratory. This chapter
describes methods to model airflow patterns within a laboratory using computational
fluid dynamics (CFD), which is relatively new to laboratory design but has the potential
for refining exhaust and supply system design to improve safety and reduce energy costs.
There are some guidelines on using CFD for laboratory ventilation given the current state
of CFD development. The following concepts and applications are presented in this chap-
ter from a designer’s point of view:
• Uses of CFD in laboratories
• Introduction to CFD modeling
• Types of CFD models
• Typical stages in CFD computations
• Recommendations for conducting CFD modeling
• Interpreting CFD results

There are also several alternatives to CFD modeling. For an existing laboratory or a
mock-up, ventilation effectiveness can be measured with tracer gas testing using
ASHRAE Standard 129, Measuring Air-Change Effectiveness (ASHRAE 2002), instead
of modeling. A modeling alternative is the multizone airflow model. Multizone models
calculate airflow and contamination transport through a collection of rooms, hallways,
and ducts. The airflow between zones is calculated from the pressure-flow characteristics
of the path model and pressure differences across the paths. The multizone model consid-
ers mean airflow, temperature gradients, mechanical devices, and pressure losses. When
additional detail within the zone is necessary or when contaminant generation is depen-
dent on airflow, then a microscopic approach should be considered such as that provided
by CFD.
[Link] Page 276 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 1:28 PM

USES OF CFD IN LABORATORIES

CFD can be used to predict several aspects of laboratory ventilation. But please note
that not all laboratory rooms require CFD modeling.

DESIGN OF SUPPLY DIFFUSERS

Large exhaust flows from fume hoods may be concentrated into one part of a room.
The supply air traveling toward the exhausts may create disruptive room currents with
higher air speed than desired around the fume hoods. One modeling strategy in selecting a
diffuser layout is to compare a proposed design to the “ideal” case of a uniform low-
velocity supply that covers the entire exposed ceiling. An example is shown in Figures
17-1 and 17-2. Figure 17-1 shows the room layout. Figure 17-2 compares an ideal case to
two diffuser configurations, illustrating the modeling results within the central portion of
the room. The results shown, in plan view, are the velocity patterns at 4 ft (1.2 m) above
the floor level. The ideal case (Figure 17-2a) shows relatively low velocities near all fume
hood entrances at the top and bottom edges of the diagram and at the corridor near the top
left corner. Figures 17-2 and 17-2b show the increased room velocities when real diffus-
ers are used.

THERMAL COMFORT AND COOLING REQUIREMENTS

Thermal comfort is important for personnel productivity. Thermal comfort is a com-
plicated function of air temperature, air velocities, radiant energy (from windows, walls,

Figure 17-1
Example Room Layout
(Courtesy of Rowan Williams Davies & Irwin Inc.)

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and equipment), personnel activity levels, and clothing levels. Equipment also requires
cooling for proper operation. For personnel productivity, CFD modeling can provide tem-
perature and air velocities to help determine human comfort levels (i.e., if adequate cool-
ing is occurring or if there is too much cooling). For equipment, CFD modeling can
establish temperatures in the room where the equipment is located to help determine if
adequate cooling is occurring.

OTHER SAFETY AND COMFORT ISSUES

Other safety and comfort issues may be addressed by CFD predictions of velocities
and chemical concentrations within the laboratory air space. Examples include the fol-
lowing:
• Excessive room air velocities at workbenches and other sensitive areas.
• The containment capability of fume hoods.
• Where contaminants from releases or spills may be transported within the room.

Figure 17-2
Comparison of
Two Diffuser
Configurations
to Ideal
Uniform
Supply

(Courtesy of
Rowan Williams
Davies &
Irwin Inc.)

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• Where lower explosion limits (LELs) may be exceeded within a room for vari-
ous releases.
• How specialty hoods with unusual characteristics, including those with multiple
openings, behave.

INTRODUCTION TO CFD MODELING

CFD is an intensive computer-based method for calculating detailed airflow patterns
and contaminant concentrations within a room space. Room temperature, air speed and
direction, humidity, static pressure, and contaminant concentration can be calculated over
millions of locations within a room and possibly within associated supply and exhaust
devices. The results can then be presented graphically in many ways. Figure 17-3 illus-
trates a cross-section view of velocity near two diffuser outlets. The figure shows only a

Figure 17-3
Example CFD
Output—
Single
Cross-Section
of Velocities

(Courtesy of
Rowan Williams
Davies &
Irwin Inc.)

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small portion of the calculations that are actually required to be performed for the entire
room.
CFD modeling can be used for proposed or existing laboratories, and it can be useful
for laboratory ventilation system designs. The detailed flow fields produced by CFD can,
in principle, help with such issues as supply louver design and placement, fume hood
design and placement, control of heat or contaminant sources, indoor air quality (IAQ),
thermal comfort, and occupational safety.
Although there are many commercial CFD providers, CFD modeling is still an
emerging technology that takes effort to master. Simply running a CFD modeling pro-
gram does not necessarily provide meaningful or useful results.

TYPES OF CFD MODELS

There are two main types of CFD models of interest for laboratory ventilation: turbu-
lent transport Reynolds-averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) models and large-eddy simula-
tion (LES) models.
The turbulent transport RANS models are less detailed in modeling sophistication.
RANS models do not explicitly model turbulent air velocity fluctuations because this is
well beyond current computational abilities. Instead, turbulent fluctuations are fully
parameterized using turbulence closure models. RANS models also typically (but not
always) produce only time-averaged values of the computed quantities at each grid point.
RANS models are less computer resource intensive and are the more common approach
at this time. Within this type there are various turbulence closure models that are available
through commercial CFD providers.
Large-eddy simulation (LES) models are a more detailed approach with direct simu-
lation of larger turbulent eddy scales and parameterization of smaller scales. LES models
are intrinsically transient and produce a time history of computed results at each grid
point in the room. LES models can show important time-dependent fluctuations that indi-
cate periodic disruption of fume hood airflow by room currents. These models require
finer grid spacing and time resolution and thus need much more computational power
than the RANS models. LES models have recently become economically feasible at the
engineering design level. At this time, LES models do take a significant amount of time to
run, but they can be worth the cost in some situations, such as those requiring dynamic
airflows within a fume hood or transient modeling of chemical spills.

TYPICAL STAGES IN CFD COMPUTATIONS

CFD computations typically involve the following stages:
• Model development
• Grid generation
• Boundary conditions
• Solution
• Postprocessing

Model development is the creation of a three-dimensional (3-D) computer model of

the room geometry using a computer-aided design (CAD) package. The model geometry
includes the interior of the space being modeled and any obstructions to flow present
within the space. Supply and exhaust points are identified within the model and are repre-
sented to provide similar flow characteristics to actual supply and exhaust points. During
the model geometry creation stage, some simplifications are made, typically based on

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experience and an understanding of the flow details of interest. For example, furniture
and human shape geometries are often simplified to represent approximate massing.
Another important simplification is the modeling of supply diffuser geometries. This sim-
plification requires careful attention to produce correct airflow characteristics and is dis-
cussed in more detail in the following section.
Grid generation involves the subdivision of the room into often millions of 3-D cells
within which the equations of motion will be solved. Then, boundary conditions, or the
factors influencing the flow within the space, are assigned to the model. These conditions
typically include air supply flow rates and temperatures, exhaust rates, heat flows through
surfaces (e.g., walls, roof, floor), radiation and outdoor lighting through windows, and
internal heat sources and contaminants (e.g., equipment, humans, animals).
The solution stage consists of a computer solving a complex and coupled set of equa-
tions enforcing the conservation of mass, momentum, energy, and various chemical spe-
cies of interest between each cell within the space. Within each cell is stored the variables
of interest (e.g., temperature, velocity, concentration, and turbulence).
Finally, the postprocessing stage allows the engineer to visualize and probe the result-
ing flow in both space and time, through colorful still pictures or animations. These
results provide designers and decision makers with an understanding of flow patterns and
possibly the causes for poor circulation that can be corrected.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
CONDUCTING CFD MODELING

CFD models have a variety of inputs and procedures that may be unfamiliar to HVAC
engineers. This section presents some recommendations for implementing CFD models,
but note that these guidelines cannot be substituted for direct experience. Commercial
CFD developers typically provide guidance and training applicable to their specific prod-
ucts. End users should gain experience first with standard room applications. More
detailed guidance on CFD modeling can be obtained from Chapter 13 of ASHRAE Hand-
book—Fundamentals (2013a).
• It is recommended that LES modeling be used for detailed studies of airflow
around and within fume hoods rather than RANS models. Leakage from a fume
hood is often a transient phenomenon that is better simulated by a detailed
model such as the LES model. In this case, the extra costs of the LES model are
justified.
• Adequate grid spacing used in the room is important for accurate results. Rec-
ommended spacing is 1 in. (25 mm) or less in important areas, such as the face
of a fume hood, and other areas where large variations are expected. No more
than 6 in. (150 mm) should be used in the general air space far from surfaces and
boundaries where small gradients are expected. The grid spacing should be var-
ied in size (for example, by doubling the number of grid points) for some runs to
show that the results are independent of grid spacing. As computer speed and
memory storage become more economical, the grid points should be increased
as much as possible.
• For transient calculations, time steps should be appropriately small to ensure
convergence of the models. Time steps decrease as grid spacing decreases,
which increases the need for computer resources. Time steps should also be var-
ied to show independence.

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• Internal heat sources and sinks should be modeled. These include workers, ani-
mals, equipment, lighting, radiant cooling panels, active or passive beams, and
outdoor sunlight.
• Boundary influences such as walls, windows, people, furniture, supply diffusers,
exhausts, and equipment geometry should also be included.
• Correct modeling of supply diffusers is critical to modeling laboratory ventila-
tion. Diffusers are too small compared to the room to accurately model with nor-
mal grid spacing. The direction, temperature, and speed of air can vary
dramatically depending on the location of the air within the exit of the diffuser.
To overcome this problem, several methods have been developed to model
the overall effects of the diffuser in terms of momentum and directionality.
Chapter 13 of ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals (2013a) has more informa-
tion on these methods. The methods should be evaluated using simple room
geometries to match the published throw and directions of a diffuser model
using manufacturer-supplied data or other measurement results.
Figures 17-4 and 17-5 illustrate the possible differences that can arise in
modeling supply diffusers. Figure 17-4 shows the exhaust with the correct flow
rate but an incorrect velocity due to exaggeration of the outlet area. Figure 17-5
has a correction to better model the supply momentum to match empirical data
from the manufacturer. However, in some cases the manufacturer data may be
suspect. For example, some diffusers tend to dump colder air downwards rather
than distribute the exhaust in many directions as predicted.

INTERPRETING CFD RESULTS

CFD results should be interpreted to improve laboratory designs. CFD programs have
the ability to produce many types of graphical outputs, which by themselves may have
limited usability except for visualization and understanding flow phenomena. Comparing
the results to quantitative design criteria could add more useful information. The follow-
ing subsections discuss suggestions for design criteria for use in interpreting CFD results
and evaluating designs.

VENTILATION EFFECTIVENESS AND AGE OF AIR

Two common and related metrics are ventilation effectiveness and the age of air. Ven-
tilation effectiveness at a given room location is defined as the room ventilation time con-
stant divided by the age of the air at a particular location. The ventilation time constant is
the room volume divided by the overall room ventilation rate and is the inverse of the
room air change rate. The age of air is the time that a parcel of air at a particular location
has been in the room since entering from the supply system or being transferred from
another room. The age of air is a commonly available result determined from CFD pack-
ages by tracking parcels of air as they travel in the room. The longer the age of the air, the
more odors and other contaminants are likely to be present at a given location within the
room. CFD modeling can compare two configurations to determine which provides the
lowest air age.

THERMAL COMFORT
As previously stated, thermal comfort is a complicated physiological and psychologi-
cal reaction to several environmental factors. CFD can provide the primary variables of
temperature and air speed at any location within the air space. However, examining only
the temperature and velocity fields from CFD results may not be enough for designers to

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Figure 17-4
Incorrect
Modeling of
Supply
Momentum

(Courtesy of
Rowan Williams
Davies &
Irwin Inc.)

Figure 17-5
Corrected
Momentum
to Match
Diffuser Throw
Data

(Courtesy of
Rowan Williams
Davies &
Irwin Inc.)

fully assess comfort. To determine the acceptability of the thermal conditions from the
temperature and velocity, it is recommended that the latest edition of ANSI/ASHRAE
Standard 55, Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy (ASHRAE
2013b), be used to establish comfort at various fixed points of interest.

FUME HOOD LEAKAGE

Fume hood leakage can be reported in several ways. One way is to simulate a release
scenario, much like that specified in ASHRAE Standard 110 for tracer gas testing
(ASHRAE 1995), by releasing 8.5 cfm (4 L/min) of tracer gas in the hood and reporting
concentrations at the breathing zone. (Note that Standard 110 is a test method and does
not specify an acceptable concentration.) Another method includes examining a cross
section of concentrations and velocities at the hood face; locations of outward-moving
high concentrations into the room indicate undesirable leakage. The reporting could also

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include a simple plot of concentrations at the hood face, which could then be used to look
for leakage areas. Alternatively, CFD postprocessing could calculate the mass emission
rate outward (the product of concentration, outward velocity, and face area over all calcu-
lation points along the face).

ROOM AIR CURRENTS

For understanding room ventilation patterns, visualization of room velocities and
temperatures is useful. There are a number of ways to achieve visualization using CFD
results. Traditional cross sections in vertical and horizontal planes are helpful but cannot
easily show the entire room. One way to show more of the room is to use a series of cross
sections in an animation. Another way is to have a 3-D surface created that shows veloci-
ties (or other CFD output variables) above a certain value. For example, a high-velocity
jet above, say, 100 fpm (0.5 m/s) can be illustrated as a 3-D “tube” that emerges from the
diffuser and extends into the room. A cold supply plume with a temperature below a cer-
tain level could also be shown as a 3-D object. Another whole-room approach is an ani-
mation showing numerous virtual particles that travel through the room over the
calculated velocity field. The particles would tend to travel from the supply diffuser into
the exhaust system. They can be color coded with travel time so that areas of the room
with stale air (particles with longer travel times) are more visible. This would help indi-
cate where stale air is accumulating and thus where indoor air quality may be diminished.
For evaluating cross drafts, CFD models can report maximum and average room
velocities at specific points in front of fume hoods. The cross-draft velocities can be com-
pared to common guidelines, such as cross-draft velocities no larger than 50% of fume
hood face velocities.
High velocities may not be desired at workbenches with fragile or sensitive experi-
ments. Velocity predictions at specific points in the room are easily generated from CFD
results and could be plotted and compared to a requirement.

CONCENTRATION LEVELS FROM A SPILL OR VAPOR RELEASE

CFD results can easily be used to help designers visualize spills or accidental releases
of contaminants. For concentration fields where a contaminant is typically released from
a small source, the best visualization is with a 3-D smoke plume that shows concentra-
tions above a fixed level. The plume could be an averaged plume with a steady-state
RANS calculation or a growing and moving plume with a transient RANS or LES model.
Also, concentrations at specific locations can be reported and graphed, for example, at
possible ignition points when evaluating LEL situations or at breathing zones.

REFERENCES

ASHRAE. 1995. ASHRAE Standard 110-1995, Method of testing performance of labo-

ratory fume hoods. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2002. ASHRAE Standard 129-1997 (RA 2002), Measuring air-change effec-
tiveness. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2013a. Chapter 13, Indoor environmental modeling. In ASHRAE handbook—
Fundamentals. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2013b. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-2013, Thermal environmental conditions
for human occupancy. Atlanta: ASHRAE.

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Sustainable
Design

OVERVIEW
18
Matthew May describes sustainability as “the ability to maintain something at a cer-
tain level, indefinitely.” He further defines the concept by describing two necessary crite-
ria in sustainable design:
The first is that to be sustainable, any given asset, no matter what it is,
must be kept whole, without making significant trade-offs that under-
mine the capital used to generate and maintain it. The second follows
from the first: sustainability hinges on the ability to see finite resources
as the very source of innovation. (May 2009, p. 143)
From this general perspective on sustainability, ASHRAE GreenGuide: Design, Con-
struction, and Operation of Sustainable Buildings offers practical application of the con-
cept of sustainable design to mechanical building systems. Specifically, it states six goals
for green/sustainable design (ASHRAE 2013a, p. 4):
• Minimizing natural resource consumption through more efficient utilization of
nonrenewable energy and other natural resources, land, water, and construction
materials, including utilization of renewable energy resources to strive to
achieve net zero energy consumption.
• Minimizing emissions that negatively impact our global atmosphere and ulti-
mately the indoor environment, especially those related to indoor air quality
(IAQ), greenhouse gases, global warming, particulates, or acid rain.
• Minimizing discharge of solid waste and liquid effluents, including demolition
and occupant waste, sewer, and stormwater, and the associated infrastructure
required to accommodate removal.
• Minimizing negative impacts on the building site.
• Optimizing the quality of the indoor environment, including air quality, thermal
regime, illumination, acoustics/noise, and visual aspects to provide comfortable
human physiological and psychological perceptions.
• Optimizing the integration of the new building project within the overall built
and urban environment. A truly green/sustainable building should not be
thought of or considered in a vacuum, but rather in how it integrates within the
overall societal context.
[Link] Page 286 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:43 AM

These are broad goals, and all of them require a collaborative effort among the disci-
plines charged with the task of designing a laboratory facility. A common term for this
collaborative effort is integrated design. Keeler and Burke (2009, p. 1) assert that green
design and integrated building design are “equivalent terms.” To capture all of these ideas,
as well as several ASHRAE initiatives, this chapter uses the phrase high-performance
building design to describe this integrated design process.
Laboratory facilities present unique challenges and opportunities to incorporate high-
performance building design concepts into the design process. First, the energy use inten-
sity (EUI) of a laboratory is 4 to 100 times greater than that of conventional buildings (Sar-
tor et al. 2000). This is due to the energy-intensive processes located in the laboratory and
the corresponding building systems that support them. Second, the safety needs of labora-
tories typically constrain the engineering design options. For example, ventilation systems
in laboratories using hazardous chemicals must provide outdoor air to compensate for air
exhausted to the building’s exterior. Thus, the design outdoor airflow rate is driven by the
local ventilation devices in the laboratory facility and is typically greater than the outdoor
air requirements dictated by local building codes. Finally, the laboratory program may
constrain the mechanical system design options by creating mandates for flexibility and
redundancy that may lead to inefficiencies in the mechanical system design (e.g., large
amounts of reheat energy due to high air change rates). These design restrictions may be
the reason laboratory design teams have avoided the high-performance building design
concept in the past. Some estimates, however, suggest that use of high-performance build-
ing design methods can result in a 50% energy consumption reduction in new and existing
laboratory facilities (Mills et al. 1996). Therefore, although the inherent restrictions of lab-
oratory facility design pose challenges to minimizing energy consumption, they also pres-
ent opportunities to mitigate the energy costs associated with them.
This chapter covers the following, which will help engineers design, build, and oper-
ate sustainable laboratories:
• High-performance building design process
• Computer modeling
• Green tips for laboratories
• Ongoing commissioning
• Laboratory sustainability checklist

HIGH-PERFORMANCE BUILDING
DESIGN PROCESS

NREL (Hayter et al. 2000) suggests the following design process for high-perfor-
mance buildings:
• Predesign phase
• Simulate a base-case building model and establish energy-use targets.
• Complete analysis.
• Brainstorm solutions with all design team members.
• Perform energy simulations on base-case variants considering economic
criteria.
• Design phase
• Optimize sequences of operation.
• Prepare preliminary architectural drawings.
• Design the HVAC, plumbing, water conservation, and lighting systems.
• Finalize plans and specifications.

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• Construction/occupation phase
• Rerun energy simulations before making construction design changes.
• Commission all equipment and controls. Educate building operators to
ensure that they operate the building as intended.

ASHRAE (2013b) recommends the following sequence, which complements NREL’s

procedure, when evaluating a project for energy efficiency:
• Minimize the impact of the building’s functional requirements.
• Minimize heating and cooling loads.
• Maximize subsystems’ efficiencies.
• Study alternative ways to integrate subsystems.

ASHRAE’s recommended steps should be incorporated during the predesign steps in

the aforementioned NREL process. The process may be used during any building design
project, regardless of whether the concept of sustainability is specifically mentioned as a
criterion for the design. Thus, this project methodology should be considered “standard of
care” for the building science industry.
The project team members typically include the laboratory building owner, developer,
facility operator, architect, construction manager, laboratory planner, mechanical/plumb-
ing/fire protection engineers, energy simulation engineer, electrical/lighting engineer,
structural engineer, civil engineer, commissioning authority, and cost estimator. As a
result, the high-performance building design process encompasses design, construction,
commissioning, operation, maintenance, occupancy, environmental impacts, and end-of-
life recycling.
ASHRAE GreenGuide (2013a), the Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design® (LEED®) Green Building Rating System process promulgated by U.S. Green
Building Council (USGBC), International Institute of Sustainable Laboratories (I2SL)
(the continuity of Laboratories for the 21st Century [Labs21], which was a joint initiative
between the U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency),
and National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) through their Whole Building Design
Guide web portal are excellent guides to this process. Finally, ANSI/ASHRAE/USGBC/
IES Standard 189.1, Standard for the Design of High-Performance Green Buildings
Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings (ASHRAE 2014a), offers a systematic approach
to high-performance building design and should be consulted by the practitioners of this
design process.

COMPUTER MODELING
By comparing design options prior to construction, computer modeling optimizes
performance and thus plays a critical role in the high-performance building design pro-
cess. Modeling must begin during the predesign phase of a project and be modified, as
needed, throughout the life of the project. Reviewed in this Guide are the four most com-
monly used modeling tools: energy modeling, exergy analysis, life-cycle cost analysis
(LCCA), and building information modeling (BIM). These tools are not competing; they
all model important aspects of the building and aid in decision making.

ENERGY MODELING
Upon completion of the Basis of Design (BOD), an energy model of the project
should be generated. The method of evaluating energy use should conform to ANSI/
ASHRAE Standard 140, Standard Method of Test for the Evaluation of Building Energy

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Figure 18-1
Baseline
Building
Energy Use

Figure 18-2
Proposed
Building
Energy Use

Analysis Computer Programs (ASHRAE 2014b), as required to achieve LEED certifi-

cation.
Energy modeling consists of creating two models to compare (ASHRAE 2013c). The
first model consists of the baseline building, and the second is the proposed design for the
project. The proposed building model is evaluated against the baseline and reevaluated at
each step in the development of the project to review the impact of design decisions on
energy costs. The comparison of Figures 18-1 and 18-2 shows energy-use results of a
baseline model (Figure 18-1) and a proposed project model (Figure 18-2) and provides an
example of the energy reduction that can result from the high-performance building
design process.
Benchmarking the proposed model against the baseline model may provide insight
about the relative efficiency of the building. One metric used in benchmarking is the
annual energy use intensity (EUI) (EPA n.d.), in units of kWh/ft2·yr (kWh/m2·yr). This
value should be correlated with the processes in the laboratory. For example, the density
of fume hoods in a facility, which is normally expressed as the quantity of fume hoods per
5000 ft2 (465 m2), substantially affects EUI. Generally, this value varies between 0.5 and
10 depending on the laboratory’s functions. Another interesting benchmark is the number
of watts of power per total airflow rate supplied, returned, and exhausted. This value nor-
mally varies between 0.3 and 2.0 W/cfm (0.6 and 4.3 W·L/s). Finally, the population den-
sity of a laboratory, normally given in ft2/person (±500 to 600 ft2 [±45 to 55 m2] is
typical) is an important correlation. A summary graph of a benchmarking study is shown

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Figure 18-3
Energy
Consumption
Benchmarking
(kW·h/ft2/yr)

in Figure 18-3. The Laboratory Energy Efficiency Profiler (LEEP) Tool (I2SL n.d.)
should be consulted to obtain additional benchmarking data.

EXERGY ANALYSIS
Exergy is defined as the maximum theoretical work obtainable when two systems at
different states are brought into equilibrium with each other (Moran and Shapiro 2000).
Exergy analysis, sometimes referred to as availability analysis, is a form of energy mod-
eling that uses the first and second laws of thermodynamics to evaluate the appropriate-
ness of the energy source to the application. Its goal is to match the energy quality of the
source energy with the final energy use.
Although exergy analysis is a method of evaluating the efficiency of building sys-
tems, it is typically not required by building code authorities or nongovernmental organi-
zations such as USGBC. However, exergy analysis allows components of the system to be
efficiently matched to energy sources. Case studies demonstrate the effectiveness of
exergy analysis in improving the energy performance of building systems (Itard 2005).

LIFE-CYCLE COST ANALYSIS

In addition to the energy models, a life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) should be per-
formed to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of the building and system options. National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) provides excellent guidance for performing
a LCCA (Fuller and Petersen 1995; BLCC n.d.).

BUILDING INFORMATION MODELING (BIM)

ASHRAE defines BIM as follows:
Building information modeling (BIM) is a building design and documen-
tation methodology that relies on the creation and collection of interre-
lated computable information about a building project so that reliable,
coordinated, and internally consistent digital representations of the build-
ing are available for design decision making, production of high-quality
construction documents, construction planning, and predicting perfor-
mance in various ways. (ASHRAE 2015, p. 40.15)
BIM is seeing increasing usage among the design community and owners who desire
a tool to facilitate rapid and accurate depictions of their facilities and that can easily be
updated. This process may involve several software tools linked to automated graphics

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software. A number of organizations offer guidance on such tools, including U.S. General
Services Administration (GSA) through their website (GSA 2015), NIBS through their
Whole Building Design Guide web portal (Smith and Edgar 2015), and various software
providers as included on the CAD/BIM Technology Center website (https:cad
[Link]).

GREEN TIPS FOR LABORATORIES

Considerations when designing a high-performance laboratory building include com-
pleting a systematic review to minimize the use of natural resources, protecting the exte-
rior and interior laboratory environments, minimizing energy use by design, recovering as
much energy as possible, fine-tuning controls for energy efficiency, and choosing the best
source of energy from off site or on site. Each of these elements is discussed in detail in
the following subsections:
• Minimizing natural resources consumption
• Protecting the environment
• Energy efficiency—Design
• Energy efficiency—Recovery
• Energy efficiency—Source
• Energy efficiency—Controls
• On-site energy production

MINIMIZING NATURAL RESOURCES CONSUMPTION

Minimizing natural resources consumption is a goal of all high-performing buildings,
including laboratories. Water conservation is very important; opportunities for achieving
this are discussed in this section, as are strategies for downsizing the needs for materials
and equipment.
Water Conservation
Many opportunities are available for conserving water in laboratories. For example,
rainwater can be recovered in a cistern, filtered, and treated for use in toilets and urinals
and as makeup water in cooling towers (see Figure 18-4). Other water conservation mea-
sures to consider include the following:
• Using low-flow plumbing fixtures.
• Using waterless urinals with compatible drain pipe materials.
• Using a closed-loop system instead of city water for process cooling. The energy
of such a cooling loop can be recovered with a heat pump and used to heat the
building.
• Using vacuum pumps (local or centralized) to avoid using tap water to generate
a vacuum.
• Recovering gray water from showers, lavatories, research animal cage and rack
washers, and water rejected from reverse osmosis and boiler blowdown and stor-
age in a cistern for use in flushing toilets and urinals, landscape irrigation, or
trench and drain flushing in animal facilities.
• Recovering cooling-coil condensate for cooling tower water makeup.
• Installing drift eliminators on cooling towers to minimize water loss.
• Using electronic faucets and flush valve controls.
• Using sustainably designed research animal cage and rack washers, animal
watering systems, autoclaves, and aquatic systems for laboratory research
involving amphibians and/or fish.

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Figure 18-4
Rainwater
Recovery

(Courtesy of
Pageau Morel)

Other Strategies
Other potential opportunities for minimizing natural resources consumption include
the following:
• Identify synergies between functions and the potential to share services and
equipment to reduce and optimize the construction area of the building.
• Rightsize HVAC systems (Labs21 2005a). For example, manifold exhaust ducts
and use diversity to size equipment and ductwork to minimize resource con-
sumption.
• Locate laboratories with intensive needs, such as those with many fume hoods
and bench services, near the mechanical room to reduce ductwork and piping.
• Create flexibility by providing easy access for the addition of required services
rather than providing all possible services on day one.
• Install multiple small systems instead of one large system (for example, install
two units at 50% total required capacity instead of one at 100%) to facilitate
maintenance and allow for continuity of certain services.
• Zone mechanical services to permit local shutdown while maintaining services
to other areas.
• Use energy-efficient laboratory fume hoods.
• Use demand-based control of laboratory air change rates.
• Specify premium high-efficiency equipment.
• Select equipment with part-load operation and variable conditions in mind.
• Specify low-pressure-drop design.
• Use energy recovery from exhaust air or process cooling water when this is
allowed.
• Consider on-site power generation.
• Consider using renewable energy.
• Consider installing active or passive beams in laboratories (Labs21 2009).

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PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT

Laboratory systems are designed to protect their occupants by rejecting contaminated
air to the exterior. Depending on the contaminants, different technologies exist to clean
the air before exhausting it outdoors. Chemical adsorption filters and wet scrubbers are
often used to remove contaminants. Laboratories should also have a management plan for
used chemicals to avoid rejecting them into the drainage system. In addition to these mea-
sures, the following are guidelines to protecting the environment from the chemicals used
in a laboratory:
• Minimize emissions that negatively impact the indoor environment and the
atmosphere of our planet.
• Minimize discharge of solid waste and liquid effluents.
• Minimize negative impacts on site ecosystems.
• Maximize the air quality of the indoor environment.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY—DESIGN
The following measures will all help reduce the energy consumption of a laboratory.
Building Thermal Envelope
Energy models and simulation software should be used to select the best thermal per-
formance values of building components and optimize window solar heat gain coeffi-
cients (SHGCs). Such analysis must be done considering the life-cycle costs of the
building envelope components.
Exhaust Fans
Sizing and selection of exhaust fans should be based both on the amount of air to be
exhausted at different times of the day and on the maintenance of a minimum discharge
velocity within the exhaust stack(s). All efforts should be made to minimize the amount
of exhausted air while preventing reentrainment of contaminated air into outdoor air
intakes. A wind wake analysis is typically done to verify reentrainment is not a problem.
Air Change Rate—Outdoor Air
Because all air supplied in a laboratory where fume hoods are located must be
exhausted, it should be kept to a minimum without compromising the safety of the users.
Minimum flow rates should be established for the following four conditions: day (occu-
pied), day (unoccupied), nights and weekends, and emergency purge.
Air Change Rate—Local Cooling
Ventilation rates driven by the cooling load results in more air than that required by
fume hoods needing to be exhausted. Local cooling with fan-coil units, active or passive
beams (sensible cooling only), or fan-powered induction units reduces the amount of
fresh air exhausted from the laboratory to the minimum amounts required for user safety.
Air Change Rate—VAV System
If the ventilation rate is driven by fume hood exhaust, variable airflow devices on sup-
ply and exhaust ducts will keep exhausted airflow to a minimum. It should also be noted,
as shown in Table 18-1, that reducing the airflow rates also tremendously reduces the
energy consumption of the fans.
Air Change Rate—IAQ Sensors, Demand-Based Control
With this approach, a laboratory’s minimum airflow rate is varied based on measure-
ments of the laboratory’s actual air quality level or “air cleanliness.” Sensors used to

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Table 18-1 Air Changes

Supply, Heating/Cooling Fan Power
Effect of per Hour,
cfm (L/s) Ratio Ratio
ach
Reducing
Air Changes 10 675 (320) 1 1
6 405 (190) 0.6 0.22
4 270 (125) 0.4 0.06

determine air quality should be evaluated based on their ability to detect the chemicals
used in the space. When air contaminants are measured above a given threshold, the min-
imum air change rate is proportionally increased to a level sufficient to purge the room.
When contaminants are below the determined threshold, lower minimum airflow rates (as
low as 2 ach depending on the application) may be appropriate when the fume hood
exhaust or room cooling load requirements do not require higher airflow rates.
Air Change Rate—Fume Hood Selection
As a general approach, the design engineer should analyze the laboratory type in con-
junction with the minimum air change rate required. If there is only one 4 ft (1.2 m) wide
fume hood in a large laboratory and the maximum exhaust of the hood is smaller than the
minimum air change rate required in the laboratory, the fume hood could be either a con-
stant-volume exhaust type or a constant-volume low-flow high-performance type.
When the air change rate is driven by the fume hood’s requirements, all efforts should
be taken to reduce the exhaust flow according to one or more of the following control
strategies: variable-air-volume (VAV) exhaust and supply, zone presence sensors in front
of the hood’s sash, or laboratory occupancy sensors to reset face velocity at the sash
opening.
Using horizontal sashes on fume hoods reduces the amount of exhausted air by 50%
or more. This option must be discussed with users to ensure compatibility with their labo-
ratory usage.
In teaching laboratories, it might be feasible to dedicate a single hood for chemical
holding. In such a case, hoods used by students could be emptied outside of teaching
hours, thus allowing these hoods to be completely shut off for exhausting.
Air Change Rate—Animal Holding Rooms
Use ventilated cage racks and demand-based control to reduce the air change rate of
animal holding rooms.
Air Change Rate—Users
As a general rule, a fume hood’s sash remains closed when the hood not in use. When
the air change rate of a laboratory is fume-hood driven, it is possible, with programming,
to activate an audio signal (a beep) from the hood if the sash stays open for more than the
allotted time (15 min, for example), alerting users to close the sash.
The opening of a vertical sash can be mechanically limited to 14 or 18 in. (356 or
457 mm) with a sash stop to reduce the amount of exhausted air when in use.
Different types of system arrangements are presented in Figures 18-5 to 18-8. The
objective of these designs is to reduce the fresh air intake while maintaining a safe labora-
tory environment.
The conventional system in Figure 18-5 shows the use of a runaround energy recov-
ery loop applied to both fume hood and general laboratory exhausts. The figure also
shows the use of a system dedicated to office areas.

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The modified conventional system in Figure 18-6 shows air supplied to both offices
and laboratories from the same system. The total amount of air treated is less than in a
conventional system (20,000 cfm [9440 L/s] in this example) since return air from the
offices essentially serves as makeup air for the laboratories.
In Figure 18-7, dedicated fan-coil units cool and recirculate air inside each laboratory,
reducing the quantity of outdoor air required. Also, general laboratory exhaust is sepa-
rated from fume hood exhaust so that an enthalpy wheel can be used to recover energy
from the general exhaust. Note that an enthalpy wheel is much more efficient than a run-
around loop but, unlike the loop, it cannot prevent cross-contamination of the airstreams.
Enthalpy wheels should use purge to minimize the potential for cross-contamination.
Figure 18-8 shows active-beam technology used as an alternative to fan-coil units to
provide the additional cooling required.
Reduction in air changes per hour (ACH) or reduction in sash opening does not nec-
essarily translate into a proportional reduction of the exhaust airflow rate. Table 18-2
shows the various reductions attained in the laboratory exhaust of an existing laboratory
building based on the relation of ACH to sash opening percentages.

Figure 18-5
Conventional
System

(Courtesy of
Pageau Morel)

Figure 18-6
Modified
Conventional
System

(Courtesy of
Pageau Morel)

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Figure 18-7
Fan-Coil and Separate General Laboratory Exhaust
(Courtesy of Pageau Morel)

Figure 18-8
Active Beams and Separate General Laboratory Exhaust
(Courtesy of Pageau Morel)

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Table 18-2 Total Laboratory Exhaust Including Fume Hoods, cfm (L/s)
Example of Sash Open Percentage: 100% 75% 50% 25% Closed
Real
235,400 207,700 182,900 165,200 141,650
Laboratory 10 ach
(111 085) (98 015) (86 310) (77 960) (66 845)
Building’s
Airflow 212,750 183,850 156,700 133,200 114,050
Total 6 ach
(100 400) (86 760) (73 950) (62 860) (53 820)
207,800 177,800 148,300 120,350 97,400
4 ach
(98 060) (55 590) (69 980) (56 795) (45 960)

Canopy Hoods
Canopy hoods are normally used to exhaust heat and humidity. Blocking the center of
the canopy hood can improve efficiency and reduce the amount of exhausted air. A
damper controlled by a timer should be used when applicable.
Ductwork Sealing
Supply, return, and exhaust ducts should be tightly sealed to reduce air leakage and
associated energy losses.
Plug-Load Reduction
In many laboratory projects, laboratory equipment is purchased by people outside the
construction team. Energy efficiency criteria such as those developed for the ENERGY
STAR program (EPA 2015) should be used to evaluate and select the equipment. Engi-
neers should collaborate to define or establish energy performance criteria for equipment
not covered in the ENERGY STAR program. For more information on plug-load reduc-
tion, see the Labs21 best practice guide on rightsizing (Labs21 2005a).
Zone Presence Sensors
Zone presence sensors can be used to control lighting and fume hood airflow in labo-
ratories. Sensors designed to monitor the region facing a fume hood to sense the presence
of an operator should preferably be dual technology (infrared and ultrasonic). Normally
the “occupied” status is maintained ±15 min (adjustable from the energy management
and control system [EMCS]) after occupants leave the laboratory.
Care should be taken when using these sensors to reset the minimum air change rates.
If excess contaminant levels are detected during airflow rate levels set for unoccupied
mode, occupied-mode airflow rates must be reestablished to purge the laboratory of any
excess contaminants.
Low-Velocity HVAC Units
Selecting air-handling systems’ components at 300 fpm (1.5 m/s) instead of the stan-
dard 500 fpm (2.5 m/s) face velocity can reduce power consumption by 78%. This also
reduces the potential for water entrainment at the cooling/dehumidifying coils. On the
other hand, it means using a little more building space (floor space or mechanical room
volume). The net result is usually positive.
High-Efficiency Duct Fittings (Low Pressure Losses)
Often neglected, particularly in exhaust systems, is that all duct fittings on collectors,
branches, reducers, etc. should be designed and built to regain as much static pressure as
possible and reduce the energy consumption of the fans.

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Figure 18-9
Direct-Drive
Coupling

(Courtesy of
Pageau Morel)

Direct-Drive Fans
As often as possible, select direct-drive fans to eliminate belt losses and reduce main-
tenance and dust generation from belt wear and tear. Fans should be selected for the high-
est efficiency at their most probable flow, not the maximum flow. Direct-drive fans are
normally connected to a variable-frequency drive (VFD). Fan selection should be done at
80% of the nominal motor revolutions per minute (RPM) to maintain some capacity to
increase the flow of the fan depending on final site conditions. Figure 18-9 shows an
example of a direct-drive fan.
Exhaust Network Design
Design networks in different pressure zones with separate fans to avoid operating the
whole system at high pressure such as is required by remote laboratories or biological
safety cabinets (BSCs).
Exhaust Grouping
Group small independent exhausts with larger exhausts (where separation is not
required for safety or for concerns over material compatibility) to take advantage of dilu-
tion.
VFDs on Motors
With the prices of drives being more and more affordable, it has become good prac-
tice to install VFDs on pumps and fans whenever flow variation is significant, because
this tremendously reduces the energy consumption of motors. To operate with a drive, a
motor must be classified as “inverter duty” (EERE 2012). Analysis on the importance of
keeping a fan running within a group of exhaust fans should be done to determine
whether an electric bypass is required on the VFDs.
Bypass Dampers
Bypass dampers located upstream of cooling coils and heating coils reduce static
pressure losses whenever these coils are not in use.
Filters
Selection of filters should be done considering allowable pressure losses, replacement
costs, disposal costs, and associated energy consumption. Such an analysis should be
done on both supply and exhaust networks.

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Table 18-3
Summary of Design Practice for Laboratory HVAC Systems
(Adapted from Labs21 [2005b], Table 2)

Component Standard Good Better

Air handler face velocity 500 fpm (2.5 m/s) 400 fpm (2.0 m/s) 300 fpm (1.5 m/s)
Air-handling unit 2.5 in. w.g. (623 Pa) 1.5 in. w.g. (374 Pa) 0.75 in. w.g. (187 Pa)
Energy recovery device
1.00 in. w.g. (249 Pa) 0.60 in. w.g. (149 Pa) 0.35 in. w.g. (87. Pa)
pressure drop
VAV control devices 0.3 to 0.6 in. w.g.
N/A 0.1 in. w.g. (25 Pa)
pressure drop (75 to 149 Pa)
Zone temperature control
0.5 in. w.g. (125 Pa) 0.30 in. w.g. (75 Pa) 0 (no coils)
coils pressure drop
Total supply and exhaust
4.0 in. w.g. (996 Pa) 2.25 in. w.g. (560 Pa) 1.20 in. w.g. (299 Pa)
ductwork pressure drop
0.7 in. w.g. (174 Pa) 0.7 in. w.g. (174 Pa) 0.75 in. w.g. (187 Pa)
Exhaust stack full design flow through full design flow through averaging half the design
pressure drop entire exhaust system, fan and stack only, flow, VAV system with
constant volume VAV system with bypass multiple stacks
Noise control (silencers) 1.0 in. w.g. (249 Pa) 0.25 in. w.g. (62 Pa) 0 (no device)
Total pressure drop 9.7 in. w.g. (2416 Pa) 6.2 in. w.g. (1544 Pa) 3.2 in. w.g. (797 Pa)
Approximate fan power
requirement, 1.8 (3.8) 1.2 (2.54) 0.6 (1.27)
W/cfm (W·L/s)

Reduction of HVAC System Pressure Losses

Reduction of static pressure losses in HVAC system design will result in lower motor
horsepower and energy consumption. Table 18-3 presents some design parameters that
can be used when designing HVAC systems.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY—RECOVERY
As presented in Chapter 10, there are many options for heat recovery on air exhausts.
If possible, separate fume hood and general laboratory exhausts and low-temperature
heating loops should be applied in laboratory buildings, as discussed in the following sub-
sections.
Separate Fume Hood and General Laboratory Exhausts
Because of the risk of cross-contamination, fume hood exhaust recovery is normally
done with lower-efficiency devices such as glycol heat recovery runaround loops or air-
to-air heat exchangers. Caution should be used with air-to-air heat recovery so that cross-
contamination does not occur or that it is below the permissible limits stated in ASHRAE
Standard 62.1 (ASHRAE 2013d).
Having a separate general laboratory exhaust provides an opportunity to install a
much more efficient energy device such as an enthalpy “total energy” wheel on this por-
tion of the evacuated air.
Low-Temperature Heating Loop
A low-temperature (110°F to 90°F [43°C to 32°C]) heating network provides an
opportunity to recover heat from boiler stacks, chiller condensers, heat pumps, or ground-
source heat pumps. Condensing boilers can be connected to this loop for high-efficiency
heating. This heating loop can then be used for economical heating (air heating), preheat,

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Figure 18-10
Low-
Temperature
Heating Loop

(Courtesy of
Pageau Morel)

reheat, domestic hot-water preheat, and even adiabatic humidification. Because many lab-
oratories use terminal reheat year round, they become excellent sinks for low-temperature
energy sources (with temperatures as low as 87°F to 69°F [31°C to 21°C]). Figure 18-10
shows a diagram with a low-temperature loop that permits heat recovery of many sources.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY—SOURCE
Options for producing the required energy for laboratory buildings, such as heat
recovery chiller/heat pumps, ground-source heat pumps, chillers, and other sources such
as condensing boilers and direct-contact heaters, are discussed in this section.
Heat Recovery Chillers/Heat Pumps
In a heating-driven climate, all internal heat gains should be recovered (from com-
puter rooms, electrical rooms, equipment rooms, etc.) by a chilled-water loop and trans-
ferred to perimeter spaces to supply the heating needs of a building. Recovered heat
should be considered for all heating needs before free cooling is considered.
Ground-Source Heat Pumps
If internal heat gains are not sufficient to fulfill the heating loads of perimeter spaces,
the potential offered by ground-source heat pumps should be analyzed.
Chillers
Whenever possible, use a high-chilled-water-temperature-difference chiller to reduce
flow rate and pumping horsepower. Variable-speed chillers should also be considered. It
is important to verify the performance of a chiller to make sure it can deliver high temper-
atures on the condenser side while running at part load. This is not the case for most cen-
trifugal chillers.
Other Sources
Condensing boilers and direct-contact heaters have an efficiency of 95%+ when sup-
plied with a return water temperature of ±90°F (±32°C). Figure 18-11 shows a schematic
for a direct-contact boiler.

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Figure 18-11
Direct-Contact
Boiler
(Natural Gas)

(Courtesy of
Pageau Morel)

ENERGY EFFICIENCY—CONTROLS
As described in Chapter 11, there are many potential control strategies for optimizing
a laboratory building’s energy efficiency. Those strategies should attempt to reduce the
amount of air exhausted from the building while maintaining a safe laboratory environ-
ment. Control strategies that enable this include VAV control of room and fume hood
exhaust airflows, demand-based control or active contaminant sensing of the laboratory
environment, and hydronic room sensible-only cooling equipment such as active or pas-
sive beams and fan-coil units.
Static Pressure Setpoint Reset
A control strategy should be developed to reset the static pressure setpoint in supply
and exhaust duct networks as the flow reduces while maintaining the required air supply
to all terminal units. A duct pressure model must be developed to predict the required set-
points at various flow conditions (Taylor 2007; Murphy 2011)..
Exhaust Airflow Reset
The discharge velocity in the fume exhaust stacks can be reduced if wind condition
and direction do not create a risk of reentrainment. Also, IAQ sensors can be used to
assess the quality of the fume exhaust air, and when it is evaluated as sufficiently “clean”
the discharge velocity can be reset (Carter et al. 2011).
Other Control Strategies
There are additional opportunities for improving the operational efficiency of an
HVAC system. Following is a list of potential measures that should be considered.
• Demand-controlled ventilation
• Static pressure reset
• Requires an algorithm to evaluate and determine minimum and maximum
VAV box damper positions, which are used to reset the static pressure. If
the most critical box airflow is greater than 95%, then static pressure can be
increased; if less than 90%, then it should be reduced.
• Notes:
• Ignore rogue boxes that are “out of control.”
• Specify how often to run the algorithm.

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• Define static pressure limits.

• Specify the location of the static pressure sensor.
• Supply air temperature reset
• VAV systems and some constant-volume systems operate with a constant
temperature discharge.
• Additional control sequences should be added to provide for good humid-
ity control.
• In VAV systems, boxes will throttle down if less cooling is needed.
• Under certain circumstances, this system may not be the most efficient sys-
tem, and at minimum flow certain zones may subcool under low load.
• Discharge temperature dynamic reset
• Adjust discharge temperature based on the most critical space temperature.
• Chiller plant (Taylor 2011a, 2011b, 2011c)
• Include a chiller sequencing program in the building automation system
(BAS).
• Optimize chiller machine sequencing.
• Optimize cooling tower operation.
• Program a chilled-water temperature reset.

ON-SITE ENERGY PRODUCTION

Energy could be produced on site by a cogeneration plant that generates electricity
and thermal energy, which in turn can be used to produce chilled water using absorption
chillers.
On-site energy production options also include solar photovoltaic and wind turbine
electricity production, solar thermal technologies, fuel cells, and steam- or gas-fired tur-
bine generators.

ONGOING COMMISSIONING
Laboratory systems are complex and need occasional recommissioning. Because
exhausted air is the major driver of the energy consumption of a laboratory building, con-
tinuous tracking of total air intake and exhaust provides a good indication of how well the
systems are functioning. Installing flow monitors in air intake and exhaust fan inlets is
simple and provides very good information on the operation of the systems. Figure 18-12
shows a continuous flow tracking graph of a laboratory system.
OPERATION/DESCRIPTION MANUAL
The operation/description manual contains the Owner’s Project Requirements (OPR),
Basis of Design (BOD), and conceptual design criteria for the building. It is normally
used as a learning and troubleshooting tool for the facility operator.

LABORATORY SUSTAINABILITY CHECKLIST

The laboratory sustainability checklist presented as Table 18-4 can help designers
review potential opportunities to include in the building design for enhancing the sustain-
ability of a laboratory. Because this checklist is an authorized adaptation of one firm’s
internal checklist, the presentation of the items does not correspond exactly to discussions
in this chapter. A version of this checklist in Microsoft® Excel® format is available with
this Guide at [Link]/LabDG.

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Figure 18-12
Airflow
Tracking

(Courtesy of
Pageau Morel)

Table 18-4
Laboratory Sustainability Checklist
(Adapted with permission from Pageau Morel)

Yes No +/–

RESOURCES CONSERVATION
Siting laboratory building to recover heat from an adjacent building
Shared services within the building
Sharing of rooms
Sharing of research equipment
Building thermal envelope
Create an energy simulation model
Optimize wall and roof thermal performance
Optimize glazing and SHGCs
Use the highest T possible on air and water?
Round or flat oval ductwork
Diversity factor on exhaust (air makeup) needs
Fume hood exhaust manifolding
No ceiling or partial ceiling in laboratories to take advantage of thermal inertia
Natural ventilation of atriums and public spaces
Vertical shafts to reduce horizontal ductwork
Carpool-dedicated parking
Construction waste management
Use of low-volatile-organic-compound (low-VOC) materials and caulking
Flexible open laboratory approach
WATER EFFICIENCY
Rainwater collection cistern
Process-cooling water loop
Central or local vacuum pumps to reduce potable water use

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Table 18-4
Laboratory Sustainability Checklist
(Adapted with permission from Pageau Morel)

Yes No +/–

Cooling coil condensate recovery

To feed cooling towers
To flush toilets
To cool exhaust with evaporative cooling and improve heat recovery efficiency
Low-flow plumbing fixtures
Dual-flush toilets
Electronically activated faucets and flush valves
Waterless urinals
Reverse osmosis rejection water recovery
Bioswale for gray water treatment
ENERGY EFFICIENCY—REDUCTION

Building thermal envelope optimization with energy modeling

Reduction to minimum ventilation rate
Zone presence sensors/night setback
IAQ sensors/demand-based control of laboratory air change rates
Local sensible cooling/airflow decoupling: fan-coils, active or passive beams
Plug-load reduction and diversification
Interior/exterior light shelves
Daylighting with artificial lighting controls
Dimming ballast
High-efficiency lighting (fixtures and sources)
White ceiling/pale-color walls and floor
Zone presence sensors for lighting control and setback
High-efficiency electrical transformers
Premium efficiency motors
Exhaust fans arrangements: paralleling, grouping, etc.
High-efficiency fan selection
Select for maximal efficiency at most probable operating condition
High-efficiency pump selection
Select for maximal efficiency at most probable operating condition
Static pressure reduction
Low-velocity HVAC units
High-efficiency duct fittings (low pressure losses)
High-efficiency equipment
Direct-driven fans
VAV systems with VFDs
More vertical shafts and fewer horizontal ducts
Dedicated fans for high static pressure zones

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Table 18-4
Laboratory Sustainability Checklist
(Adapted with permission from Pageau Morel)

Yes No +/–

Free cooling (water-side economizer)

Outdoor air preheating
Cooling tower free cooling
Recycle nonlaboratory air as laboratory makeup air?
Separate low- and high-temperature cooling loops?
Locate air returns above heat-producing equipment?
High-performance, low-flow fume hoods
Horizontal-sash fume hoods
Limited-height vertical-sash opening (sash stops)
Radiant hydronic heating/cooling concrete slabs
Variable exhaust stack geometry to maintain constant velocity exhaust
Booster fan on high static equipment exhaust
Carbon dioxide (CO2) sensors and demand-controlled ventilation in densely occupied spaces
Optimized design criteria (temperature, relative humidity, noise levels)
Ventilated cage racks in animal rooms
Tightly sealed ductwork
Low-pressure-loss filters
Timers on canopy hood exhaust
Variable exhaust fan exit velocity control (wind speed/direction sensing)
ENERGY EFFICIENCY—RECOVERY
Separate fume hood exhaust and general exhaust?
Enthalpy “total energy” heat recovery on general exhaust
Condensing boilers
Chillers’ condensers heat recovery
Exhaust air heat recovery
Heat pump chillers
Chilled-water energy recovery
From electrical rooms
From equipment rooms
From refrigerator rooms
From cold-room compressors
From computer rooms
From other sources
Adiabatic humidification
High-efficiency frost-free alternate-flow heat recovery on general exhaust

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Table 18-4
Laboratory Sustainability Checklist
(Adapted with permission from Pageau Morel)

Yes No +/–

ENERGY EFFICIENCY—SOURCE
Recover excess heat rejected from an adjacent building?
Low-temperature water-heating loop
Heat recovery chillers/heat pumps
Condensing boilers
Direct-contact boilers
Low-temperature water-heating loop
For preheating of outdoor air
For adiabatic humidification
For preheating of domestic hot water
Peak load management
Thermal energy storage
Full modulation of boilers’ burners
Variable-speed chillers
Lake-source heat pump
Variable primary flow
Condenser-water temperature reset
Off-peak energy storage
Ground-source heat pump
ENERGY EFFICIENCY—CONTROLS
Night airflow reduction/setback in controlled- or limited-access laboratory spaces
Vary exhaust stack discharge velocity based on wind direction?
Local alarm reminder to close the fume hood sashes
Peak load management
Static pressure setpoint reset
Local timers on canopy hoods and snorkels
Watchdogs from EMCS for all exhausts
Vary exhaust stack discharge velocity based on exhaust plenum contaminants?
Demand-based control of laboratory and animal holding room ventilation levels
ON-SITE ENERGY PRODUCTION
Wind turbines
Solar photovoltaic panels
Combined heat and power
Solar thermal collection panels
Fuel cells

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Table 18-4
Laboratory Sustainability Checklist
(Adapted with permission from Pageau Morel)

Yes No +/–

ONGOING COMMISSIONING
Continuous airflow tracking
Postoccupancy performance verification
Annual verification of pressure setpoints
Recalibration of control sensors
ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION
Adsorption filters on air exhaust
Air scrubber on exhaust
Used chemicals recovery management plan

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Index

A
acceptance phase 231
active and passive beams 101–103, 200–201, 294–95
~
American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists (ACGIH) 4, 132, 133, 156
adjacent building effects 148–50 American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA)
administrative spaces 120 4, 60
aesthetics 151 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 5
Air Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Insti- American Society for Healthcare Engineering
tute (AHRI) 4 (ASHE) 5
air control devices 174–78 American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 5
air distribution system 67–69, 72, 74, 236, 266 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) 5
air intake location 34, 146 American Society of Plumbing Engineers (ASPE) 5
air introduction 210 American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE) 5, 60
air lock 33, 38, 212, 253, 255, 264 analytical laboratories 14
Air Movement and Control Association International animal biosafety level (ABSL) 244
(AMCA) 88, 90–91 animal laboratories 3, 6, 14, 31, 35, 204–205, 208,
air quality 25, 31, 33–34, 107, 121, 155, 198, 292–93 243–44, 246, 249, 261–65, 267–71, 290, 293
animal types used in research 246
air recirculation 119–20
ANSI/AIHA/ASSE Z9.5 35, 60–62, 91, 120, 153,
air system balancing 213
156, 219
air transfer 23, 210–11
anteroom 33, 248, 253
air treatment 25, 33–34, 131–34 appliance load 31
airflow around buildings 146 ASHRAE 5, 12, 156–57, 216, 287
airflow direction 207–209, 217 ASHRAE dilution/concentration equations 157
airflow from cleanest to dirtiest 208–209 ASHRAE Standard 110 60, 156, 184, 215
airflow measurement devices 176–77 ASHRAE Standard 62.1 35, 120
airflow patterns 146, 207, 209, 211–12, 215, 275, 278 ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 118
airflow tracking 195, 263–64, 301–302 Associated Air Balance Council (AABC) 216
air-handling unit (AHU) 97, 104–105, 202 Association for Assessment and Accreditation of
air-to-air energy recovery 161–62, 171 Laboratory Animal Care International
alarms 61, 111, 148, 179, 181, 204, 247, 254, 258, (AAALAC) 3, 14
263, 266 Association of Energy Services Professionals
allowable concentration limits 63, 131–33 (AESP) 4
American Association for Laboratory Animal Sci- audits of laboratory systems 232
ence (AALAS) 3 autoclave 260
American Biological Safety Association (ABSA) 4 auxiliary air 103–104
American Chemical Society (ACS) 4, 42 auxiliary air fume hood 46, 104
[Link] Page 310 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:36 AM

B
baseboard heating 73 biosafety level (BSL) classification 244
Basis of Design (BOD) 17–19, 22, 39, 226, 228–29 biosafety level 1 (BSL-1) 246
benchtop hood 44 biosafety level 2 (BSL-2) 246
biocontainment laboratories 27, 241 biosafety level 3 (BSL-3) 202, 246–48, 250
biological containment 241 biosafety level 3 (BSL-3) enhanced space 248–49,
biological containment laboratories 14, 241 252, 271
biological laboratories 13 biosafety level 3 agricultural large-animal facilities
biological safety cabinet (BSC) 7, 16, 46–51, 53, 56, (BSL-3Ag) 249
60, 76, 185–86, 215, 217, 220, 253
biosafety level 4 (BSL-4) 202, 250–52, 254–60
biological safety cabinet (BSC) classification 46–51,
53 biosafety level 4 (BSL-4) cabinet laboratory 252–54
biological safety cabinet (BSC) performance testing biosafety level 4 (BSL-4) suit laboratory 255–60
217 blade damper 175
Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Labo- building information modeling (BIM) 289
ratories (BMBL) 35, 46, 244 bypass damper 78, 92–94, 297
biosafety level (BSL) 35, 244–45 bypass hood 179, 181

C
cage 266, 268–69 compound pumping 128
cage rack 268–69 computational fluid dynamics (CFD) 72, 158–59,
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety 275–83
(CCOHS) 9 condenser water energy recovery 169–70
canopy hood 49, 53–55, 76, 188, 296 condensing 138–39
cascade control 195–96 constant-volume fume hood 58, 77, 179–80, 237
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 8 constant-volume system 77–78, 95–97, 119, 174,
central air-handling equipment 236 209, 236
central system 24, 36, 74, 96–98, 202 construction checklists 230
centrifugal fan 85–89 construction documents 27, 228–31, 267
centrifuge 126 construction phase 213, 230
certification for cabinets 60 containable spaces 260
certification requirements 26 containment 53, 61–62, 66, 108, 156, 178, 180, 231,
challenge velocity 210 241–43, 255, 265
chemical exhaust 120 containment barrier 38, 242, 247–49
chemical fume hood 42–44, 46, 58, 153, 156 containment laboratories 241
chemical laboratories 14 contaminant 31, 34, 38, 117, 134, 188, 208–209, 212,
chemical storage 59, 76, 127 278, 292
chilled beam (see active and passive beams) contamination 101, 106, 141, 146, 155, 162, 172,
cleanroom 15, 30, 33, 120, 189, 207, 209, 216 189, 197, 207–208, 263
climate 146, 152, 172, 237 control strategies 26, 107, 173–205, 300
clinical laboratories 14 Controlled Environment Testing Association
codes and standards 14–15, 34–35, 63, 88, 90, 111, (CETA) 6
131, 177, 183, 215–16, 220, 242–43, 252, 289 controls 91, 95, 173–205, 237, 267, 300
comfort 20, 23, 25, 30, 68–69, 72, 98, 101, 103, 220, cooling load 31–32, 101, 262
246, 263, 266, 269, 276–77, 281 corridor ceiling distribution 37
commissioning 27, 225–33, 267, 301 cost 27, 221–22, 235–39, 289
commissioning plan 27, 226, 228–29 critical space 204, 212
commissioning process 27, 225–26, 228 critical system 212, 227, 247

D
decontamination 221, 253, 257, 259, 264, 267–68 design intent 19, 39, 228, 267
dedicated exhaust system 36, 53, 58, 79–81, 236 design phase 228–29, 286
demand-based control 121–22, 174, 197–98, 201, diffuser 39, 66–72, 207, 210–11, 213, 276–78, 281
292 diffusion pump 126

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[Link] Page 311 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:36 AM

dilution 134, 157, 174, 195 documentation 20, 22, 27, 29, 222, 228, 232, 267
dilution fan 86, 88–89 drainage 151
direct equipment exhaust 187–88 duct construction 108–17
direct pressure control 190–92 duct design 83–84
direct-drive fan 86–87, 297
directional airflow 23, 38 duct leakage 111–14
dispersion modeling 90, 145, 153, 155–57 duct material 112, 114–16, 237
distillation hood 44 duct system components 110
diversity factor 21, 235–36, 238 ductwork pressure testing 214

E
economic analysis 27, 172 enthalpic energy recovery 166
economics 172, 227, 235, 238 envelope 208, 263, 292
effluent decontamination system (EDS) 248–50 equipment balancing 214
electronics laboratories 15
evaporative cooling 167, 169
elevated receptors 155
emergency modes of operation 203 exergy analysis 289
emergency power 252, 256, 265 exhaust air system 24, 36, 58, 63, 74–83, 91–92, 95,
emergency situation 202–203 115, 117, 119, 150–51, 209, 214, 219, 221, 231,
emissions characterization 155 236
energy consumption 21, 115, 117, 119, 151, 174, exhaust duct 46, 72, 79, 83–84, 110, 112, 115–17,
181, 199, 286, 288–89, 292, 297–98 203, 214, 271, 296
energy cost 120, 222, 238, 288 exhaust fan 79–80, 84–86, 90–94, 109, 202–204, 292
energy efficiency 25, 28, 59, 61, 115, 117–18, 287,
exhaust hood 41–64, 66–67, 77, 90, 103, 148, 156,
289, 292, 296, 298–300
209–10, 231, 293
energy modeling 287–89
energy recovery 26, 120–21, 161–72, 293 exhaust hood selection matrix 57
energy savings 58–60, 62, 86, 118–19, 144, 172, 174, exhaust plume 142, 150, 158
183, 198, 203 exhaust stack 25, 78, 80, 84, 91, 141–59, 300

F
face velocity 41, 44, 46–48, 59, 61, 66–67, 107, 171, flame rating 116–17
179–82, 207, 210, 215–16, 231, 280, 296, 298 flame spread 63, 117
failure 192, 195, 202, 204, 227, 265–67 flammable and solvent storage cabinets 16, 186–87
fan type 85–86, 88, 107 flexibility 56, 98, 119, 174, 227, 270
fan-powered dilution 134
floor-mounted hood 44
filter housing 136–37
filter retaining system 136 fume hood 16, 41–44, 46, 58–63, 66–67, 88, 104,
filters 105, 108, 134–36, 248–49, 266, 297 148, 156, 174, 179–84, 207, 210, 220, 282, 293
filtration 105–106, 134–36 fume hood controls 76, 91, 174, 179, 237
fixed minimum airflow rate 195, 262 fume hood performance testing 220
fixed-plate heat exchanger 165 functional performance 227–28, 231–32

G
gas-phase filters 108, 135–36 Green Building Certification Institute (GBCI) 6
general HVAC equipment 212, 214 Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals
general laboratory exhaust 188, 294–95, 298 35, 205, 244, 270
glove box 55–56, 76, 252

H
hazard 19, 29, 51, 56, 63, 210, 242 health and safety HVAC equipment 212, 215
health 8–10, 63, 114, 131–32, 134, 156, 180, 212, heat 21, 30–31, 53–54, 76, 120, 125–26, 162–63,
215, 242–43, 246, 263, 265, 267, 270 167–70, 187, 239, 298–99

Index 311
[Link] Page 312 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:36 AM

heat exchanger 162, 165 high-performance building design process 286

heat pipe 163–64, 171 hospital laboratories 14
heat recovery (see also energy recovery) 120, 298–99 hot-water waste energy recovery 170
heat wheel 163–64, 171
humidification 106–107, 203
heating and cooling coils 96, 98, 106–108, 168
heating load 31, 72–73, 262 humidity 30, 103–104, 203–204, 269–70
high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters 46, 77, hydronic cooling 200
106, 135, 220, 248–49, 259, 268 hydronic system 200, 213

I
indoor air quality (IAQ) 19, 25, 31, 33, 107–108, International Code Council (ICC) 6, 63
285, 292 International Institute for Sustainable Laboratories
induced draft fan 86, 88–89 (I2SL) 7, 9, 287
initial cost 59, 172, 235, 237–38 International Mechanical Code® (IMC®) 63
Institute for Laboratory Animal Research (ILAR)
6, 205 International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering
Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (ISPE) 7
(IEST) 6 interstitial space 37
instrumentation laboratories 15 isolation damper 93–94, 202

L
Laboratories for the 21st Century (Labs21) 9, 287 life-cycle cost 27, 237–40
laboratory equipment 15 life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) 27, 237–40, 289
laboratory sustainability checklist 301–302
laboratory types 13 lighting 31, 32, 270
laminar flow clean air station 54 liquid desiccant 166
lasers 125–26 loads for comfort 20
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) 8
layout 32, 34, 37–39, 58, 65, 71, 76, 79–82, 91–92, loads for safety 23
95–97, 100, 105, 129, 236 local air system 24

M
maintenance 219, 221, 267, 269 mixed-flow fan 86–88
maintenance cost 222, 238 mock-ups 230
maintenance personnel 20, 27, 220–23, 232 modular design 37
manifolded exhaust system 36, 58, 80–83, 94, 117, monitoring 58, 60–61, 121, 179, 205, 225, 233, 254,
236–37 258, 263, 266, 301
materials testing laboratories 15 multiple exterior shafts 37
minimizing natural resources consumption 290–91 multiple interior shafts 37
minimum ventilation rate/flow/air changes 61–63, multiple-fan system 98, 107, 203, 265
91, 93, 96, 118, 121, 174, 182–83, 195–96, 198, multiple-speed fans 212
262, 292–93 multispeed system 98

N
nanotechnology laboratories 15 National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
National Environmental Balancing Bureau (NEBB) 8, 286
215 National Research Council (NRC) 9
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 7, 63 National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) 7
negative pressure room 32
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health neutral pressure room 33
(NIOSH) 10, 132, 156 NFPA 45 35, 63, 91, 120, 161
National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) noise 25, 110, 151, 269–70
7, 226, 287 NSF International 7, 60, 220
National Institutes of Health (NIH) 8, 14 NSF/ANSI 49 35, 46, 60, 215, 217, 220

312 ASHRAE Laboratory Design Guide, Second Edition

[Link] Page 313 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:36 AM

O
occupancy and operations phase 232 on-site energy production 301
occupants 32, 58, 67, 74, 131, 133–34, 207, 222–23 operating cost 59, 77, 96, 105, 120, 238, 269
occupational health limit 131–32
operation and maintenance (O&M) 27, 36, 219–23,
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
266
(OSHA) 10, 132, 156
odor 133–34 Owner’s Project Requirements (OPR) 17–18, 39,
off-peak loads 72 225–28, 230
ongoing commissioning 233, 301 oxidation 139

P
parallel pumping 128 predesign phase 226, 228, 286–87
particulate filters 135–36 pressure class 90, 110
pathogen 244, 249–50, 260, 267 pressure differential 24, 38, 93–94, 96, 189–91, 208,
perchloric acid hood 46, 77, 84, 86, 88, 110, 162 212–13, 215, 217, 263–64
performance testing 111, 215–17 pressure drop 105, 118–19, 129, 171, 175, 185, 298
personnel protection 207, 249 pressure mapping 23, 32
physical laboratories 15
pressure relationship 32–33, 85, 192, 207
planning documents 39
planning phase 30, 32, 36 pressure transducer 176–78
plug-load reduction 296 pressurization 33, 83, 189–90, 192, 217–18, 263–64
plume height 142, 153 primary air system 65–122
plume rise 142–45, 155 Prudent Practices in the Laboratory: Handling and
pneumatic damper 175 Management of Chemical Hazards 35, 262
positive pressure room 33 pumping configurations 127–29

Q
radiant panels 74 remodeling 233
radiochemistry laboratories 14 retrocommissioning 233
radioisotope hood 46, 77 retrofitting 233
recirculation 19, 49, 74, 119–20, 147, 153–54, 208, reverse-flow plate exchanger 165, 168
263 risk 19, 227, 242–44
redundancy 94–95, 227, 254, 258, 265–66 risk assessment 19, 29, 227, 242
reentrainment 34, 90, 119, 141, 146, 292 risk group 242
refrigeration machine energy recovery 168 room air velocity 66
relative static pressures around buildings 147 room temperature control 199–200
reliability 36, 94–95, 227 runaround loop 162–63, 171

S
safety 4–5, 7, 9–11, 23, 25, 29, 35, 41, 46, 61, 63–64, series pumping 128
111, 131–33, 156, 172, 180–81, 212, 214–15, Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’
227, 232, 242–43, 263, 265, 267, 277, 286 National Association (SMACNA) 108, 110–12
safety factor 132–33 shower 252, 255–56, 258
sanitation 270 slot hood 53–54
sash 44–45, 58–59, 61, 91, 174, 179, 181–82, 223, smoke developed rating 117
293, 296 smoke testing 218, 231
scrubbing 136–37 snorkel 54–55, 76, 184
sealing 32, 111–12, 214, 247–49, 253, 255, 266–67, spot exhaust 54
296 stack design 25, 84, 141
SEFA 1 42, 215 stack effect 32, 148
select agent 243–44 stack height 78, 142–44, 151, 155
sensible energy recovery equipment 162 stack velocity 144, 153

Index 313
[Link] Page 314 Wednesday, July 8, 2015 9:36 AM

stack-tip downwash 142, 144, 147, 155 sustainability 5–8, 11, 28, 285–306
storage cabinet 16, 59, 186–87 sustainability checklist 301
student demonstration hood 56 synthesis laboratories 14
supply air 23, 25–26, 32–33, 36, 66, 73–74, 95–96,
system redundancy 265
106–108, 200, 262, 268–69
supply air system 24–25, 67, 69, 75, 95–96, 107 system response time 184
supply duct 84, 109–10, 114–15, 214, 296 system sizing 19
support spaces 15 system verification 231

T
teaching laboratories 14–15, 238, 293 The Scientific Equipment and Furniture Association
temperature 30, 96, 106, 114–16, 127, 199–200, 204, (SEFA) 8, 42
211, 269–70, 277–78, 281 thermal comfort 101, 276, 281
temperature gradients 211 thermal dispersion 177–78
temperature sensor location 199–200 thermosiphon 165–67, 171
testing 6, 60–62, 88, 111–12, 114, 207, 212, 214–18, tracer gas testing 61, 158, 275, 282
220, 231–32, 249, 252, 282 training 27, 222–23, 228, 232
testing, adjusting, and balancing (TAB) 26, 212–16, training requirements 228
231, 233 transfer air 32–33, 210
The American Institute of Architects (AIA) 4 turbulent airflow 148, 153–54, 279
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engi- turbulent transport RANS models 279
neers (CIBSE) 6 two-speed/variable-speed pumping 129

U
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services unitary system 99, 100–101
(HHS) 9 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 157 14, 260
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 9 unoccupied setback control 196–97
U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) 8, 287 utility corridor 36
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) 10 utility distribution 36–37

V
vacuum pump 126, 290 ventilation effectiveness 28, 275, 281
variable-air-volume (VAV) fume hood 58–59, 62, 76, ventilation rate 72, 121, 195–96, 205, 262
174, 180–84, 220, 237 ventilation system 60, 62, 119, 197, 219, 221, 269,
variable-air-volume (VAV) system 58, 77–78, 91, 93, 275
95, 98–100, 119, 145, 153, 174, 209, 236
venturi valve 88, 175
vector-borne disease 244
velocity pressure 147, 176–77 vibration 25, 31, 110, 151, 270
ventilated balance enclosure (VBE) 52 volumetric offset control 192–95
ventilated enclosure 56 vortex shedding 178

W
waste 264–65 weighing station 52
water conservation 290 wind effects 34, 143–48, 150
water treatment 126–27
water-cooled loads 125 wind tunnel modeling 158
water-to-air energy recovery 168 workstation layout and placement 38–39

Z
zone air distribution 66, 72, 96–97 zone presence sensors 296
zone heating 72–74 zoonotic agent 244, 249, 267

314 ASHRAE Laboratory Design Guide, Second Edition

 The Complete Laboratory HVAC Resource
ASHRAE
ASHRAE Laboratory Design Guide is a comprehensive reference manual for the
planning, design, and operation of laboratories. It gives engineers, owners, and
system operators the design and control strategies they need to reduce the
LABORATORY
DESIGN GUIDE
laboratory’s energy footprint while ensuring safety, providing good comfort and
indoor air quality, and protecting the integrity of laboratory experiments.
The Guide is organized around a typical project, progressing through the basic

ASHRAE LABORATORY DESIGN GUIDE

steps of planning, design, construction, and operation and maintenance. It offers
basic background information on laboratories, including their various types Planning and Operation of
and the typical equipment found in them, to provide a basic understanding
of laboratories and their importance as well as their different functions and
needs. The book covers topics such as exhaust hoods, primary air systems,
Laboratory HVAC Systems
process cooling, air treatment, exhaust stack design, airflow patterns and Second Edition
system balancing, energy recovery, the laboratory commissioning process, and
the economics of both initial and life-cycle costs. A dedicated chapter gives
guidance on laboratories that specialize in biological containment and animal
research, addressing envelope design, system reliability, redundancy, proper
space pressurization, biohazard containment and control, product protection,
and sanitation.
Updated to reflect current standards and industry practices, this second edition
also adds two new chapters: one on high-performance building design concepts
for sustainability and one with guidelines on evaluating airflow patterns and
contaminant concentrations using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) computer
modeling. Finally, included with this Guide are expanded web links to industry
standards and resources as well as design tools that help illustrate the features
of laboratories and provide practical aids for design.

Second Edition
Comprehensive guidance on
ISBN 978-1-936504-98-5
• Loads, equipment, processes, air treatment,
exhaust stack design, airflow, and balancing
• Designing for energy efficiency and sustainability
1791 Tullie Circle • Initial and life-cycle costs
Atlanta, GA 30329-2305 • Operation and maintenance for safety and efficiency
404-636-8400 (worldwide) 9 781936 50498 5
• Commissioning for laboratory systems
[Link] Product code: 90558 8/15
Includes access to bonus digital tools for learning and design

ASHRAE_Lab Des Guide_Cover [Link] 1 7/24/2015 [Link] PM