HYDROLOGY

Reporter: Jose Paulo G. Umbac

Topic Outline

1. Difference between Hydrology and Hydraulics

2. The Hydrologic Cycle and the Human Impact

3. Interrelationships of Phases of the Hydrologic Cycle

 Evapotranspiration

 Precipitation

 Infiltration/Percolation

 Surface/Subsurface Runoff

 Groundwater

4. Philippine Watersheds

 Delineation of Drainage Area

 Sub-basing/Physical Properties Determination

 Application in the Term Paper

CHAPTER I
Hydrology and the Hydrological Cycle
 HYDROLOGY

I. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HYDROLOGY AND HYDRAULIC CYCLE

INVENTORY OF WATER ON EARTH

Water on Earth Ice Caps and

Glaciers 1% Water on Land
3%
14%
Shallow
Groundwater 11%

97% Deep Groundwater

74%
Lakes, Soil
moisture,
Ocean Water on Land atmosphere, rivers

FRESH WATER ON EARTH IS LIMITED

0.78%
2.22%

97.00%

Freshwater Glaciers Ocean

HYDRAULICS vs HYDROLOGY

hýdōr water hýdōr water

HYDRAULICS HYDROLOGY
aulos pipes lógos study

HYDRAULICS –Deals with the conveyance HYDROLOGY – “water science”, scientific

of water or other liquids through pipes or study of the movement, distribution, and
other artificial channels, and with the VS quality of water on Earth and other planets,
various mechanical applications of the force including the water cycle, water resources
exerted by moving liquids. and environmental watershed sustainability

CHAPTER I
Hydrology and the Hydrological Cycle
 HYDROLOGY

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE AND THE HUMAN IMPACT

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE or WATER CYCLE

It is continuous circulation of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth.

THE HUMAN IMPACT

Key areas that affect the cycle:
1. Greenhouse gases emissions – Global warming intensifies the water cycle
2. Deforestation – greatly affects the trees’ and plants’ purpose
3. Increasing of Impervious Surfaces – reducing the area where infiltration can occur
4. Use of toxic chemicals in agriculture and damping wastes on land

CHAPTER I
Hydrology and the Hydrological Cycle
 HYDROLOGY

II. INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF PHASES OF THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

THE PHASES OF CYCLE

The process by which the water or liquid from any bodies of
Evaporation water turns into a gas/water vapor into the atmosphere
Evapotranspiration
The biological process where trees & plants take up water from
Transpiration
the soil and release large amount of water vapor into the air
through their leaves
The process where ice and snow, changes into vapor/gas without
Sublimation
` moving through the liquid phase

Condensation The process where water changes back into a liquid

Deposition or The reverse process of sublimation; Water vapor (a gas) changes into
Desublimation ice or snow flakes (solid) without going through the liquid phase

Transportation The movement of solid, liquid and gaseous water throughout the atmosphere

The process by which water falls in the form of rain, snow, sleet, drizzle and hail
Precipitation
` on the Earth’s surface

Plant Uptake Water from the groundwater flow and soil moisture is absorbed by plants/trees

Surface Runoffs Excess water that overflows over the land surface & through channels

Surface Flows Water flowing in streams, rivers and through channels

Infiltration The process by which precipitation is abstracted by seeping into the; the downward
movement of water from the land surface into porous soil or rock
Factors affecting Infiltration:
1. Precipitation (Intensity) 3. Land cover
2. Soil Characteristics 4. Slope of the Land

Interflow Water flowing laterally in the layer above the saturated

zone
Percolation Water infiltrates deeper towards the groundwater/aquifer

Groundwater Flow Water flowing in the groundwater/saturated zone towards a body of water

Base Flow The discharge of water in a body of water from the groundwater flow

The process is repeated

CHAPTER I
Hydrology and the Hydrological Cycle
 HYDROLOGY

III. PHILIPPINE WATERSHED

 What is Watershed?

It is simply the geographic area through

which water flows across the land and drains into
a common body of water, whether a stream, river,
lake, or ocean. Watershed boundaries are based
on topography – highest points are ridges and
lowest are valley and streams.

 What is Topographic Map?

It is a representation of the earth, part of it.

Its distinctive characteristics of it are the use
contour lines to show the shape of the Earth’s
surface. It shows different kinds of geographic
features, like rivers, streams, elevations, etc.

 Reading a Topographic Map

 Contours are imaginary line that connects points of equal elevation

 Contours always connect but not always within the boundaries of your map
 Contour interval is the vertical distance between contours
 Contour lines never cross each other
 Contour lines close together indicate steep slope, farther apart, indicate gentle slope
 Direction of flow is always perpendicular to contour lines

CHAPTER I
Hydrology and the Hydrological Cycle
 HYDROLOGY

CHAPTER I
Hydrology and the Hydrological Cycle
 Negros Oriental State University
College of Engineering and Architecture
Civil Engineering Department
Main Campus II, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City

CE 427
HYDROLOGY

Submitted by:

Marianne Grace B. Gazo

Juvie Grace G. Miro

Submitted to:

Engr. Irismay T. Jumawan

Instructor
 CHAPTER II: WEATHER BASICS (Meteorology): Atmospheric
Waters
Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and
forecasting.
Weather is the mix of events that happen each day in our atmosphere. Weather is different in
different parts of the world and changes over minutes, hours, days and weeks. Most weather
happens in the troposphere, the part of Earth’s atmosphere that is closest to the ground.

The Atmosphere
Earth's atmosphere is a mixture of gases that surrounds our home planet. Besides
providing us with something to breathe, the atmosphere helps make life on Earth possible in
several ways. It shields us from most of the harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the
Sun, warms the surface of our planet by about 33° C (59° F) via the greenhouse effect, and
largely prevents extreme differences between daytime and nighttime temperatures.

Composition:
Nitrogen and oxygen are by far the most common; dry air is composed of about
78% nitrogen (N2) and about 21% oxygen (O2). Argon, carbon dioxide (CO2), and many other
gases are also present in much lower amounts; each makes up less than 1% of the atmosphere's
mixture of gases. The atmosphere also includes
 78% nitrogen (N2)
 21% oxygen (O2
 1 % other gases
 ( like Argon and Carbon Dioxide)
Layers of Earth's Atmosphere
 The troposphere is the lowest layer of earth’s atmosphere. Most of the mass (about 75-
80%) of the atmosphere is in the troposphere. Most types of clouds are found in the
troposphere, and almost all weather occurs within this layer. The troposphere extends
upward to about 10 km (6.2 miles or about 33,000 feet) above sea level.
 The Stratosphere- The bottom of the stratosphere is around 10 km (6.2 miles or about
33,000 feet) above the ground at middle latitudes. the stratosphere is very dry; air there
contains little water vapor. Because of this, few clouds are found in this layer; almost all
clouds occur in the lower, more humid [Link] is abundant in the stratosphere,
it heats this layer as it absorbs energy from incoming ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.
 The Mesosphere- It extends from about 50 to 85 km (31 to 53 miles) above our planet.
Temperature decreases with height throughout the mesosphere. The coldest temperatures in
Earth's atmosphere, about -90° C (-130° F), are found near the top of this layer. The top of
the mesosphere, called the mesopause, is the coldest part of Earth's atmosphere, with
temperatures averaging about minus 130 degrees F (minus 90 C).
  Thermosphere - It extends from about 90 km (56 miles) to between 500 and 1,000 km
(311 to 621 miles) above our [Link] thermosphere is considered part of Earth's
atmosphere, but air density is so low that most of this layer is what is normally thought
of as outer space. This is the layer where the auroras occur.
 Exosphere - The uppermost region of Earth’s atmosphere where molecules escape or exit
into space. Very thin layer and the farthest layer of the earth.

Atmospheric Stability
 Atmospheric stability determines whether or not air will rise and cause storms, sink and
cause clear skies, or essentially do nothing.
Basic Forms of Stability:

 A) If an air parcel is warmer than its surrounding environment, then it will be less dense
than its surroundings and will rise like a hot air balloon. This is Unstable Air and has the
potential for creating storms.
 B) If an air parcel is cooler than its surrounding environment, then it will be denser than
its environment and will sink. This is Stable Air which generally leads to clear skies.
 C) If an air parcel is the same temperature as its surrounding environment, then the parcel
will not move of its own accord. This is Neutral Air.

Adiabatic - A process in which heat is neither added nor subtracted from the system.
Temperature changes due to an expansion or compression
Diabatic - A process in which heat is added or subtracted from the system, e.g., solar
heating, radiation cooling.
Lapse rate (measure of stability)
- rate at which temperature decreases with height.
- in [K / km] or [°C / km]
Introduction to Cloud Physics: Nucleation,Growth and Distribution

What is cloud Physics?

It is the study of the physical processes that lead to the

formation, growth, and the precipitation of clouds.

What are Clouds?

Are a condensed form of water (water droplets and

iced particles) suspended in the air in the atmosphere.

Why are Clouds important?

1. Clouds are a major factor in the earth’s

radiation budget because they interact strongly
with both short and long-wave radiation.

2. Clouds are key step in the hydrological cycle.

3. Clouds provide a medium for (heterogeneous) chemical reactions.

4. Clouds affect significantly vertical transport and redistribution of species in the
atmosphere.

5. Clouds couple to the water cycle because they are the vessels in which precipitation
develops.
 FORMATION AND NUCLEATION

CLOUD FORMATIONS ARE

COMPOST OF:
 MICROSCOPIC DROPLETS OF
LIQUID WATER (WARM
CLOUDS)
 TINY CRYSTALS OF ICE
(COLD CLOUDS)
 BOTH WARM AND COLD
CLOUDS (MIXED PHASE
CLOUDS)

NUCLEATION
the process of initiation of a new phase in a supercooled (for liquid) or supersaturated
(for solution or vapor) environment.

NUCLEATION PROCESSES
a) HETEROGENEOUS: Droplets form on Nuclei
b) HOMOGENEOUS: Droplets form in a pure environment

PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE FORMATION OF THE CLOUDS

1. SUPERSATURATION
2. KELVIN EFFECT
3. COLLISION-CAOLESCENCE PROCESS
4. RIMING
5. AGGREGATION
6. BERGERON PROCESS

 SUPERSATURATION
Process wherein saturated air cools, water stays in vapor form, even though it is beyond
the saturation point, resulting in supersaturaion and humidity becomes greater than 100%
 Kelvin effect
-describes the change in saturation vapor pressure due to a curved surface.
At small radii, the amount of supersaturation needed for condensation to occur is
so large, that it does not happen naturally.
  Collision - Coalescence process
Droplets suspended in the air will interact with each other, either by colliding and
bouncing off each other or by combining to form a larger droplet.
 RIMING
WHEN SUPERCOOLED LIQUID DROP COLLID WITH SOLID SNOWFLAKES

 AGGREGATION
WHEN TWO SOLID SNOWFLAKES COLLIDE AND COMBINE

 BERGERON PROCESS
IS THE IN-CLOUD FORMATION OF ICE PARTICLES FROM SUPERCOOLED
WATER DROPLETS(droplets that stay liquid below normal freezing point due to
surface tension) INTERACTING WITH ICE NUCLEI TO FORM LARGER
[Link] WATER EVAPORATES, AND IS THEN DEPOSITED
ON THE ICE CRYSTALS

Solar Radiation and Earth’s Energy Balance

Solar Radiation is the energy radiated from the sun in the form of electromagnetic waves,
including visible and ultraviolet light and infrared radiation.

Types
1) Incoming radiation from the sun
- it is a short wavelength or solar radiation.
2) Outgoing radiation from earth
- it is a long wavelength or terrestrial
radiation.

Earth's Energy balance describes how the incoming

energy from the sun is used and returned to space. If
incoming and outgoing energy are in balance, the earth's temperature remains constant. The
energy balance drives the weather and life on earth. If the radiation emitted by Earth just escaped
back into space, Earth’s surface would be very, very COLD! The atmosphere is absorbing some
of that radiation and keeping Earth comfortably warm. This is the Greenhouse Effect.
Forms of thermal energy transfer in the climate system

• Conduction – the spreading of heat through molecular vibrations

• Advection/convection – the spreading of heat in fluids and gases through the flow of
matter
• Radiation – the transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves

 100% of the energy entering

earth’s atmosphere comes from
the sun.
 The 70% of the sun’s energy that
is absorbed by the earth’s surface,
clouds, and atmosphere causes
warming.

 ~50% of the incoming energy is

absorbed by the earth’s surface
i.e. the land and oceans.
 ~30% is directly reflected back to space by clouds, the earth’s surface and different gases
and particles in the atmosphere (the earth's albedo is 0.3 on average).
 ~20% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds.
 The 70% of the sun’s energy that is absorbed by the earth’s surface, clouds, and
atmosphere causes warming.

GENERAL CIRCULATION: THERMAL CIRCULATION

AND EARTH'S ROTATION
GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
(Atmospheric Circulation) is the worldwide system of winds, which transport warm air from the
equator where solar heating is greatest towards the higher latitudes.

The Global Circulation

Over the major parts of the Earth's surface there are large-scale wind circulations present. The
global circulation can be described as the world-wide system of winds by which the necessary
transport of heat from tropical to polar latitudes is accomplished.

In each hemisphere there are three cells (Hadley cell, Ferrel cell and Polar cell) in which air
circulates through the entire depth of the troposphere. The troposphere is the name given to the
vertical extent of the atmosphere from the surface, right up to between 10 and 15 km high. It is
the part of the atmosphere where most of the weather takes place.

Coriolis Effect
- an effect describing the fact
that because of the rotation of
the Earth, something moving
from north to south, or with any
north or south component at all
to it, will appear to curve
because the Earth underneath it
will be moving.

The Three Cells of

Atmospheric Circulation
In each hemisphere there are three
cells (Hadley cell, Ferrel cell and
Polar cell) in which air circulates
through the entire depth of the
troposphere.

The Three Cells: Hadley, Ferrel, Polar Cell

In each hemisphere there are three cells (Hadley cell, Ferrel cell and Polar cell) in
which air circulates through the entire depth of the troposphere. The troposphere is
the name given to the vertical extent of the atmosphere from the surface, right up
to between 10 and 15 km high. It is the part of the atmosphere where most of the
weather takes place.

• Hadley cell

The largest cells extend from the equator to between 30 and 40 degrees north and
south, and are named Hadley cells, after English meteorologist George Hadley.

Within the Hadley cells, the trade winds blow towards the equator, then ascend
near the equator as a broken line of thunderstorms, which forms the Inter-Tropical-
Convergence Zone (ITCZ). From the tops of these storms, the air flows towards
higher latitudes, where it sinks to produce high-pressure regions over the
subtropical oceans and the world's hot deserts, such as the Sahara desert in North
Africa.

• Ferrel cell

In the middle cells, which are known as the Ferrel cells, air converges at low
altitudes to ascend along the boundaries between cool polar air and the warm
subtropical air that generally occurs between 60 and 70 degrees north and south.
This often occurs around the latitude of the UK which gives us our unsettled
weather. The circulation within the Ferrel cell is complicated by a return flow of
air at high altitudes towards the tropics, where it joins sinking air from the Hadley
cell.

The Ferrel cell moves in the opposite direction to the two other cells (Hadley cell
and Polar cell) and acts rather like a gear. In this cell the surface wind would flow
from a southerly direction in the northern hemisphere. However, the spin of the
Earth induces an apparent motion to the right in the northern hemisphere and left in
the southern hemisphere. This deflection is caused by the Coriolis effect and leads
to the prevailing westerly and south-westerly winds often experienced over the
UK.

• Polar cell
The smallest and weakest cells are the Polar cells, which extend from between 60
and 70 degrees north and south, to the poles. Air in these cells sinks over the
highest latitudes and flows out towards the lower latitudes at the surface.

It gives rise to the Earth’s climate zones.

THERMAL CIRCULATION
-a circulation generated by pressure gradients produced by differential heating.

Examples of Thermal Circulation

 Sea and Land Breezes
- Sea and land breeze are types of thermal circulation systems that develop at the interface of
land and ocean.

Sea During the Day

During the daytime land heats up much faster than water as it receives solar radiation from the
Sun

At sunset, the land surface stops receiving radiation from the Sun. As night continues the land
surface begins losing heat energy at a much faster rate than the water surface.

Sea During the Night

  Mountain and Valley Breezes

A valley breeze develops during the day as the Sun heats the
land surface and air at the valley bottom and sides

During the night, the air along the mountain slopes begins to
cool quickly because of long wave radiation loss.

 Monsoon Winds

- are regional scale wind systems that predictably change direction with the passing of the
seasons. Like land/sea breezes, these wind systems are created by the temperature contrasts that
exist between the surfaces of land and ocean.
During the summer, monsoon winds blow
from the cooler ocean surfaces onto the
warmer continents. In the summer, the
continents become much warmer than the
oceans because of a number of factors. These
factors include:

Specific heat differences between land and

water.

Greater evaporation over water surfaces.

Subsurface mixing in ocean basins which

redistributes heat energy through a deeper
layer.

Temperature
Temperature is a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses the degree of hotness
or coldness of a [Link] also determines the thermal radiation emitted from a surface.

Geographic Distribution of Temperature

. The temperature of the atmosphere is not same across the earth. The temperature of a
place depends largely on the insolation received by that place. It is important to know about the
temperature distribution over the surface of the earth to understand the weather, climate,
vegetation zones, animal and human life etc.
• On maps, the distribution of temperature is commonly shown by isotherms.
• Isotherms are line connecting points that have an equal temperature.

TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS
1. Diurnal variation- is the change in temperature from day to night brought about by the
daily rotation of the Earth.

2. Seasonal Variation - is the change in temperature due to seasonal variation of the angle
of incident solar radiation between hemispheres brought about by tilting of the Earth's
axis around the sun.

3. Variation with Latitude - is the change in temperature due to variation of the angle of
incident solar radiation in contact with the geographical surface profile of the Earth.
 4. Variations with topography- is the change in temperature not related to the movement
or the shape of the earth but of variations induced by water and terrain.

5. Variation with Altitude - Change in temperature relative to Altitude.

Temperature normally decreases with increasing altitude throughout the troposphere.
This decrease of temperature with altitude is defined as lapse rate. An increase in
temperature with altitude is defined as an inversion. There is a general decrease of 6.5
degree celsius for every 1000 m increase in altitude.

Measurement of Temperature

A.) Instruments that measure earth’s temperature

 Stevenson screen- is a standard shelter (from

rain, snow, high winds, leaves and animals) for
meteorological instruments, particularly wet and
dry bulb thermometers used to record humidity
and air temperature.

 Maximum minimum thermometer- this thermometer measures the highest

and lowest temperatures reached during a period of time.
  Thermograph- is an instrument that produces a trace or image representing a
record of the varying temperature or infrared radiation over an area or during a
period of time.

B.) Statistical Treatment of Temperature

1. Daily Range Temperature (Tr)- the difference between the highest and lowest temperature.

Tr = Tmax - Tmin

2. Mean Daily Temperature (Tm)- the average of daily maximum and minimum temperature.

Tm = ½ (Tmax + Tmin)

3. Normal Daily Temperature (Tn)- the average daily mean temperature for a given date over a
specific 30-year period.

∑Tm
Tn=
n (number of days)

4. Mean Monthly Temperature (TMm)- the average of the mean monthly maximum and
minimum temperature.

∑Tm
TMm=
n (number of months)

5. Mean Annual Temperature (TAm)- the average of the monthly means of the year.

∑TMm
TAm=
12
Sample problem

Determine the mean monthly temperature using the following data.

Month Minimum temperature(℃) Maximum Temperature (℃)

June 21 28.5 33.2
July 22 33.2 29.8
August 23 36.2 28.7
September 24 29.7 30.8
October 25 34.8 28.0

Solution

Month Minimum temperature (℃) Maximum Temperature (℃) Tm (℃)

June 21 28.5 33.2 30.85
July 22 33.2 29.8 31.50
August 23 36.2 28.7 32.45
September 24 29.7 30.8 30.25
October 25 34.8 28.0 31.40
Total: 156.45℃

Therefore mean monthly temperature in ℃, TMm 

 Tm  156  31.29
n 5
If the temperature at the surface of the earth is 20 °C, estimate the temperature at an altitude of
10km using mean lapse rate.

Given: 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝. , 𝑇0 = 20 °C

Find: 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑇2 @ 𝑧 = 10𝑘𝑚

Solution: 𝑇2 = 𝑇0 − 6.5(𝑧) = 𝑇0 − 6.5(10) = −𝟒𝟓 °𝐂

Atmospheric pressure and Wind Velocity

Atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric Pressure – is the force per unit area exerted into a surface by the weight of air
above that surface in the atmosphere of Earth.
The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit of pressure defined as 101325 Pa (1.01325 bar),
equivalent to 760 mmHg (torr), 29.92 inHg and 14.696 psi.

also called barometric pressure

Barometer
A barometer is a scientific instrument used in meteorology to measure atmospheric pressure.

Barometers come in two basic forms: the aneroid barometer and the mercury barometer.

Mercury Barometer is a barometer with a glass tube that is closed on one

end and open on the other side that is lowered in a mercury reservoir at
the base.

Aneroid barometers use cells that expand and contract as air

pressure changes. Air pressure is measured by attaching a
needle into these cells.
 WIND VELOCITY

What is wind?

It is the movement of air molecules in the atmosphere.

In meteorology, winds are often referred to according to their strength, and the direction from
which the wind is blowing.

Types of Wind

1. Planetary Winds:
The winds blowing through-out the year from one latitude to another in response to latitudinal
differences in air pressure are called “planetary or prevailing winds”. They involve large areas of
the globe.

2. Trade Winds:
These are extremely steady winds blowing from sub-tropical high pressure areas (30°N and S)
towards the equatorial low pressure belt. These winds should have blown from the north to south
in Northern Hemisphere and south to north in Southern Hemisphere, but, they get deflected to
the right in Northern Hemisphere and to the left in Southern Hemisphere due to Coriolis effect
and Ferrel’s law. Thus, they blow as north eastern trades in Northern Hemisphere and south
eastern trades in Southern Hemisphere.

They are also known as tropical easterlies, and they blow steadily in the same direction. They are
noted for consistency in both force and direction.

3. The Westerlies:
These winds blow from sub tropical high pressure belts towards sub-polar low pressure belts.
The westerlies of Southern Hemi-sphere are more stronger and constant in direction than
Northern Hemisphere. These winds develop be-tween 40° and 65°S latitudes and these latitudes
are known as Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties and Shriek-ing Sixties.

4. Periodic Winds:
Periodic winds change their direction periodically with the change in season, e.g., Monsoons,
Land and Sea Breezes, Mountain and Valley Breezes.
a. Monsoon Winds:
These winds are seasonal winds and refer to wind systems that have a pronounced, seasonal
reversal of direction. According to ‘Flohn’, monsoon is a seasonal modification of general
Planetary Wind System.

Summer monsoon is called South Westerly Wind and is characterized by highly variable weather
with frequent spells of drought and heavy rains. The winter monsoon is a gentle drift of air in
which winds blow from the north-east and is known as North Easterly Wind.

b. Land Breeze:

At night, land masses cool quicker than sea due to rapid radiation which results in high pressure
over land and low pressure over sea. And in calm, cloudless weather, air blows from land to sea.
This breeze carries no moisture and is little warm and dry.

c. Sea Breeze:
In day time, the land being hotter than the sea develops low air pressure and the sea being cool
develops high pressure. The air over land rises and is replaced by a cool breeze known as Sea
Breeze from the sea, carrying some moisture.

d. Mountain and Valley Breezes:

A diurnal wind occurs in mountainous regions which are similar to Land and Sea Breezes.
During the day the slopes of mountains are hot and air from valley flows up the slopes. This is
known as “Valley Breeze”. After sunset the pattern is reversed and cold air slides from mountain
to valley and is called “mountain breeze”.

5. Local Winds:
The local difference in tempera-ture and pressure causes local winds. It is of four types: hot,
cold, convectional and slope.
Planetary Winds

Trade Winds and the Westerlies

Periodic Winds
Properties of Wind
Direction - direction from which it is blowing

Speed/Velocity - the distance to which an object travels per unit time

The units for speed are m/s, km/h, knot(kn)

1kn = 1.852 km/h = 0.514 m/s

Wind Speed/Wind Velocity

Wind speed, or wind flow velocity, is a fundamental atmospheric quantity. Wind speed is caused
by air moving from high pressure to low pressure, usually due to changes in temperature.

The Net Force = PGF+G+Co+Fr+Ce

Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)

Gravity (G)

Coriolis Force (Co)

Friction (Fr)

Centrifugal Force (Ce)

Factors Affecting Wind Speed and its Direction

Pressure Gradient Force

- air flows from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure

The Coriolis Force

- due to Earth’s rotation

Friction

- affects both speed and direction of winds

Rossby waves/Jet Streams

- meandering air currents in the atmospheres and move from West to East

Local weather conditions

Why do we need to study wind velocity?

In meteorology, Winds play a significant role in determining and controlling climate and
weather.

Wind speed affects the amount of rainwater precipitates during typhoons, and that data can be
use in getting the historical rainfall data of a particular area in the hydrologic analysis.

Measuring Instruments

Wind Vane Anemometer Cup Anemometer

Anemograph Digital Anemometer

Hot wire anemometers Aerovane

 Cup anemometers – consisted of four hemispherical cups mounted on horizontal arms, which
were mounted on a vertical shaft. The air flow past the cups in any horizontal direction turned
the shaft at a rate that was proportional to the wind speed.
 Vane anemometers – combines a propeller and a tail on the same axis to obtain accurate and
precise wind speed and direction measurements from the same instrument. The speed of the
fan is measured by a rev counter and converted to a wind speed by an electronic chip. Hence,
volumetric flowrate may be calculated if the cross-sectional area is known.
 Hot wire anemometers – use a very fine wire electrically heated to some temperature above
the ambient. Air flowing past the wire cools the wire. As the electrical resistance of most metals
is dependent upon the temperature of the metal, a relationship can be obtained between the
resistance of the wire and the flow speed.
 Aerovane – a weather vane that is equipped with a propeller and is used to measure both wind
speed and direction.

Wind profile

Wind speed is reduced and direction deflected in the lower layers of the atmosphere because of
friction produced by trees, buildings and other obstacles. These effects become negligible above
600 m and this lower layer is referred to as friction layer. Overland, the surface wind speed
averages about 40% of that just above the friction layer and at sea about 70%.

General Equation in Friction Layer

where: V = observe wind velocity at a given height

z = observation height

k = Von Karman constant (k = 0.40)

z0 = roughness length (where V=0)

V* = friction velocity
Sample Problems:
3. Anemometer at 10m and 100m record wind speeds of 50 and 75 km/h respectively. Determine
the exponent “k” in the power law profile

Given:

a. at Z_o=10m; V_o=50 km/h

b. at Z=100m;V=75 km/h

FInd: exponent "k"

Solution:using Power Profile

V/V_o =(Z/Z_o )^k

75/50=(100/10)^k

k=0.17

4. Given a wind speed of 5.0 m/s at 2m above the ground and a roughness length of 0.80 cm.,
compute the wind speed in m/s at 0.50 m.

Given:

@z=2m;V=5.0 m/s

Roughness length,Z_o=0.80 cm

Find: wind speed,V @ z=0.50 m

Solution:using Logarithmic Velocity Profile

V/V^* =1/k ln⁡〖z/z_o 〗

@z=2 m,V=5.0 m/s

5.0/V^* =1/0.40 ln⁡(2/0.8 x100)

V^*=0.362 m/s

V @ z=0.50 m

V=V^*/k ln⁡〖z/z_o 〗

V=0.362/0.40 ln⁡(0.50/0.80 x100)

V=3.742 m/s

Humidity
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. Water vapor is the invisible
presence of water in its gaseous state. Humidity is a significant aspect of the atmosphere because
it affects the weather and the climate.
There are three main types of humidity:

1. Absolute humidity is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere at a given

temperature.

Absolute humidity (AH) can be calculated as,

𝑚𝐻2 𝑂
𝐴𝐻 =
𝑉𝑛𝑒𝑡

where, m(watervapor) is the mass of the water vapor and V(net) is the volume of air.

2. Relative humidity is a measure of the current humidity in relation to a given

temperature.

The relative humidity of an air-water mixture is defined as the ratio of the partial
pressure of water vapor in the mixture to the equilibrium vapor pressure of water over a
flat surface of pure water at a given temperature:

𝑒𝐻 𝑂 𝑒
∅ = 𝑒 ∗ 2 𝑥100% or = 𝑒𝑠100 %
𝐻2 𝑂

Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage; a higher percentage means that

the air-water mixture is more humid.

3. Specific humidity is the ratio of the water vapor in the atmosphere to the air content on a
mass basis.
Specific humidity is approximately equal to the mixing ratio, which is defined as
the ratio of the mass of water vapor in an air parcel to the mass of dry air for the same
parcel.
𝑚𝑣
𝑆𝐻 =
𝑚𝑎
 Vapor pressure – is the partial pressure of a given sample of moist air that is attributable
to water vapor.

𝑒 = 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟

𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑃𝑑

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝑃𝑑 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟

Saturation vapor pressure, 𝒆𝒔 – the pressure exerted by the vapour in a saturated space
and is the maximum vapour pressure possible at a given temperature.

Bosen Formula:

𝑒𝑠 ≈ 33.8639[(0.00738𝑇 + 0.8072)8 – 0.000019(1.8𝑇 + 48) + 0.001316]

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑒𝑠 = 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝑇 = °𝐶

Teten’s Equation:

17.27𝑇
𝑒𝑠 = 611 exp ( )
237.3 + 𝑇

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∶ 𝑒𝑠 = 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑎
𝑇 = °𝐶

Properties of Water Vapor

a. Specific Energy, 𝑆𝑣
𝜌𝑣
𝑆𝑣 =
𝜌𝑑

b. Density of Dry air, 𝜌𝑑

𝑃𝑑
𝜌𝑑 =
𝑅𝑇
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑃𝑑 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑁/𝑚2 , 𝑎𝑏𝑠

𝑅 = 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 287 𝑁𝑚/𝐾𝑔. 𝐾

 𝑇 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠. 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝐾

c. Density of water vapor, 𝜌𝑣

0.622𝑒
𝜌𝑣 =
𝑅𝑇
d. Density of moist air, 𝜌𝑎

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝜌𝑎 =
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝜌𝑎 =
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

0.622𝑒 𝑃𝑑
𝜌𝑎 = 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑑 = 𝜌𝑣 = + 𝜌𝑑 =
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∶ 𝑒 = 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑁/𝑚2 , 𝑎𝑏𝑠

𝑃𝑑 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑁/𝑚2 , 𝑎𝑏𝑠

𝑅 = 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 287 𝑁𝑚/𝐾𝑔. 𝐾 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝑇 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠. 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝐾

The vapor pressure e of the water vapor is given by the ideal gas law

𝑒 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑅𝑣 𝑇

The relationship between the constants for moist air and dry air is

𝐽
𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑑 (1 + 0.608𝑞𝑣 ) = 287(1 + 0.608𝑞𝑣 )
𝑘𝑔 𝐾

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∶ 𝑞𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 0.622𝑒/𝑃

Since 𝑃𝑑 is not normally known and from the above equation 𝑃𝑎 is equal to the total pressure of
moist air, then 𝑃𝑑 = 𝑃𝑎 – 𝑒, thus

𝑒 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑒
𝜌𝑎 = 0.622 +
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇
𝑒 1
𝜌𝑎 = 0.622 + (𝑃 – 𝑒 )
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇 𝑎
 𝑒 𝑃𝑎 𝑒
𝜌𝑎 = 0.622 + −
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇
𝑒 𝑃𝑎
𝜌𝑎 = −0.378 +
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇
1 𝑃𝑎 𝑒
𝜌𝑎 = ( 𝑃𝑎 – 0.378𝑒) 𝑜𝑟 𝜌𝑎 = (1 – 0.378 )
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝑎

from equation of state for gases

𝑃𝑔 0.003489𝑃𝑎
𝜌𝑎 = =
𝑅𝑇 273 + 𝑇
Relative Humidity, 𝑓 - percentage ratio of the amount of moisture or water vapor the space to
the amount of moisture or water vapor the space could contain if [Link] is equal to the
percentage ratio of the actual vapor pressure to saturated vapor pressure.
𝑒
𝑓 = 100 (%)
𝑒𝑠
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑒 = 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑒𝑠 = 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

Bosen Approximate Equation

112 − 0.1𝑇 + 𝑇𝑑
𝑓 ≈ 100 ( )
112 + 0.9𝑇

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑇 = (−25 < 𝑇 < 45°𝐶)

= 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, °𝐶
𝑇𝑑 = 𝑑𝑒𝑤 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, °𝐶

Bosen Approximate Equation when −𝟒𝟎 °𝑪 < 𝑻 < 𝟓𝟎 °𝑪 for known “f”

𝑇 − 𝑇𝑑 ≈ (14.55 + 0.114𝑇)𝑋 + [(2.5 + 0.007𝑇)𝑋]3 + (15.9 + 0.117𝑇)𝑋14

𝑓
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑋 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 1.0 –
100

Based on Teten’s Formula

17.27𝑇 + (273.3 + 𝑇)𝑙𝑛𝑓
𝑇𝑑 = 237.3
4098.171 − (273.3 + 𝑇)𝑙𝑛𝑓
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑓 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙
Psychrometric equation to determine actual vapor pressure, 𝑒
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑠𝑤 – 0.00066(1 + 0.00115𝑇𝑤 )𝑃(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑤 )
 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑒 = 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝑒𝑤 = 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑡 − 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏, 𝑇𝑤
𝑇𝑤 = 𝑤𝑒𝑡 − 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, °𝐶
𝑇 = 𝑑𝑟𝑦 − 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, °𝐶

𝑃 = 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, = 1015.9 𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠

Sample problem 1:

Example 1. Find the saturation values of specific humidity,

and absolute humidity for air of temperature 0°C and
pressure 50 kPa.

𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛: 𝑇 = 0°𝐶, 𝑃 = 50 𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑: 𝑞𝑠 = ? 𝑔/𝑘𝑔, 𝜌𝑣𝑠 = ? 𝑔/𝑚3

𝑒2 = 0.611 𝑘𝑃𝑎

0.611 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑞𝑠 = 0.622・ = 0.00760 𝑔/𝑔
50 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑔
= 7.60
𝑘𝑔

0.611 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝜌𝑣𝑠 =
𝐽
[(461 ) ・(273 𝐾)]
𝐾・𝑘𝑔

𝑘𝑔
= 0.00485
𝑚3
𝑔
= 4.85
𝑚3

Example 2. Find the relative humidity for air of T = 20°C and e

𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛: 𝑇 = 20°𝐶 , 𝑒 = 1 𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑: 𝑅𝐻 = ? %

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 4 − 1 𝑎𝑡 𝑇 = 20°𝐶 :

𝑒𝑠 = 2.371 𝑘𝑃𝑎.

𝑅𝐻 = 100% · (1 𝑘𝑃𝑎 / 2.371 𝑘𝑃𝑎) = 42%.

CHAPTER III- PRECIPITATION

IMPORTANT PHASES OF HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Precipitation is one of the most important components of the hydrologic cycle. It is the beginning
of a whole chain of events that occurs in watersheds and river basins. Precipitation is the source
of water that replenishes soil moisture, stream flows, lakes, glaciers, etc.

Precipitation occurs when so much water has condensed that the air cannot hold it anymore. The
clouds get heavy and waterfalls back to earth in the form of rain hail, sleet, or snow. Precipitation
happens due to condensation of water.

PRECIPITATION: OCCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT

OCCURRENCE:

i. Creation of saturation conditions

ii. Formation of water droplets or ice crystals
iii. Growth of water droplets or ice crystal

I. CREATION OF SATURATION CONDITIONS

CYCLONIC PRECIPITATION
CONVECTIVE PRECIPITATION
OROGRAPHIC PRECIPITATION

CYCLONIC PRECIPITATION

- Is caused by lifting of an air mass due to the pressure difference.

Cyclonic precipitation may be either frontal or non-frontal cyclonic precipitation.

CONVECTIVE PRECIPITATION

- Is caused by natural rising of warmer, lighter air in colder, denser surroundings.

Generally, this kind of precipitation occurs in tropics, where on a hot day, the ground
surface gets heated unequally, causing the warmer air to lift up as the colder air
comes to take its place.
OROGRAPHIC PRECIPITATION

- is caused by air masses which strike some natural topographic barriers like
mountains, and cannot move forward and hence rise up, causing condensation and
precipitation. All the precipitation we have in Himalayan region is because of this
nature. It is rich in moisture because of their long travel over oceans.

II. Formation of water droplets or ice crystals

- When the air is close to saturation it requires the presence of certain nuclei for
water droplets or ice crystals to form. Nuclei are small particles of various of the
order of 0.1-10 micro meter.

III. Growth of water droplets or ice crystals

- Upon nucleation the water droplet or ice crystals grows to visible in a fraction of
a second through diffusion of water vapor into it, but growth thereafter is slow.

Form of precipitation

i. Rain - is precipitation in liquid form.

ii. Snow - is precipitation in solid form as (typically) a hexagonal crystal

shape. Size and shape of the crystal is dependent on moisture
content and temperature of the air.
 iii. Hail - falls as rounded pellets or balls of ice from severe thunderstorms. Vertical
motions up-and-down through the storm create concentric rings of ice around the hail
stone.

iv. Sleet - occurs when snow falls through a warm layer of air and melts. Before reaching the
ground, the precipitation passes through a cold layer of air causing the water to refreeze
and fall as sleet.

v. Frezing rain - occurs when snow melts upon passing through a warm layer of air and
then freezes on the surface whose temperature is at or below freezing. Significant
amounts of freezing rain coat the surface with a glaze of ice making roadways
treacherous and toppling trees and downing power lines.

Types of precipitation

 Liquid Precipitation
 Freezing Precipitation
 Frozen Precipitation
 Mixed Precipitation

Liquid precipitation
• Drizzle < 0.5mm (spherically shape)
• Rain > 0.5mm (not exactly spherical)
Rain can be classify :
1. Light
2. Moderate
3. Heavy
4.
Freezing precipitation

1. Freezing rain – it reaches the surface in the form of drops that are greater than 0.5 mm in
diameter.
2. Freezing drizzle – it reaches the surface in the form of drops that are less than 0.5 mm
in diameter.
3. Freezing fog – is a fog composed of super cooled water drops.
4.
Frozen precipitation
1. Snow – is an aggregate of ice crystals that form into flakes.
2. Snow grains – small grains of ice.
3. Ice crystals – also called as diamond dust. They are small ice crystals that float with the
wind.
4. Sleet / ice pellets - frozen raindrops that strike the earth’s surface.
5. Hail – dense precipitation ice that is least 5 mm in diameter.
 6. Graupel – forms in the same way as hail except the diameter is less than 5mm.
7. Snow pellets – is precipitation that grows by super cooled water accreting on ice crystals
or snow flakes
ARTIFICIALLY INDUCED PRECIPITATION

- also known as rainmaking, artificial rainfall, cloud seeding, and pluviculture

- is the act of attempting to artificially induce or increase precipitation

- can be done using airplanes, rockets, or ground generators to sow to the clouds with
external agents such as chemicals to make clouds rain or increase precipitation

How it is done?
Agitation
Building-up Stage
Seeding

Why use silver iodide?

Silver iodide has an atomic arrangement which is similar to that of ice. It acts as an ice-
crystal nucleus and facilitates the solidification of water drops below -5 °C into ice
crystals. Through the growing process the ice crystals under the coexistence of water
drops, the rain will be formed.

MEASUREMENT:
GAGES AND NETWORKS, RADAR AND SATELLITE ESTIMATES

Rainfall is expressed in terms of the depth to which rainwater would stand on an area if all the
rain were collected on it. Thus, 1 cm of rainfall over a catchment area of 1km2 represents a
volume of water equal to 104 m3. Measurement of precipitation (rain and snow) can be done by
various devices. These measuring devices and techniques are rain gauges, snow gauges, radars,
satellites scratching of snow packs and water equivalent in snow packs.

Rain Gauges
 A rain gauge is an instrument used by meteorologists and hydrologists to gather and
measure the amount of liquid precipitation over a set period of time.

Rain gauges are most commonly used for the measurement of precipitation, both in terms
of rainfall and snow. A rain gauge consists of a cylindrical vessel assembly kept in the open to
collect rain. Rainfall collected in the rain gauge is measured at regular intervals

Rain gauges may be broadly classified into 2 categories:

Non-recording rain gauges and

Recording rain gauges
In order that the rainfall catch of a rain gauge accurately represents the rainfall in the area
surrounding the rain gauge, certain standards are followed while establishing rain gauge stations.

Selection of Rain Gauge Stations

The rain gauge station must fulfill following requirements:

The ground must be level and in the open and the instrument must represent a horizontal
catch surface
The rain gauge must be set as near the ground as possible to reduce wind effects
The rain gauge must be set sufficiently high to prevent splashing, flooding etc
 The instrument must be surrounded by an open fenced area of at least 5.5m x 5.5m. No
object must be closer to the rain gauge than 30m or twice the height of the obstruction

Non-recording Rain gauge

It gives only total rainfall occurred during particular time period. Recording type rain-
gauge gives hourly rainfall. Under non-recording type rain-gauges, one most commonly used in
Symon’s rain-gauge. It is the simplest in principle, construction and working.
 Symons Gauge

When snow is expected, the funnel and the receiving bottle are removed and snow is
collected in the outer metal container. It is then melted and the depth of resulting water is
measured. In areas of heavy snowfall, snow gauges with shields and storage pipes are used.
Snow surveys are also conducted

Recording Rain Gauges

Recording rain gauges give a permanent automatic record of rainfall. It has a mechanical
arrangement by which the total amount of rainfall since the start of record gets automatically
recorded on a graph paper. It produces a plot of cumulative rainfall vs time (mass curve of
rainfall). These rain gauges are also called integrating rain gauges since they record cumulative
rainfall

Types of Recording Rain Gauges

 Tipping Bucket Type

Tipping bucket type rain gauge is a 30cm sized circular rain gauge adopted for
use by US weather bureau. It has 30cm diameter sharp edged receiver and at the end of
the receiver is provided a funnel.

Pair of buckets are pivoted under this funnel in such a manner that when one
bucket receives 0.25mm of precipitation (rainfall),it tips discharging its rainfall into the
container, bringing the other bucket under the funnel.

Tipping Bucket Gauge

 Tipping of bucket completes an electric circuit causing the movement of pen to mark on
clock driven receiving drum which carries a recorded sheet. These electric pulses generated are
recorded at the control room far away from the rain gauge station. This instrument is further
suited for digitalizing the output signal.

 Weighing Bucket Type

Weighing bucket type rain gauge is most common self-recording rain gauge. It
consists of a receiver bucket supported by a spring or lever balance or some other
weighing mechanism. The movement of bucket due to its increasing weight is transmitted
to a pen which traces record or some marking on a clock driven chart.

Weighing bucket type rain gauge instrument gives a plot of the accumulated
(increased) rainfall values against the elapsed time and the curve so formed is called the
mass curve.

Weighing Bucket type Rain Gauge Mass Curve

 Natural Syphon Type (Float Type)

The working of this type of rain gauge is similar to weighing bucket rain gauge. A
funnel receives the water which is collected in a rectangular container. A float is provided
 at the bottom of container, and this float raises as the water level rises in the container. Its
movement being recorded by a pen moving on a recording drum actuated by a clock
work.
When water rises, this float reaches to the top floating in water, then syphon
comes into operation and releases the water outwards through the connecting pipe, thus
all water in box is drained out. This rain gauge is adopted as the standard recording rain
gauge in India and the curve drawn using this data is known as mass curve of rain fall.

Natural Syphon Type (Float Type)

Recording from a natural syphon-type gauge

Errors in precipitation measurement by gauges

1. Instrumental errors
2. Errors in scale reading
3. Dent in receivers
 4. Dent in measuring cylinders
5. About 0.25 mm of water is initially required to wet the surface of gauge
6. Rain gauges splash from collector
7. Frictional effects
8. Non verticality of measuring cylinders (10° inclination gives 1.5% less precipitation)
9. Loss of water by evaporation
10. Leakage in measuring cylinder
11. Wind speed reduces measured amount of rain in the rain gauges

Radar Measurements
Weather radar is a type of radar used to locate precipitation, calculate its motion, estimate
its type (rain, snow, hail, etc.), and forecast its future position and intensity. Weather radars are
mostly Doppler radars, capable of detecting the motion of rain droplets in addition to intensity of
precipitation. Radar works via transmitted and returned microwave energy. The radar transmits a
burst of microwaves. When this energy strikes an object, such as a raindrop, the energy is
scattered in all directions. Some of that scattered energy returns to the radar.
 Electro-magnetic Waves

Color Palette
The colour palette for the radar-derived rainfall accumulations is different from the
colour palette for the current radar images, to distinguish clearly between radar observations and
radar-derived products. The palette is based on the hydrological rain gauge palette
 Rainfall Map

Rainfall Advisories
Satellite Measurements
Earth-observing satellites can provide frequent estimates of precipitation at a global scale.
To do this, satellites carry instruments designed to observe specific atmospheric characteristics
such as cloud temperatures and precipitation particles, or hydrometeors.
 Earth Observing Satellite

Precipitation Data Analysis

A. Estimation of Missing Data

Missing data will arise if data for rain gauges are missing (e.g. due to instrument failure).
Data from surrounding gauges are used to estimate the missing data. The station whose data is
missing is called interpolation station and gauging stations whose data are used to calculate the
missing station are called index station.
1. Arithmetic Mean Method
This method is used when the normal annual precipitations at surrounding gauges are
within the range of 10% of the normal annual precipitation at the interpolation
station.

𝒊=𝒏
𝟏
𝑷𝒙 = ∑ 𝑷𝒊
𝒏
𝒊=𝟏

Where:
n- number of nearby stations

Pi- precipitation at ‘ith’ station

Px- missing precipitation

Example:

Rain gauge X was out of operation for a month during which there was a storm. The
total rainfall at three adjacent stations A, B, and C are 37 mm, 42 mm and 49 mm
respectively. The average annual rainfall for all the stations are X = 694 mm, A =
 726 mm, B= 752 mm and C = 760 mm. Using arithmetic method, estimate the
missing total rainfall at for gauge X.
Given

Pa =37 mm Na=726 mm
Pb=42 mm Nb= 752 mm
Pc=49 mm NC= 760 mm
Px=? Nx=694 mm
Solution:
10% (Nx) = 694 x 0.10 = 69.4
Nmax = Nx + 10%(Nx) = 694 + 69.4 = 763.4
Nmin = Nx - 10%(Nx) = 694 - 69.4 = 624.6
Range: 624.6 mm – 763.4 mm

𝒊=𝒏
𝟏
𝑷𝒙 = ∑ 𝑷𝒊
𝒏
𝒊=𝟏
𝟏
𝑷𝒙 = (𝟑𝟕 + 𝟒𝟐 + 𝟒𝟗)
𝟑

Px=42. 667 mm

Sample Problem:
Find out the missing storm data of station X in the following table.

Gage Annual Precipitation (mm) Monthly Precipitation (mm)

2. N A 430 25
o
B 390 30
r
m C 370 22
a X 410 ?
l
Ratio Method
This method is used when the normal annual precipitation at any of the index station
differs from that of the interpolation station by more than 10%.
 𝒊=𝒏
𝟏 𝑵𝒙
𝑷𝒙 = ∑ 𝑷
𝒏 𝑵𝒊 𝒊
𝒊=𝟏

Where:
Px- estimate for the ungauged station
Pi- rainfall value of rain gauges used for estimation
Nx-normal annual precipitation value for the ‘x’ station
Ni-normal annual precipitation value for surrounding station
n-number of surrounding stations

Example:
Precipitation station “X” was inoperative for part of a month during which a storm
occurred. The storm tools at three surrounding stations A, B, and C were respectively
10.7, 8.9 and 12.2 cm. The normal annual precipitation amounts at stations X, A, B
and C are respectively 97.8, 112, 93.5 and 119.9 cm. Estimate the storm precipitation
for station “X”.
Given:
Pa=10.7 cm
Pb=8.90 cm
Pc=12.2 cm
Px=?
Na=112 cm
Nb= 93.5 cm
NC= 119.9 cm
Nx=97.8 cm
 Solution:
10%(Nx)= 97.8 x 0.10 = 9.78 cm
Nmax = NX + 10% (Nx) = 97.8 + 9.78 = 107.58 cm
Nmin = Nx – 10% (Nx) = 97.8 – 97.8 = 88.02
Range: 88.02 to 107.58 cm

𝒊=𝒏
𝟏 𝑵𝒙
𝑷𝒙 = ∑ 𝑷
𝒏 𝑵𝒊 𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
𝟏 𝟏𝟎.𝟕 𝟖.𝟗 𝟏𝟐.𝟐
𝑷𝒙 = 𝟑
(𝟗𝟕. 𝟖)( 𝟏𝟏𝟐 + 𝟗𝟑.𝟓 + 𝟏𝟏𝟗.𝟗 )

PX= 9.535 cm
Sample Problem:
Find out the missing storm precipitation of station C given in the following table.

Station A B C D E
Storm Precipitation
9.7 8.3 ? 11.7 8.0
(cm)
Annual Normal
100.3 109.5 93.5 125.7 117.5
Precipitation (cm)

3. Inverse Distance Method

In this method, weights for each sample are inversely proportionate to its distance
from the point being estimated.

1
∑𝑛𝑖=1( )𝑃
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑑2 𝑖
1
∑𝑛𝑖=1 2
𝑑

Where:
Px- estimate of rainfall for the ungauged station
Pi-rainfall values of rain gauges used for estimation
d- distance from each location the point being estimated
𝑑 = √𝑋 2 + 𝑌2
 n- number of surrounding stations
Example:

In a river basin A was in operative during a storm, while stations B,C,D and E,
Surrounding A were in operation, recording 74 mm, 88 mm, 71 mm and 80 mm, 71
mm and 80 mm of monthly rainfall. The coordinates of the stations is given in the
figure below. Estimate the missing monthly rainfall of station A by the inverse
distance method.

Solution:
Stations 𝑋𝑖 𝑌𝑖 𝑋𝑖2 𝑌𝑖2 𝐷𝑖2 𝑊𝑖 𝑃𝑖 (mm) 𝑊𝑖 𝑃𝑖
B 9 6 81 36 117 0.008547 74 0.632479
C 12 -9 144 81 225 0.004444 88 0.391111
D -11 -6 121 36 157 0.006369 71 0.452229
E -7 7 49 49 98 0.010204 80 0.816327
Summation 0.029565 2.292146

1
∑𝑛𝑖=1( )𝑃
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑑2 𝑖
1
∑𝑛𝑖=1 2
𝑑
2.292146
Px =
0.029565
 Px = 77.529 mm

B. Double Mass Analysis

Double-mass curve is used to check the consistency of many kinds of hydrologic data by
comparing data for a single station with that of a pattern composed of the data from several other
stations in the area. It can also be used to adjust inconsistent precipitation data.
The double mass curve is obtained by plotting:
 x-axis: average accumulated precipitation of nearby stations
 y-axis : accumulated precipitation of the station under consideration

Here are the steps in analyzing precipitation data using double mass analysis:
1. Arrange the data (recent to past)
2. Determine the cumulative rain fall of the subjected station and of the nearby
stations
3. Draw double mass curve
4. Part of the curve which lies in straight line requires no correction
5. All data lying after the deviation point from the straight line required correction
6. To determine correction factor, calculate the slope of the curve before and after
the point of deviation
𝑆𝑎
𝑃𝑎 = ( )𝑃𝑜
𝑆𝑜

Where:
Pa- adjusted precipitation
Po-observed precipitation
Sa-slope prior to the break in the curve
So-slope after the break in the curve

Example
Data for gages A, B, and C and D are given the table below. Check the consistence of
data for gage D and adjust it using double-mass curve method.

Annual Catch (in.) at Gauge

Year A B C D
1977 30 31 27 29
 1978 33 36 32 32
1979 26 27 24 28
1980 27 26 27 29
1981 34 34 30 30
1982 31 33 31 29
1983 28 30 24 28
1984 35 34 33 39
1985 37 39 36 41
1986 34 35 35 37

Solution:
Annual Catch (in.) at Gauge Cumulative Catch (in.) for
TOTAL (A + B +
Gage
C)
Year A B C D A+B+C D d2
1977 30 31 27 29 88 88 29
1978 33 36 32 32 101 189 61
1979 26 27 24 28 77 266 89
1980 27 26 27 29 80 346 118
1981 34 34 30 30 98 444 148
1982 31 33 31 29 95 539 177
1983 28 30 24 28 82 621 205
1984 35 34 33 39 102 723 244 35
1985 37 39 36 41 112 835 285 36.8
1986 34 35 35 37 104 939 322 33.2

0.3301
𝑑2 = (0.3679) 𝐷2 = 0.8973𝐷2

Sample Problem
 In the table below annual rainfalls of gage E, F, G and H are given. Gage H was permanently
relocated after a period of 3 years (at the end of 1981); thus adjust the recorded values from
1979 through 1981 of gage H using double mass curve assume the data for the other gages
are consistent.
Annual Catch (in.) at Gauge
Year E F G H
1979 22 26 23 28
1980 21 26 25 33
1981 27 31 28 31
1982 25 29 29 31
1983 19 22 23 24
1984 24 25 26 28
1985 17 19 20 22
1986 21 22 23 26

MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION

To convert the point rainfall values at various stations into an average value over catchment the
following three methods are in use:

(i) Arithmetic Mean Method/Normal Ratio Method

(ii) Thiessen Polygon Method and
(iii) Isohyetal Analysis

ARITHMETIC MEAN METHOD

NORMAL RATIO METHOD

THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD
-this method is a more common method of weighing the rain
-also called Weighted Mean Method.
-Accurate than arithmetic average method.
-Average rainfall can be computed by the following expression.

Advantage:This method is based on assumption that a rain-gauge station best represents the area
which is close to it.

Procedures:
 [Link] the adjacent rain-gauge stations.
[Link] the perpendicular bisectors of each of these lines.
3. The polygon formed by the perpendicular bisectors around a station encloses an area
which is every where closer to that station than to any other station.
4. Find the area of each of these polygons, shown hatched in the figure.
[Link] the average precipitation using the given formula.
Example:
Using Thiessen Polygon Method, find average rainfall over a catchment. The data is:
Rain Gauge Station: A B C D E
Polygon Area (km²): 40 45 38 30 43
Precipitation (mm): 30.8 33.4 34.6 32.6 24.6

Sequence: (Left to Right)

ISOHYETAL ANALYSIS

-An isohyetal map showing contours of equal rainfall

-Average rainfall can be computed by the following expression:
Isohyet is a line on a map connecting points having the same amount of rainfall in a given
period.
Advantage: The isohyetal method is the most elaborate and accurate than other methods.

Procedure:

1. From the rainfall values recorded at various rain-gauge stations, prepare the
isohyetal map.
2. Measure the areas enclosed between successive isohyets
 with the help of planimeter.
3. Multiply each of these areas by the average rainfall between the isohyets.
4. Compute the average rainfall applying the given formula.

Example:
Using Isohyetal Method, find average rainfall over a catchment.
The data is:
Isohyetes (cm) 12 13 14 15 16 17
Area b/w Isohyetes (km²) 22 80 110 89 70
Average Precipitation(cm) 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5
Depth-Area-Duration Curves:
Once the sufficient rainfall records for the region are collected the basic or raw data can be
analysed and processed to produce useful information in the form of curves or statistical values
for use in the planning of water resources development projects. Many hydrologic problems
require an analysis of time as well as areal distribution of storm rainfall. Depth-Area-Duration
(DAD) analysis of a storm is done to determine the maximum amounts of rainfall within various
durations over areas of various sizes.

The preparation of DAD curves is done in following steps:

1. Examine the rainfall records of the region in which catchment area under consideration is
located. Also consider records of meteorologically similar regions. From it prepare a list
of most severe storms with their dates of occurrence and duration.
 2. For the listed severe storms prepare iso-hyetal maps and determine the rainfall values
over the area of each isohyet (rainfall contour).
3. Draw on a graph curves connecting area and rainfall values for different durations say 1
day rainfall, 2 day rainfall, 3 days rainfall (Refer Fig. 2.12).

The curves shown in Fig. 2.12 are called Depth-Area-Duration curves:

Use of DAD Curves:

Although most severe storm in the listed storms may not have occurred right over the
catchment under consideration there is possibility of such occurrence. So from DAD curves 1
day, 2 day, 3 day rainfall depths for the catchment area of the proposed project are read. These
give the rainfall depths when the storms are centered over the catchment.

The technique of depth-area-duration analysis (DAD) determines primarily the maximum falls
for different durations over a range of areas. The data required for a DAD analysis are shown in
the following figure.
 To demonstrate the method, a storm lasting 24h is chosen and the isohyets of the
total storm are drawn related to the measurements from 12 recording rain gauge
stations.
 The accumulated rainfalls at each station for four 6-h periods are given in the
table.
 To provide area weightings to the gauge values, Thiessen polygons are drawn
around the rainfall stations over the isohytal pattern.
Step-by-step procedures for drawing DAD curves

 First, the areal rainfall depths over the enclosing isohytal areas are determined for
the total storm.
 The duration computations then proceed as in the following table, where the area
enclosed (10km2) by the 150mm isohyet is considered first. The areal rainfall over
the 10km2 for the whole storm is 155mm.

 Stations 1 and 2 are contained by the 150mm isohyet and, by measurement, the
proportions of the area represented by the two stations are 0.7 and 0.3, respectively.
 The values of rainfall in the four durations at the two stations are then multiplied by the
corresponding areal weighting coefficients (row 2 and 4 in the table).
 The sum of the weighted values for each duration is then set in row 5.
 The sum are adjusted to the areal mean for the storm (i.e. scaled by 155 to 157.9) in row
6.
 Incremental values for each of the four 6-h periods of the 24-h storm are calculated for
row 7, and it will be noted that the highest fall occurs in the second 6-h periods.
The final row 8 then gives the maximum areal rainfalls for each duration, 6, 12, 18 and 24h, by
combining the approriate sequences of incremental values. The maximum 6-h fall has already
been noted, the maximum 12-h fall comes from the first two increments, but the maximum 18-h
fall is the sum of the last three increments.
 The second stage in the analysis is given in the following table. The area is enclosed by
the next isohyet is treated similarly. The area enclosed by the isohyet is 25km, and the
corresponding areal rain for the total storm is 144.5mm. here, there are four gauges, stations
1, 2, 3 and 4, whose Thiessen polygons contribute to the area contained by the 125mm
isohyet. Their weighting areas are measured as 0.4, 0.3, 0.1 and 0.2 respectively. The
maximum possible areal rainfall depth over the area of 25km 2 for each duration is given in
the final row.
The computations are continued by repeating the method for the areas enclosed by all the
isohyets.
Frequency Analysis
Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves
Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves describe the relationship between rainfall intensity,
rainfall duration, and return period
IDF curves are commonly used in the design of hydrologic, hydraulic, and water resource
systems.
IDF curves are obtained through frequency analysis of rainfall observations.
There are two options for this frequency analysis:

Use an empirical plotting position approach to estimate the exceedance probabilities based on the
observations.

Fit a theoretical Extreme Value (EV) distribution (e.g., Gumbel Type I) to the observations and
then use the theoretical distribution to estimate the rainfall events associated with given
exceedance probabilities.

Empirical Plotting Position Approach

To illustrate the first approach, select for example the 30-min duration data from Table 1 and
proceed as follows:
1. Rank the observations in descending order (Table 2, Column 1)
2. Compute the exceedance probability associated with each rainfall volume using the following
expression (Table 2, Column 4):

(1)
3. Transform the volume data into rainfall intensity by dividing volume by the corresponding
duration (Table 2, Col…umn 6).
4. Plot empirical distribution of rainfall intensity (Columns 5 and 6 in Figure 1).
As indicated, this procedure is repeated for each of the desired durations
Table 1.
Table 2. 30-min rainfall – Frequency Analysis
Theoretical Extreme Value (EV) Distribution Approach
To illustrate the second approach, let us select the Gumbel (Type I) distribution as our EV
distribution. The Gumbel Type I distribution is,

(1)

Where µ is the location parameter and b is the scale parameter. It can be shown that the value of
the random variable XT associated with a given return period, T, may be obtained from the
following expression:

(2)

Where x̄ is the mean of the observations (e.g., arithmetic average of the observations), and S is
the standard deviation of the observations. The frequency factor associated with return period T,
KT, is given by:

(3)

Equations (1), (2) and (3) are applied to each set of annual maxia corresponding to each duration,
as follows:
1. Compute the frequency factors associated with the desired return periods (e.g., 2, 5, 10, 25, 50,
100, 1000) using equation (3).
Table 4. Frequency Factors

2. For each duration (e.g., 5-min, 10-min …etc.), compute the sample mean and sample standard
deviations of the series of annual maxima, (x1,…….,xn) (see Table 1)
3. Use equation (2) to compute the precipitation intensity associated with each return period. The
rainfall intensity is given by the equation:

where I = rainfall intensity in mm/hr

Td = time duration in hour
4. Plot the results
 Evaporation from Free Surface
Evaporation from free surface is composed of: Water Balance Method, Energy Balance
Method, Mass Transfer Method, Penman Equation, Empirical Methods and lastly Direct
measurement.

Water Balance Method

 estimates amount of water in each components of the water cycle
 can be established in any area of Earth’s surface by calculating the total input and the
total of various outputs
 the water balance is a method by which we can account for the hydrologic cycle of a
specific area, with emphasis on plants and soil moisture

Water Balance
In hydrology, a water balance equation can be used to describe the flow of water in and
out of a system. A system can be one of several hydrological domains, such as a column of soil
or a drainage basin. Water balance can also refer to the ways in which an organism
maintains water in dry or hot conditions.

Figure 1: Water Cycle

The water cycle describes how water evaporates from the surface of the earth, rises into
the atmosphere, cools and condenses into rain or snow in clouds, and falls again to the surface as
precipitation. The water falling on land collects in rivers and lakes, soil, and porous layers of
rock, and much of it flows back into the oceans, where it will once more evaporate. The cycling
of water in and out of the atmosphere is a significant aspect of the weather patterns on Earth.
 The Water Cycle Major Players
• Evaporation – water goes from liquid to gaseous state and enters the atmosphere
• Evapotranspiration – water vapor is given by plants
• Condensation – water vapor droplets turn to liquid water and form clouds
• Transportation – movement of water through the atmosphere
• Precipitation – water released from clouds as rain, sleet, or hail

INFLOW
- OUTFLOW
=
CHANGE IN
STORAGE

Figure 2: Relationship of Inflow, Outflow and Change in Storage

The balance of water inflows and outflows, or water budget, for a groundwater system is
described by a simple equation:

I − O = ΔS
A general water balance equation is
P = Q + E + △S
Where:
P is precipitation
Q is runoff
E is evapotranspiration
△S is the change in storage
Example:
A 300-acre lake has a 15 ft3/s inflow, 13 ft3/s outflow, storage increase of 16 acre ft
recorded with a total of 1.3 in of precipitation for the month. Determine the evaporation loss in
inches over the lake for the month.

Given
Time period – 1 month
Surface area, A – 300 acres
Surface Runoff inflow, Qin – 15 cfs
Surface Runoff outflow, Qout – 13 cfs
Change in Storage, S – 16 acft
Precipitation – 1.3 inches
Find:
Evaporation loss over 1 month
Energy Balanced Method
 an application of the law of conservation of mass
 Similar to the water balance method; it’s the most accurate method
 Consists of energy equation and continuity equation

Note: Energy Input = Energy Output

Figure 3: Illustrates the

relationship between Solar
Radiation(R), Sensible heat loss at
atmosphere(Ha), Energy used in
evaporation(He) and ground heat
flux(Hg)
R= Ha + He + Hg
where:
R = solar radiation
Ha = sensible heat loss at atmosphere
He = energy used in evaporation
Hg = ground heat flux

He= ρwLE
He= R- (Ha + Hg)
ρwLE = R- (Ha + Hg)
ρw=mass density of water
L=latent heat of vaporization (J/kg)
E= rate of evaporation (m/s)
𝑅−(𝐻𝑎+𝐻𝑔)
E=
ρwL
If Ha+Hg is so small, they can be neglected thus,
𝑅
E=
ρwL
Example:
In a particular area, the net radiation is 200 watt/m 2 and the temperature is 25°C. The latent heat
of vaporization is 2441 KJ/kg and density of water is 997 kg/m 3. Neglecting sensible heat Ha or
ground heat flux Hg, Find the evaporation rate.
Given
R = 200 watt/m2
T= 25°C
L= 2441 KJ/kg
= 2441x103J/kg
ρw = 997 kg/m3
𝑅
E=
ρwL
E= 8.218x10-3m/s
Mass Transfer Method
 The net movement of mass from one location, usually meaning stream, phase, fraction or
component, to another.
 Evaporation driven by vapor pressure gradient

Figure 4: Illustrates the different formulas of Mass Transfer Method and its relationships.

Example:
A certain lake has area of 9.4km2, and other criteria listed below.
Estimate the evaporation.
Ta=27.2 degree Celsius, Ts= 26.9 degree Celsius, Wa=0.69, Va = 5.81m/s
Answer:
E= 8.0203 m/day
Given:
AL = 9.4 km2
Ta = 27.2 °𝐶
Ts = 26.9 °𝐶
Wa = 69%
Va = 5.81 m/s

E = KEVa(es-ea)

KE = 1.69x10-5(AL-.05)
= 1.69x10-5(9.4-.05)
KE = 1.513x10-5 m/km·kPa

Va = 5.81m/s (8600s/day)(1km/1000m)
= 501.984km/day

17.3𝑇𝑠
es* = 0.611 exp ( )
237.3+𝑇𝑠
*
es = 3.556 kPa

17.3𝑇𝑎
ea* = 0.611 exp ( )
237.3+𝑇𝑎
ea*= 3.62 kPa

ea = Wa· ea*
ea = 0.69(3.62kPa)
ea = 2.5 kPa

E= 1.513x10-5 m/km·kPa(501.984km/day)( 3.556 kPa-2.5 kPa)

E= 8.023x10-3 m/day
Penman Equation
The Penman equation describes evaporation (E) from an open water surface and was developed
by Howard Penman in 1948. Penman's equation requires daily mean temperature, wind speed, air
pressure, and solar radiation to predict E. The penman formula is a semi-empirical equation
combining mass transfer and energy budget methods.
According to Penman the potential evaporation PET (in mm/day) can be calculated as:
𝑨𝑯𝒏 + 𝑬𝒂 𝜸
𝑷𝑬𝑻 =
𝑨+ 𝜸

Where:
PET = daily potential evapotranspiration in mm per day
𝐴 = slope of the saturation vapour pressure temperature curve at the mean air temperature, in mm
of mercury per ℃ (Table 1.2)
𝐻𝑛 = net radiation in mm of evaporable water per day
𝐸𝑎 = parameter including wind velocity and saturation deficit
𝛾 = psychrometric constant = 0.49 mm of mercury/℃

The net radiation (𝐻𝑛 )is estimated by the following equation:

𝑛 𝑛
𝐻𝑛 = 𝐻𝑎 (1 − 𝑟) [𝛼 + 𝑏 ] − 𝜎𝑇𝑎4 (0.56 − 0.092√𝑒𝑎 ) [0.10 + 0.90 ]
𝑁 𝑁
where:
𝐻𝑎 = incident solar radiation outside the atmosphere on a horizontal surface, expressed in mm
of evaporable water per day (it is a function of the latitude and period of the year as indicated in
Table 1.3)
𝛼 = a constant depending upon the latitude ∅ and is given by 𝛼 = 0.29𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
𝑏 = a constant with an average value of 0.52
𝑛 = actual duration of bright sunshine in hours
𝑁 = maximum possible hours of bright sunshine (function of latitude as indicated in Table 1.4)
𝜎 = Stefand-Boltzman constant = 2.01 × 10−9 mm/day
𝑇= mean air temperature in degrees Kelvin = 273 + ℃
𝑒𝑎 = actual mean vapour pressure in the air in mm of mercury
𝑟 = reflection coefficient (albedo). Usual ranges of values of are given below
Table 1.1: Albedo coefficient
Surface Ranges of r values

Close ground crops 0.15-0.25

Bare lands 0.05-0.45

Water surface 0.05

Snow 0.45-0.95

Source: [Link]

The parameter 𝐸𝑎 is estimated as,

𝑢2
𝐸𝑎 = 0.35 [1 + ] (𝑒 − 𝑒𝑎 )
160 𝑠
in which:
𝑢2 = mean wind speed at 2 m above ground in km/day
𝑒𝑠 = saturation vapour pressure at mean air temperature in mm of mercury
𝑒𝑎 = actual vapour pressure
Table 1.2: Slope of Saturation Vapour Pressure of Water
Temperature Saturation vapor A (mm/℃)
(℃) pressure 𝑒𝑠 (mm of
Hg)
0 4.58 0.30
5.0 6.54 0.45
7.5 7.78 0.54
10.0 9.21 0.60
12.5 10.87 0.71
15.0 12.79 0.80
17.5 15.00 0.95
20.0 17.54 1.05
22.5 20.44 1.24
25.0 23.76 1.40
27.5 27.54 1.61
30.0 31.82 1.85
32.5 36.68 2.07
35.0 42.81 2.35
37.0 48.36 2.62
40.0 55.32 2.95
45.0 71.20 3.66

Source: [Link]

Table 1.3: Mean monthly solar radiation at top of atmosphere.

Source: [Link]
Table 1.4: Mean Daily Duration of Maximum Possible Sunshine Hours (N) for Different Months
and Latitudes

Source: [Link]
Sunshine-Hours-N-for-Different-Months-and_tbl2_302026455

Problem 1:
Calculate the potential evapotranspiration from an area near New Delhi in the month of
November by Penman’s formula. The following data are available:
Latitude : 28°4N
Elevation: 230 m (above sea level)
Mean monthly temperature : 19℃
Mean relative humidity: 75%
Mean observed sunshine hours: 9 h
Wind velocity at 2 m height: 85 km / day
Nature of surface cover: Close-ground green crop
 Table 1.2: Slope of Saturation Vapour Pressure of Water
Temperature Saturation vapor A (mm/℃)
(℃) pressure 𝑒𝑠 (mm of
Hg)
0 4.58 0.30
5.0 6.54 0.45
7.5 7.78 0.54
10.0 9.21 0.60
12.5 10.87 0.71
15.0 12.79 0.80
17.5 15.00 0.95
20.0 17.54 1.05
22.5 20.44 1.24
25.0 23.76 1.40
27.5 27.54 1.61
30.0 31.82 1.85
32.5 36.68 2.07
35.0 42.81 2.35
37.0 48.36 2.62
40.0 55.32 2.95
45.0 71.20 3.66

SOLUTION:
𝐴=slope of vapor pressure temp. curve from table 1.2

By Interpolation
17.5 0.95 17.5 − 20 0.95 − 1.05
=
19 x 19 − 20 𝑥 − 1.05

20 1.05 2.5(𝑥 − 1.05) = −0.1

2.5𝑥 − 2.625 = −0.1
2.5𝑥 = 2.525

𝑥 = 1.01
∴ 𝐴 = 1.01
𝐻𝑛 = Net Radiation
𝑛 𝑛
𝐻𝑛 = 𝐻𝑎 (1 − 𝑟) [𝛼 + 𝑏 ] − 𝜎𝑇𝑎4 (0.56 − 0.092√𝑒𝑎 ) [0.10 + 0.90 ]
𝑁 𝑁

𝐻𝑎 (incident solar radiation from table 1.3)

30° 9.1
28°4’ x By Interpolation
20° 11.3
30° − 20° 9.1 − 11.3
=
28°4′ − 20° 𝑥 − 11.3
1.240(𝑥 − 11.3) = −2.2
1.240𝑥 − 14.012 = −2.2
1.240𝑥 = 11.812
𝑥 = 9.526
∴ 𝐻𝑎 = 9.526
𝑟 (albedo coefficient from table 1.1) = 0.25

𝛼 = 0.29 cos 28°4′

= 0.2559
𝑏 = 0.52 (constant)

𝜎 (Stefand-Boltzman constant) = 2.01 × 10−9

𝑇 (temp. absolute)= 19℃ + 273

= 292𝐾
𝑛 (actual sunshine hrs.)= 9 ℎ𝑟𝑠.

Table 1.4: Mean Daily Duration of Maximum Possible Sunshine Hours (N) for Different
Months and Latitudes

𝑁 (max. possible sunshine hrs. from table 1.4)

30° 10.6 By Interpolation

28°4’ x 30° − 25° 10.6 − 10.9

=
28°4′ − 25° 𝑥 − 10.9
25° 10.9
1.630(𝑥 − 10.9) = −0.3
1.630𝑥 − 17.767 = −0.3
1.630𝑥 = 17.467

𝑥 = 10.716
∴ 𝑁 = 10.716
 17.27𝑇 𝑓
𝑒𝑠 = 4.584 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑒𝑎 = (𝑒 )
237.3 + 𝑇 100 𝑠
17.27 (19) 75
= 4.584 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ ] = 100 (16.491)
237 .3+19

= 16.491 mm of Hg = 12.368 mm of Hg

9
𝐻𝑛 = 9.506 (1 − 0.25) 0.2559 + 0.52
10.716
9
− (2.01 × 10−9 )(2924 )(0.56 − 0.092 12.368) 0.10 + 0.90
10.716
𝐻𝑛 = 1.991 mm of water/day

𝑢2
𝐸𝑎 = 0.35 [1 + ] (𝑒 − 𝑒𝑎 )
160 𝑠
85
𝐸𝑎 = 0.35 1 + (16.491 − 12.368)
160
𝐸𝑎 = 2.210 mm/day

using Penman’s Equation is,

Amount of evaporation using Penman’s Equation is,

𝐴𝐻𝑛 + 𝐸𝑎 𝛾
𝑃𝐸𝑇 =
𝐴+ 𝛾
1.01(1.991) + 2.21(0.49)
=
1.01 + 0.49
= 𝟐. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓 mm/day
Problem 2.
Using the same data of Problem 1 estimate the daily evaporation
from a lake situated in that place.
SOLUTION :

For estimating the daily evaporation from a lake, Penman’s equation is used with the albedo r=0.05

hence,
9
𝐻𝑛 = 9.506 (1 − 0.05) 0.2559 + 0.52
10.716
9
− (2.01 × 10−9 )(2924 )(0.56 − 0.092 12.368) 0.10 + 0.90
10.716
𝐻𝑛 = 3.312 mm/day
𝐸𝑎 = 2.210mm/day
𝐴𝐻𝑛 + 𝐸𝑎 𝛾
𝑃𝐸𝑇𝑙𝑎𝑘𝑒 =
𝐴+ 𝛾
1.01(3.312) + 2.21(0.49)
=
1.01 + 0.49
= 𝟐. 𝟗𝟓𝟐 mm/day
 Negros Oriental State University
College of Engineering and Architecture
Civil Engineering Department
Main Campus II, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City

CE 427
HYDROLOGY
Evaporation, Evapotranspiration,
Interception, and Depression Storage

Submitted by:

Babor, Samuel
De Los Reyes, Kim Ian
Faustorilla, Hanna Vanessa Marie

Submitted to:

Engr. Irismay T. Jumawan

Instructor
EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS

Most of the available empirical equations for estimating lake evaporation are a Dalton type
equation of the general form.

(1) Meyer’s Formula

(2) Rohwer’s Formula
Accounts for the effect of pressure in addition to the wind speed effect

Wind Velocity

In the lower part of the atmosphere, up to a height of about 500m above the ground level, wind
velocity follows the one-seventh power law as

Water Vapor Pressure Chart

Example:
A reservoir with a surface area of 250hectares had the following average values of parameters
during a week: water temperature = 20o C, relative humidity = 40% wind velocity at 1.0 m
above ground = 16km/h. Estimate the average daily evaporation from the lake and volume of
water Evaporated from the lake during that one week.
Solution:
ew = 17.54 mm of Hg
ea = 0.40 x 17.54 = 7.02 mm of Hg
U9 = wind velocity at a height of 9.0 m above ground
U1 = 16 km/h U9 =?
Uh = C (h) 1/7
Uh = C (1) 1/7 = 16 km/h
C = 16 / 11/7
U9 = C(9)1/7
U9 = u1 (9) 1/7
= 16 (9) 1/7
= 21.9 km/h
By Meyer’s formula
E = 0.36 (17.54 – 7.02) (1 + 21.9/16)
= 8.97 mm/day
Evaporated volume in 7 days
= 7 x 8.97/1000 x 250 x10000
= 157,000 m3

DIRECT MEASUREMENT

Atmometer

This is a device that can give direct measurement of evaporation.

Atmometers basically consist of a wet, porous ceramic cup mounted
on top of a cylindrical water reservoir. The ceramic cup is covered
with a green fabric that simulates the canopy of a crop. The
reservoir is filled with distilled water that evaporates out of the
ceramic cup and is pulled through a suction tube that extends to the
bottom of the reservoir. Underneath the fabric, the ceramic cup is
covered by a special membrane that keeps rain water from seeping
into the ceramic cup. A rigid wire extending from the top keeps
birds from perching on top of the gauge.
Evaporimeter
These are pans containing water which are exposed to the atmosphere. Loss of water by
evaporation from these pans are measured at regular intervals (daily). Meteorological data such
as humidity, wind velocity, air and water temperatures, and precipitation are also measured and
noted along with evaporation.
(1) USWB Class A Evaporation Pan
o A pan of diameter 1210mm and depth 255mm
o Depth of water is maintained between 18 and 20cm
o The pan is made of unpainted GI sheet
o The pan is placed on a wooden platform of height 15cm above ground level to allow free
air circulation below the pan
o Evaporation is measured by measuring the depth of water in a stilling well with a hook
gauge

(2) ISI Standard Pan

o Specified by IS:5973 and known as the modified Class A Pan
o A pan of diameter 1220mm and depth 255mm
o The pan is made of copper sheet 0.9mm thick, tinned inside and painted white outside
o The pan is placed on a square wooden platform of width 1225mm and height 100mm
above ground level to allow free air circulation below the pan
o A fixed point gauge indicates the level of water
 o Water is added to or removed from the pan to maintain the water level at a fixed mark
using a calibrated cylindrical measure
o The top of the pan is covered with a hexagonal wire net of GI to protect water in the pan
from birds
o Presence of the wire mesh makes the temperature of water more uniform during the day
and night
o Evaporation from this pan is about 14% lower as compared to that from an unscreened
pan

(3) Colorado Sunken Pan

o 920mm square pan made of unpainted GI sheet, 460mm deep, and buried into the ground
within 100mm of the top
o Main advantage of this pan – its aerodynamic and radiation characteristics are similar to
that of a lake
o Disadvantages – difficult to detect leaks, expensive to install, extra care is needed to keep
the surrounding area free from tall grass, dust etc
(4) USGS Floating Pan
o A square pan of 900mm sides and 450mm deep
o Supported by drum floats in the middle of a raft of size 4.25m x 4.87m, it is set afloat in a
lake with a view to simulate the characteristics of a large body of water
o Water level in the pan is maintained at the same level as that in the lake, leaving a rim of
75mm
o Diagonal baffles are provided in the pan to reduce surging in the pan due to wave action
o Disadvantages – High cost of installation and maintenance, difficulty in making
measurements

Hence evaporation measured from a pan has to be corrected to get the evaporation from a large
lake under identical climatic and exposure conditions.

Lake Evaporation = Pan Coefficient (Cp) x Pan Evaporation (Epan)

Where:

• The amount of evaporation per unit time is the difference between the two measured
depths. Epan(mm/day)
Example:
1) Type of pan: Class A evaporation pan
Water depth in pan on day 1 = 150 mm
Water depth in pan on day 2 = 144 mm (after 24 hours)
Rainfall (during 24 hours) = 0 mm
Cpan = 0.75
Formula: E = Cp × Epan
Calculation:
Epan = 150 - 144 = 6 mm/day
E = 0.75 × 6 = 4.5 mm/day

2)

Formula: E = Cp x Epan
Cp = 0.75
Calculation:
Epan = 150 + 1 – 144 = 7 mm/day
E = 0.75 x 7 = 5.2 mm/day
Transpiration

Transpiration is the evaporation of water from plants. Most of the water absorbed by the roots of
a plant as much as 99.5 percent—is not used for growth or metabolism; it is excess water, and it
leaves the plant through transpiration. Transpiration is very important for maintaining moisture
conditions in the environment. As much as 10 percent of the moisture in the Earth’s atmosphere
is from transpiration of water by plants.

Function of Transpiration
Transpiration occurs because plants take in more water than they actually need at a given time. It
is a way of getting rid of excess water. When water is removed from the plant, it can more easily
access the carbon dioxide that it needs for photosynthesis. Also, plants can use transpiration as a
method of cooling themselves.
Transpiration is used to describe the specific action of water evaporating from a plant, but the
word transpiration is also used to generally describe how water moves through plants. When
water enters the plant through the roots, it is pulled up through the xylem tissue in the stem of the
plant to the plant’s leaves by capillary action and the cohesion of water molecules. When water
reaches the stomata, which are small holes in the leaves, it evaporates due to diffusion; the
moisture content of the air is lower than the moisture in the leaf, so water naturally flows out into
the surrounding air in order to equalize the concentrations.
Types of Transpiration
Stomatal Transpiration
Stomatal transpiration is the evaporation of water from a plant’s stomata. Most of the water that
is transpired from a plant is transpired this way; at least 90% of the water transpired from a
plant’s leaves exits through the stomata. Near the surface of the leaf, water in liquid form
changes to water vapor and evaporates from the plant through open stomata.
Cuticular Transpiration
Cuticular transpiration is the evaporation of water from a plant’s cuticle. The cuticle is a waxy
film that covers the surface of a plant’s leaves. This form of transpiration does not account for
much of a plant’s water loss; about 5-10 percent of the leaves’ water is lost through the cuticle.
When plants close their stomata in dry conditions, more water is transpired this way.
Lenticular Transpiration
Lenticular transpiration is the evaporation of water from the lenticels of a plant. Lenticels are
small openings in the bark of branches and twigs. Not all plants have lenticels. The amount of
water lost this way is very small compared to stomatal transpiration, but as with cuticular
transpiration, it may increase if a plant is in a dry environment.

Factors Affecting Transpiration

The amount of water that plants transpire varies greatly geographically and over time. There are
a number of factors that determine transpiration rates:
 Temperature: Transpiration rates go up as the temperature goes up, especially during the
growing season, when the air is warmer due to stronger sunlight and warmer air masses.
Higher temperatures cause the plant cells which control the openings (stoma) where
water is released to the atmosphere to open, whereas colder temperatures cause the
openings to close.
 Relative humidity: As the relative humidity of the air surrounding the plant rises the
transpiration rate falls. It is easier for water to evaporate into dryer air than into more
saturated air.
 Wind and air movement: Increased movement of the air around a plant will result in a
higher transpiration rate. Wind will move the air around, with the result that the more
saturated air close to the leaf is replaced by drier air.
 Soil-moisture availability: When moisture is lacking, plants can begin to senesce
(premature aging, which can result in leaf loss) and transpire less water.
  Type of plant: Plants transpire water at different rates. Some plants which grow in arid
regions, such as cacti and succulents, conserve precious water by transpiring less water
than other plants.

Measurement of Transpiration
To measure the rate of transpiration we use a piece of equipment called a potometer. A
potometer measures how factors such as light, temperature, humidity, light intensity and wind
will affect the rate of transpiration.

The main type of potometer is the 'bubble'. The potometer measures the amount of water lost
from a leafy shoot by monitoring the rate at which an air bubble moves along the narrow tube as
the leafy shoot sucks up water to replace the water lost by the transpiration of the plant.
Note: A potometer provides an indirect measurement of the transpiration rate – it measures how
fast water is absorbed, which is related to how fast water vapour is being lost. It cannot measure
how fast water vapour is being given off directly
Evapotranspiration
 Evapotranspiration (ET) is the quantity of water transpired by the plants during their
growth or retained in plant tissue, plus the moisture evaporated from the surface of the
soil and the vegetation.
 It accounts for the movement of water to the air from surface such as the soil, canopy
interception, and water bodies.

Types of Evapotranspiration
Potential evapotranspiration or PE is a measure of the ability of the atmosphere to remove
water from the surface through the processes of evaporation and transpiration assuming no
control on water supply.
Actual evapotranspiration or AE is the quantity of water that is actually removed from a
surface due to the processes of evaporation and transpiration.
There are a whole host of factors that affect evapotranspiration:
 Temperature – As temperature increases, the rate of evapotranspiration
increases. Evaporation increases because there is a higher amount of energy available
to convert the liquid water to water vapor. Transpiration increases because at warmer
temperatures plants open up their stomata and release more water vapor.
 Humidity – If the air around the plant is too humid, the transpiration and evaporation
rates drop. It’s the same reason sweat does not evaporate from our skin when it’s too
humid.
 Wind speed – If the air is moving, the rate of evaporation will increase. The wind
will also clear the air of any humidity produced by the plant’s transpiration, so the
plant will increase its rate of transpiration.
 Water availability – If the soil is dry and there is no standing water there will be no
evaporation. If plants can’t get enough water they will conserve it instead of
transpiring by closing their stoma.
 Soil type – Soil type determines how much water soil can hold and how easy it is for
the water to be drawn out of it, either by a plant or by evaporation. For areas where
the ground is covered by vegetation, the rate of transpiration is considerably higher
than the rate of evaporation from the soil.
 Plant type – Some plants, like cacti and other succulents, naturally hold onto their
water and don’t transpire as much. Trees and crops are on the other end of the
spectrum and can release copious amounts of water vapor in a day. For example, an
acre of corn can release 4,000 gallons of water vapor a day and a single large oak tree
can transpire 40,000 gallons of water vapor in a year.

Measurement of Evapotranspiration

Lysimeter
The soil and vegetation is confined within a small tank (the lysimeter) and measurements are
made of the water input (Rainfall R and Additional water A) and output (Percolated water P)
collected in the receiver.

PE = R + A – P
 Water Balance Method
Water balance method is also called the inflow-outflow method, is suitable for large areas
(watersheds) over long period. It may be represented by the following hydrological equation;
A general water balance equation is
P = Q + E + △S
Where:
P is precipitation
Q is runoff
E is evapotranspiration
△S is the change in storage

Example:
A 300-acre lake has a 15 ft3/s inflow, 13 ft3/s outflow, storage increase of 16 acre ft recorded
with a total of 1.3 in of precipitation for the month. Determine the evaporation loss in inches
over the lake for the month.
Given

Time period – 1 month

Surface area, A – 300 acres

Surface Runoff inflow, Qin – 15 cfs

Surface Runoff outflow, Qout – 13 cfs

Change in Storage, S – 16 acft

Precipitation – 1.3 inches

Find:
Evaporation loss over 1 month

Blaney-Criddle Method

This method requires the use of only two factors, temperature and information of day light
hours which is a factor based purely on the latitude of the place. Using Blaney-Criddle approach,
potential evapotranspiration can be expressed as follows, in metric unit:
Where,
PET = potential evapotranspiration, mm of water per day (mean value over the month)
P= monthly percent of total day time hours of the year
T= mean monthly temp. In °C (Average of daily max and min values)

Thornthwaite Method
Thornthwaite method is based on the assumption of an exponential relationship between
mean monthly temperature and mean monthly consumptive use.

Where,
e = unadjusted PET (cm per month)
t = mean air temperature (°C)
I = annual or seasonal heat index, the summation of 12 values of monthly heat

Hargreaves’ Method
Hargreaves based on his work on data from grass lysimeter, proposed the following
relationship to estimate ET,

Where, PET = reference crop potential consumptive use

t = mean daily temperature (°C)
Rs= incident solar radiation in langlay/day, it can be calculated using the
following relationship,
 Where, S is the percent possible sunshine hour and Rso is the clear daysolar radiation in
langlay/day.

Interception and Depression Storage

Interception
• The water that is retained by vegetation surfaces that is later evaporated into the
atmosphere, or absorbed by the plant. Interception loss prevents water from reaching the
ground surface and is regarded as a primary water loss.
• Intercepted precipitation is not available for runoff or infiltration, but instead is returned
to the atmosphere through evaporation.
• The quantity of water removed through interception is usually not significant for an
isolated storm, but, when added over a period of time, it can be significant.

Three Main Components of Interception:

 • 1. Interception loss: The water that is retained by vegetation surfaces that is later
evaporated into the atmosphere, or absorbed by the plant. Interception loss prevents water
from reaching the ground surface and is regarded as a primary water loss.
• 2. Throughfall: The water which falls through spaces in the vegetation canopy, or which
drips from the leaves, twigs and stems and falls to the ground.

• 3. Stemflow: The water which trickles along the stems and branches and down the main
stem or trunk to the ground surface.

Horton Equation
• Interception losses are described by the following equation:

𝑳𝒊 = 𝑺 + 𝑲𝑬𝒕
Where,
• Li is the total volume of water intercepted. (in)
• S is the interception storage that will be retained on the foliage against wind and gravity
(usually varies between 0.01 and 0.05 in)
• K is the ratio of the surface area of the leaves to the area of the entire canopy or to the
horizontal projection of this area (constant)
 • E is the rate of evaporation during the precipitation event (in/hr)
• t is time (hr)

-This illustrates the general time distribution pattern of interception loss intensity.
-Most interception loss develops during the initial storm period and the rate of interception
rapidly approaches to zero.
-By using this, potential storm interception losses can be estimated.

As the Horton equation suggests, the total interception is dependent on the storm duration,
as longer duration storms allow more evaporation from the canopy during the storm event.

LINSLEY,
KOHLER, AND PAULHUS (1949) proposed a change in Horton's equation because rainfall
does not always completely fill the available storage.
• P is rainfall and e is the base of natural logarithms
−𝑃
𝐿𝑖 = 𝑆 + 𝐾𝐸𝑡 (1 − 𝑒 𝑆 )

MERRIAM (1960) proposed that the exponential factor applies only to storage. He reasoned
that only the initial buildup of water in storage is exponential and not the evaporation
during a storm.
 −𝑃
𝐿𝑖 = 𝑆 (1 − 𝑒 𝑆 ) + 𝐾𝐸𝑡

-This equation is based on the assumption that rainfall is sufficient to fully satisfy the
storage term S.
-Designed to account for the rainfall amount.

Example 1: Using Horton’s equation, estimate the interception loss beneath these trees for a
storm having a total precipitation of 1.5 in. during a 3hr rainfall

>For Ash Trees, S=0.015 in, e=0.19 in/hr, K=0.23

>For Oak Trees, S=0.03 in, e=0.16 in/hr, K=0.22

Answers:

For Ash Trees: 𝐿𝑖 = 0.015 + (0.23𝑥 0.19𝑥 3)

𝐿𝑖 = 0.146 𝑖𝑛

For Oak Trees: 𝐿𝑖 = 0.03 + (0.22𝑥 0.16𝑥 3)

𝐿𝑖 = 0.136 𝑖𝑛

Example 2: Using the table below, calculate the interception loses of each type of vegetation.

Vegetation Storage (in) Precipitation (cm) Evaporation (in) Time (hr) K

Pine Trees 0.04 7 0.015 2 2.11

Spruce 0.07 7 0.026 2 3.21
Hardwood 0.03 7 0.012 2 2
(leafed)
Bare Hardwood 0.012 7 0.003 2 0.99
For Pine Trees:
−2.756
𝐿𝑖 = 0.04 (1 − 𝑒 0.04 ) + 2.11(. 015)(2)

𝐿𝑖 = 0.103 𝑖𝑛

For Spruce:
−2.756
𝐿𝑖 = 0.07 (1 − 𝑒 0.07 ) + 3.21(.026)(2)

𝐿𝑖 = 0.237 in

For Hardwood (leafed):

−2.756
𝐿𝑖 = 0.03 (1 − 𝑒 0.03 ) + 2(.012)(2)

𝐿𝑖 = 0.078 in

For Bare Hardwood:

−2.756
𝐿𝑖 = 0.012 (1 − 𝑒 0.012 ) + 0.99(.003)(2)

𝐿𝑖 = 0.018 𝑖𝑛

Depression Storage
Precipitation that reaches the ground may infiltrate, flow over the surface or become trapped
in numerous small depressions from which the only escape is evaporation or infiltration. The
nature of depression as well as their size, is largely a function of the original land form and the
local land-use practices. Because of extreme variability in the nature of depressions and the
paucity of sufficient measurements, no generalize relation with enough specified parameters
for all cases is feasible.
• Depression storage is the term applied to water that is lost because it becomes trapped
in the numerous small depressions that are characteristic of any natural surface. When
 water temporarily accumulates in a low point with no possibility for escape as runoff,
the accumulation is referred to as depression storage.
• Typical values for depression storage range from 1 to 8 mm (0.04 to 0.3 in) with some
values as high as 15 mm (0.6 in) per event. As with evaporation and transpiration,
depression storage is generally not directly calculated in highway design.
• The precipitation stored in these depressions is then either removed through infiltration
into the ground or by evaporation.
• Depression storage exists on both pervious and impervious surfaces.
Pictures of Puddles (Depression Storage):

The depth of water in depression storage at any time during a precipitation event
can be approximated as:

V= is the depth of water in depression storage

Sd=is the maximum storage capacity of the depression
Pe is the rainfall excess; and
Pe is the rainfall excess; and
k is a constant equal to 1/ Sd
Slope impacts the potential depression storage of a land cover. Viessman determined a
relationship between slope on an impervious surface and depression storage. As the slope
increases and approaches four percent, the depression storage may approach zero.
The table below proves that the higher the slope (steeper), the lesser the depression storage is.
Many studies have attempted to determine depression storage for different land
covers. The following table presents depression storage values for different land
covers:
DEPRESSION STORAGE INTENSITY VERSUS TIME FOR AN IMPERVIOUS AREA

Depression storage assumes that all water has had a chance to infiltrate or
evaporate. Turner demonstrated that depression storage intensity decreases by
nearly half when there is an antecedent rainfall, as shown in the figure.

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. )Assume that a rainfall event of intensity 1.25 cm/h falls over a uniformly
forested watershed of area20 km2. Compute the volume of water that
leaves the basin as storm runoff for a 1-hour rainfall. Assuming that in
addition to interception there are also losses due to depression storage.

Assume that Sd is 0.2 cm.

SOLUTION:
Compute total precipitation depth:
P = (1.25 cm/h) (1 h) = 1.25 cm
Li =S(1-e-p/s)
Li = (0.2 cm) (1 - e (-1.25/0.2))
= 0.1996 cm
Pe = P - Li = 1.0504 cm
d = (0.2 cm) (1 - exp(-1.0504/0.2))
= 0.1989cm
Vo= (Pe - d) (Abasin)
= ((1.0504 cm - 0.1989 cm)/100 cm/m )(20 106 m2)
=170,300.0 m3

2. Using the precipitation input on the figure, estimate the volume of

depression storage for a 3.0-acre paved drainage area. State the volume in
ft3 and m3. Convert it to an equivalent depth over the area in inches and
centimeters.
SOLUTION:
V = O.5 + 1.75 = 2.25 ft3/ sec- acre
2.25 𝑓𝑡 3 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑉= ×
𝑠𝑒𝑐 − 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑓𝑡 3
𝑉 = 135 𝑠𝑒𝑐−𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒

2.25 𝑓𝑡 3 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑉= × × 3 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒 × 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑠𝑒𝑐 − 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉 = 405 𝑓𝑡 3

1 𝑚3 = 35.3146667115 𝑓𝑡 3

3
1 𝑚3
𝑉 = 405 𝑓𝑡 ×
35.3146667 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑉 = 11.4683228 𝑚3

1 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒 = 43560 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑉 135 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑑= = 2
= 3.0992 × 10−3 𝑓𝑡
𝐴 43560 𝑓𝑡

1 𝑓𝑡 = 12 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
12 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
𝑑 = 3.0992 × 10−3 𝑓𝑡 × = 0.0372 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
1 𝑓𝑡

1 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ = 2.54 𝑐𝑚
2.54 𝑐𝑚
𝑑 = 0.0372 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ × = 0.0945 𝑐
1 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
Subsurface and surface runoff phenomenon

Runoff, in hydrology, quantity of water discharged in surface streams. Runoff includes not
only the waters that travel over the land surface and through channels to reach a stream
but also interflow, the water that infiltrates the soil surface and travels by means of
gravity toward a stream channel(always above the main groundwater level) and
eventually empties into the channel. Runoff also includes groundwater that is discharged
into a stream; streamflow that is composed entirely of groundwater is termed base flow,
or fair-weather runoff, and it occurs where a stream channel intersects the water table.

The total runoff is equal to the total precipitation less the losses caused
by evapotranspiration (loss to the atmosphere from soil surfaces and plant leaves),
storage (as in temporary ponds), and other such abstractions.

Surface Runoff
Surface runoff is water, from rain, snowmelt, or other sources, that flows over the
land surface, and is a major component of the watercycle. Runoff that occurs
on surfaces before reaching a channel is also called overland flow. A land area which
produces runoffdraining to a common point is called a watershed.
Subsurface Runoff
Subsurface runoff is the water that infiltrates in the vadose zone (unsaturated zone), from
rain, snowmelt, or other sources, and moves laterally towards the streams. Vadose zone
extends from the top of the ground surface to the water table. It is one of the major
components in the water cycle.

Runoff is often defined as the portion of rainfall, snowmelt, and/or irrigation water that runs over
the soil surface toward the stream rather than infiltrating into the soil. It is sometimes
called surface runoff.
For some purposes however, the definition of runoff also includes water which makes its way
relatively quickly to the stream channel just below the surface. This is sometimes
called interflow or subsurface runoff, and together with surface runoff makes up the volume of
water that hydrologists generally refer to a
SOIL WATER PROCESSES

There are three physical processes for the movement of soil water: entry, transmission,
and storage. Entry, also known as infiltration, occurs at the water-ground surface
boundary. Transmission is the vertical and horizontal percolation that can occur
throughout the entire depth of the soil layer. Storage can occur throughout the soil
profile and is manifested as increased soil moisture.
Environmental conditions that affect these three processes are broadly broken down into
two major categories: natural influences and human activity influences. Natural processes
can have a variety of influences, but human activity typically results in less water entering
the soil profile and thus more runoff at the ground surface.
Types of surface runoff

Infiltration excess overland flow occurs with soil that is not saturated. In fact, the soil can
be quite dry, but soil properties or land cover do not allow for infiltration to keep up with
high rainfall or snowmelt rates.

Saturation excess overland flow occurs when the soil becomes saturated and there is no
longer any space for water to infiltrate. This can occur even with soil that would typically
allow for large amounts of infiltration in sub-saturated conditions.
Baseflow, or base runoff, is the long-term supply of water that keeps at least some water in the
stream even during extended dry periods. Baseflow comes from water that percolated down into
deep storage.
Infiltration is the downward movement of water through the soil surface. While it is often used
interchangeably with percolation, percolation actually refers to movement of water within soil,
and infiltration specifically refers just to the process of water entering a soil surface.
Surface runoff is the movement of water across the soil surface toward the stream channel.
Interflow is the relatively rapid movement of water below the soil surface toward the stream
channel, typically within 72 hours of when water infiltrates the surface. This process is more likely
in areas with deep soil.
Runoff, sometimes called quick response runoff, can refer to surface runoff only, but sometimes
it is the combination of surface runoff plus interflow. Thus, it typically represents the movement
of water to the stream channel that is not part of baseflow.
Rainfall-runoff processes mechanisms

Hydrological studies of rainfall-runoff processes provide the basis for estimating design
flows for urban stormwater drainage systems which control floods and the transport of sediments
and pollutants. This paper outlines the theory of urban rainfall-runoff processes and describes the
development of modelling practice and the current use of computer models. It concludes that
rainfall-runoff theory has reached a mature stage, and highlights deficiencies and dilemmas which
require further research, including rainfall variability, scale effects and interfacing between
models.
 The figure depicts a cross section through a hillslope that exposes in more detail the
pathways infiltrated water may follow. Infiltrated water may flow through the matrix of the soil in
the inter-granular pores and small structural voids. Infiltrated water may also flow through larger
voids referred to as macropores. Macropores include pipes that are open passageways in the soil
caused by decaying roots and burrowing animals. Macropores also include larger structural voids
within the soil matrix that serve as preferential pathways for subsurface flow. The permeability of
the soil matrix may differ between soil horizons and this may lead to the build up of a saturated
wedge above a soil horizon interface. Water in these saturated wedges may flow laterally through
the soil matrix, or enter macropores and be carried rapidly to the stream as subsurface stormflow
in the form of interflow.
 Relationship between runoff ratio and soil moisture content
This shows how runoff ratio, the fraction of precipitation that appears as runoff, is
dependent upon soil moisture content. Soil moisture content needs to exceed a threshold before
any significant runoff occurs.

Relation between runoff and depth to groundwater for two different locations in the

Svartberget catchmen
 Classification of runoff generation mechanisms

a) Horton overland flow d escribes the tendency of water to flow horizontally across
land surfaces when rainfall has exceeded infiltration capacity and depression storage
capacity.
b) Infiltration Excess Overland Flow, also known as Hortonian Flow, occurs when water
enters a soil system faster then the soil can absorb or move it, such as when precipitation
exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil.
c) Saturation Excess Overland Flow occurs when the soil becomes saturated, and any
additional precipitation or irrigation causes runoff.
d) Subsurface stormflow is a runoff producing mechanism operating in most upland terrains.
Subsurface stormflow occurs when water moves laterally down a hillslope through soil
layers or permeable bedrock to contribute to the storm hydrograph in a river. In humid
environments and steep terrain with conductive soils, subsurface stormflow may be the
main mechanism of storm runoff generation
Rainfall, runoff, infiltration and surface storage during a natural rainstorm.

The shaded areas under the rainfall graph represent precipitation falling at a rate exceeding
the infiltration rate. The dark grey area represents rainfall that enters depression storage, which is
filled before runoff occurs. The light grey shading represents rainfall that becomes overland flow.
The initial infiltration rate is f0, and f1 is the final constant rate of infiltration approached in large
storms
 Schematic illustration of macropore network being activated due to rise in
groundwater resulting in rapid lateral flow.

Transmissivity feedback (Weiler and McDonnell, 2003) is illustrated in this and occurs
when water infiltrates rapidly along preferential pathways and causes the groundwater to rise to
the point where highly permeable soil layers or macropore networks become activated and transmit
water rapidly downslope. Much of the water that drains from the soil matrix into the macropore
network is preevent water.

Rapid lateral flow at soil bedrock interface.

Lateral flow at the soil bedrock interface occurs in steep terrain with relatively thin soil
cover and low permeability bedrock, where water moves to depth rapidly along preferential
infiltration pathways and perches at the soil-bedrock interface. Since moisture content near the
bedrock interface is often close to saturated, the addition of only a small amount of new water
(rainfall or snowmelt) is required to produce saturation at the soil-bedrock or soil-impeding layer
interface. Rapid lateral flow occurs at the permeability interface through the transient saturated
zone. Once rainfall inputs cease, there is a rapid dissipation of positive pore water pressures and
the system reverts back to a slow drainage of matrix flow.
 Groundwater ridging subsurface stormflow processes in an area of high infiltration
rate.

This illustrates a region just above the water table that was close to saturation. This is
known as the capillary fringe, and can play an important role in runoff generation in certain
situations. Capillary forces due to the surface tension between water and soil particles act to pull
water into the soil matrix above the water table and maintain the capillary fringe at moisture
content very close to saturation. The addition of a small amount of water can saturate this soil and
cause the water table to rise quite rapidly, resulting in subsurface stormflow, surface saturation
and saturation excess overland flow. The moisture content in the capillary fringe can also be
affected by the history of wetting and drying of the soil, a phenomenon known as hysteresis. When
soil has been draining the moisture content tends to remain above what it would be if it were filling
at the same pressure. The addition of a small amount of water can switch the soil from draining to
filling mode, enhancing the effect of the capillary fringe on the rise of the water table and
subsurface stormflow response.
 Hydrological Pathways involved in different runoff generation processes

Infiltration excess pathways are shown in red. Saturation excess and subsurface stormflow
pathways are shown in blue. Groundwater and baseflow pathways in black and Evapotranspiration
is green.

Runoff measurement

Runoff
- The water available after hydrological process in the form of stream flows, rivers, lakes,
etc is known as Runoff.

Mathematical form,
Runoff(R) = Precipitation(P) – Losses(L)
Runoff(R) = Surface runoff + Subsurface runoff
Need of Runoff
 - Design of drains, canals & other channels.
- Prediction of water levels in streams & rivers.
- Storage for irrigation, power generation, river transport.
Factors affecting the runoff
- Rainfall Pattern
- Character of catchment area
- Hill slope
- Vegetation
- Weather condition
- Geology of area

Stage-Discharge Relationship
The relationship between the amount of water flowing in a river or stream and stage at any
particular point is usually known as stage–discharge relationship. Stage–discharge
relationships for flow in rivers and channels are established by concurrent measurements of
stage (y) and discharge (Q) and the results are fitted graphically or statistically to yield the
development of rating curves. The dynamic relationship between stage and discharge, which is
unique to a particular selected station along the river, can be determined via mathematical
relationships.
Stage - refers to the water level in a river or stream with respect to a chosen reference height.
Stages can be measured with Gages
A. Different Gages

• Staff gages – these are either vertical or inclined. The

standard Geological Survey vertical staff gage consists
of porcelain-enameled iron sections, each 4 in (0.1 m)
wide, 3.4 ft (1.04 m) long, and graduated every 0.02 ft
(0.0067 m).

• Wire- Weight Gage - It consists of a drum wound with

a single layer of cable, a bronze weight attached to the
end of the cable, a graduated disc, and a Veeder counter,
all within a cast-aluminum box.
 • Float-Tape Gage - A float-type gage consists of float,
graduated steel tape, counterweight, and pulley. The float
pulley is usually 6 in (0.152 m) in diameter, grooved on
the circumference to accommodate the tape, and
mounted in a standard.

• Electric-Tape Gage - The electric-tape gage consists of

a steel tape graduated in feet and hundredths of a foot, to
which is fastened a cylindrical weight, a reel in a frame
for the tape, a 4%volt battery, and a voltmeter.

• Stilling Wells - A pipe, chamber, or compartment with

one or more comparatively small inlets connected with a main body of water
or flow channel. ... The water level in the well can be measured and used to
calculate flow or to control devices such as gates or pumps.

Discharge - is the volumetric flow rate of water that is transported through a given cross-
sectional area.
CURRENT METER
A current meter is an instrument used to measure the velocity of flowing water. The
principle of operation is based on the proportionality between the velocity of the water
and the resulting angular velocity of the meter rotor. By placing a current meter at a
point in a stream and counting the number of revolutions of the rotor during a measured
interval of time, the velocity of water at that point is determined.
A current meter is so designed that its rotation speed varies linearly with the stream
velocity v at the location of the instrument.
 𝑉 = 𝑎𝑁 + 𝑏
𝑽 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠
𝑵 = 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝒂 & 𝒃 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

STAGE-DISCHARGE RELATION
or RATING CURVE
It is a graph of discharge versus stage for a given point on a stream, usually at gauging stations,
where the stream discharge is measured across the stream channel with a flow
meter. Numerous measurements of stream discharge are made over a range of stream stages.
The rating curve is usually plotted as discharge on x-axis versus stage (surface elevation) on y-
axis.

POINT OF ZERO FLOW

The gage height of zero flow, also termed the "point of zero flow" is important information
especially helpful when shaping the lower part of the curve. The point of zero flow is the gage
height at which the water ceases to flow over the control. This gage height should be
determined by field surveys whenever the flow is sufficiently low to allow an accurate
determination.
Power Regression Equation
The general equation of the relation between stage and discharge is given as:
𝑄 = 𝑐(𝐻 − 𝑎)𝑏
Taking logarithms of the power regression equation results in a straight line relationship of the
form:

log(𝑄 ) = 𝑏 log(𝐻 − 𝑎) + log(𝑐 )

𝑂𝑟
𝑌 = 𝐵𝑋 + 𝐴
Where:
Q = Discharge (m3/s)
H = Measured gage height (m)
Ho = Gage height corresponding to Q=0
B = n, slope of the line (gradient)
A = log (K), intercept on the (log y)-axis, where log x = 0
The equation above is a parabolic equation which plots as a straight line on double logarithmic
graph paper. The equation will apply to cross-sections of rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal,
parabolic and other geometrically simple sections.
All discharge measurements are plotted on log-log paper. An average line drawn through the
scatter of points has resulted in the solid curved line. Three values of discharge Q1, Q2, and
Q3 are selected in geometric progression, that is, two values Q1 and Q3 are chosen from the
curve, the third value Q2 is then computed according to
(𝑄2 )2 = 𝑄1 𝑄3
The corresponding gage heights read from the plot are hl, h2, and h3. It is now possible to
verify that
ℎ1 ℎ3 − (ℎ2 )2
𝐻0 =
ℎ1 + ℎ3 − 2ℎ2
The solid curved line may now be transformed into a straight
line by subtracting Ho from each value of the gage height h and
re-plotting the new values.
By Simple Linear Regression
𝑁 ∑𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
𝑖 (𝑋𝑖 𝑌𝑖 ) − (∑𝑖 𝑋 )(∑𝑖 𝑌)
𝐵=
𝑁 (∑𝑁 2 𝑁
𝑖 𝑋 ) − (∑ 𝑖 𝑋 )
2

∑𝑁 𝑁
𝑖 𝑌𝑖 − 𝐵 ∑𝑖 𝑋𝑖
𝐴=
𝑁
∑(𝒀) = 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝑸
∑(𝑿) = 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒐𝒈 (𝑯 − 𝒂)
∑(𝑿)𝟐 = 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 (𝑿)
𝑵 = 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
Finally, we can obtain the values of a and b
𝑏=𝐵
𝑎 = 10𝐴

The Midsection method

In the midsection method of making a current-meter measurement it is assumed that the
velocity sample at each location represents the mean velocity in a partial rectangular area. The
area extends laterally from half the distance from the preceding meter location to half the
distance to the next and vertically, from the water surface to the sounded depth.
 𝑄𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 𝐴𝑖
𝑏𝑖+1 + 𝑏𝑖−1
𝐴𝑖 = ( ) (𝑑 𝑖 )
2
𝑄𝑖 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑏𝑖+1 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑏𝑖−1 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑖 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

The Mean Section Method

The mean-section method differs from the midsection method in computation procedure.
Partial discharges are computed for partial sections between successive locations. The
velocities and depths at successive locations are each averaged, and the section extends
laterally from one observation point to the next.
 𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴
𝐴 = (𝑏𝑖 − 𝑏𝑖−1 )(𝑑 )
𝑑𝑖−1 + 𝑑𝑖
𝑑=
2
𝑉𝑖−1 + 𝑉𝑖
𝑉=
2
𝑄 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑉 = 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑏𝑖 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑏𝑖−1 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Example:
Runoff measurements
The measurement of runoff, in the field, is generally carried out using current meters and
calibrated or rated channel cross sections, flumes or standardized weirs, together with water level
readings, often by automatic recorders, to give a continuous height record which can be
correlated to flow.

1) From rainfall records

Runoff(R) = K(annual rainfall)
R= runoff depth
K= Constant
Example:

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

P(cm) 4 4 2 0 2 12 32 29 16 2 1 2

Solve for Runoff depth where the type of catchment is concrete pavement.
Sol.
Annual Rainfall= 4+4+2+0+2+12+32+29+16+2+1+2= 106
K=concrete pavement = 0.85
R= 0.85(106) = 90.1cm

2) Khosla’s formula
Rm= Pm – Lm, and Lm= 0.48(Tm) for Tm > 4.5 ̊C
for Tm ≤ 4.5 ̊ C the loss may be assumed a

Where:Rm = monthly runoff in cm and Rm ≥ 0

Pm = monthly rainfall in cm
Lm = monthly losses in cm
Tm = mean monthly temperature of the catchment in ̊C
Example:

3) Rational formula
R= (C)(A)(I)
Where: R= runoff discharge
C= constant, C = R/P where: R = Total depth of runoff,
P = Total depth of precipitation.
A= area
I= average annual precipitation
Example:
Consider a section of a downtown business area of 35,400 square feet that drains to a particular storm
water inlet. The runoff coefficient for this drainage area has been estimated to 0.85. Based on a specified
design return period and the time of concentration of the drainage area, the design storm intensity has
been determined to be 5.1 in/hr. What is the peak runoff rate from this area to be used for design to the
storm water inlet?
Solution:
A= 35,400 ft² R=CAP=(0.85)(5.1/12x3600)(35400)
C=0.85 R=3.552 cfs
P= 5.1 in/hr (1/12x3600)
Flood Prediction: Graph Analysis and Flow Routing Technique

Flood:
Flood is defined as extremely high flows or levels of rivers, lakes, ponds, reservoirs and
any other water bodies, whereby water inundates outside of the water bodies area. Floods occur
when soil and vegetation cannot absorb all the water.
Causes of Flooding:
Many factors cause floods. In general, the reasons for increasing flooding in many parts of
the world are;
1. Climatic events
2. Changes in Land use and increasing population
3. Land subsidence, Tsunami
4. Dam & Levee Failures
Effects of Flooding:
Floods not only damage property and endanger the lives of humans and animals, but have
other effects as well. Rapid runoff causes soil erosion as well as sediment deposition problems
downstream. Spawning grounds for fish and other wildlife habitat are often destroyed. High-
velocity currents increase flood damage; prolonged high floods delay traffic and interfere with
drainage and economic use of lands. Bridge abutments, bank lines, sewer outfalls, and other
structures within floodways are damaged, and navigation and hydroelectric power are often
impaired. Financial losses due to floods are commonly millions of dollars each year.
Flood Prediction:
Flood prediction and modeling refer to the processes of transformation of rainfall into a
flood hydrograph and to the translation of that hydrograph throughout a watershed or any other
hydrologic system.

ADVANTAGES
• Authorities can prepare defenses and emergency services before a flood occur, therefore reducing
damage to homes, farmland and businesses.
• It can help to choose what type of flood defenses should be used in an area.
• Intangible losses including; loss of life and injury, and the damage caused to human health and
long-term well-being, can be prevented.
• Technology is always improving and becoming more accurate.
• Less damage means costs and disruption of daily lives are greatly reduced.
• Residents can take precautions to protect their property or can be evacuated.

DISADVANTAGES
• How effective the preparations are depends on local authorities and support of voluntary and
official agencies.
• Prediction and warnings don’t help to reduce the chance of the river bursting its banks, therefore
have to be used with other management strategies or defenses.

Graph Analysis: Hydrographs

It is a graph
showing the
change of rate of
flow (discharge)
versus time past
a specific point
in a river, or
other channel or
conduit carrying
flow.
It can
also refer to a
graph showing
the volume of
water reaching a
particular outfall
(discharge point of a waste stream into a body of water usually sea and lakes).

Factors that influence the hydrograph shape and volume

Meteorological factors include
Ø Rainfall intensity and pattern
Ø Areal distribution or rainfall over the basin and
Ø Size and duration of the storm event
Physiographic or watershed factors include
Ø Size and shape of the drainage area
Ø Slope of the land surface and main channel
Ø Channel morphology and drainage type
Ø Soil types and distribution
Ø Storage detention in the watershed
Human factors include
Ø the effects of land use and land cover
Base Flow Separation
As the Unit Hydrograph concept applies only to direct runoff, the direct runoff must be
separated from the baseflow. Baseflow separation or hydrograph analysis is the process of
separating the direct runoff (surface runoff and quick interflow) from the baseflow. Because we
do not want to include the contribution from baseflow in the unit hydrograph, this must be
separated from the quick–response runoff. There are various methods for doing this.
Some of the well-known base flow separation procedures:
 Constant-discharge method

The constant discharge method

assumes that baseflow is constant
during the storm hydrograph. The
minimum streamflow immediately
prior to the rising limb is used as the
constant value.
 Constant-slope method

connect inflection point on receding

limb of storm hydrograph to beginning
N=0.8 A= Discharge of storm hydrograph

A^0.2 area in km^2 • Assumes flow from aquifers began

prior to start of current storm, arbitrarily
sets it to inflection point
• Draw a line connecting the point (A-
C) connecting a point N time periods
after the peak.

 Concave method
The concave method attempts to
represent an assumed initial
decrease in baseflow during the
beginning of a storm (climbing
limb) by projecting the declining
hydrographic trend prior to the
rainfall event (to) to directly under
peak runoff. This minima is then
connected to the inflection point on
the receding limb of storm
hydrograph to mimic what’s
thought to be a delayed increase in
baseflow.
 Ex.
Given: A= 18km^2
1 hr duration find depth of DRO= ?

Time hr Streamflow (m3/s)

0 10

1 20

2 45

3 50

4 43

5 30

6 25

7 22

8 19

9 15

10 10
Total= 179 m3/s
  Depth of DRO=
=0.0358 m

Volume of direct runoff= 0.0358

(18)(1000)^2= 644400m3

Ex. Given:

Area= 900 hectares

 Total=5.21
m3/s

 Depth of DRO=
=
=0.05m

Volume of DRO= 0.05 ( 9000000) =

450000m3
Unit Hydrograph
The Unit Hydrograph (UH) of a watershed is defined as the direct runoff hydrograph
resulting from a unit volume of excess rainfall of constant intensity and uniformly distributed
over the drain.
The duration of the unit volume of excess or effective rainfall, sometimes referred to as the
effective duration, defines and labels the particular unit hydrograph.
The unit volume is usually considered to be associated with 1 cm (1 inch) of effective rainfall
distributed uniformly over the basin area. age area.
 Traditionally the UH is expressed in:

 where Qn is the nth ordinate of the DRH, Pm is the volume of the mth rainfall pulse
expressed in units of equivalent depth (e.g., cm or in), and Un-m+1 is the (n-
m+1)th ordinate of the UH, expressed in units of m3/s/cm or ft3/s/in.

Ex. The ordinates of a 6-h unit hydrograph are given. A storm had 3 successive 6-h
intervals of rainfall magnitude of 3,5,4 cm respectivley. Assuming a Ø-index of 0.2cm/hr
and a baseflow of 30m3/s. determine the resulting hydrograph flow.
 Time h Ordinate of 6hr
UH m3/s

0 0

6 250

12 600

18 800

24 700

30 600

36 450

42 320

48 200

54 100

60 50

66 0

Time Rainfall losses

0-6hr 3cm 0.2x6=1.8cm

minus

6h-12h 5cm 0.2x6=3.8cm

12-18h 4cm 0.2x6=2.8cm

Time h Ordinate UH X UHx3.8 UH x Drh Base Total
of 6hr 1.8 2.8 cm flow
UH m3/s
0 0 0 0 30 30

6 250 450 0 450 30 480

12 600 1080 950 0 2030 30 2060

18 800 1440 2280 700 4420 30 4450

24 700 1260 3040 1680 5980 30 6010

30 600 1080 2660 2240 5980 30 6010

36 450 810 2280 1960 5050 30 5080

42 320 576 1710 1680 3966 30 3996

48 200 360 1216 1260 2836 30 2866

54 100 180 760 896 1836 30 1866

60 50 90 380 560 1030 30 1060

66 0 0 190 280 470 30 500

Ex. Given below are observed flows a storm of 6h duration on a stream with catchment area
of 500 km2. Assuming the baseflow to be zero. Derive the ordinates of the 6h unit
hydrograph.
Time h Discharge baseflow DRO UH
M3/s M3/s/cm

0 0 0 0 0

6 100 0 100 23.15

12 250 0 250 57.87

18 200 0 200 46.3

24 150 0 150 34.72

30 100 0 100 23.15

36 70 0 70 16.20

42 50 0 50 11.57

48 35 0 35 8.10

54 25 0 25 5.79

60 15 0 15 3.47

66 5 0 5 1.16

72 0 0 0 0
S-Hydrograph Method

The S-hydrograph method overcomes the restriction imposed by the lagging method and allows
of any duration unit hydrograph.

Example. Given the following 2-hr unit hydrograph, construct S-hydrograph

Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Q (cfs) 0 100 250 200 100 50 0
 Time(hr) 1st 2-hr 2nd 2-hr 3rd 2-hr 4th S-Hydrograph

0 0 0

1 100 100

2 250 0 250

3 200 100 300

4 100 250 0 350

5 50 200 100 350

6 0 100 250 0 350

7 50 200 100 350

8 0 100 250 350

INSTANTANEOUS UNIT HYDROGRAPH

The Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph (IUH) is the hydrograph of runoff that would result if 1
in. of water were spread uniformly over an area in an instant and then allowed to run off.

To develop an IUH, any I in./hr S-hydrograph must first be obtained. The resulting S-curve is
lagged by the interval ∆t to develop a ∆t –hour unit hydrograph. The resulting ∆t –hour unit
hydrograph becomes IUH when ∆t is set to 0.0 in the limit.
If a continuing I in./hr excess storm produces the original and lagged S-hydrographs, the ∆t –
hour unit hydrograph is the difference between the two curves, divided by the amount of excess
rain depth in ∆t hours, or
𝑄𝐴 −𝑄𝐵
𝑄𝑡 (∆t –hr UH) = (Eq. 1)
𝐼 ∆t

The 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝐵 differences are divided by I ∆t to convert from a storm with I ∆t inches in ∆t

hours to one with 1.0 in. in ∆t hours, which is the definition of a ∆t –hour unit graph.
As ∆t approaches zero, Eq. 1 becomes
1 𝑑𝑄
𝑄𝑡 (IUH) = (Eq. 2)
𝐼 𝑑𝑡
 a. Unit Hydrograph

b. A sequence of 1-min storms

 c. Superposition runoff hydrographs for each of the 1-min storms. (After Schaake.)

If an IUH is supplied, the above process can be reversed, and any X-hour unit can be found by
averaging IUH flows at X-hr intervals, or

1
̃ (IUH𝑡 + IUH𝑡−𝑋 )
𝑄𝑡 (X − hr UH) = (Eq. 3)
2

Example. Given the following 1.0in/hr S-hydrograph, determine the IUH, and then use it to estimate a 1-
hr UH.

Time(hr) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

S-curve 0 50 200 450 500 650 700 750 800

(cfs)

Solution. The IUH found from Eq. 2. The slope at time t

is approximated by (𝑄𝑡+0.5 − 𝑄𝑡−0.5 )/△ 𝑡

 Time S-Curve △𝑄
IUH =
̃
△t

0 0 0

0.5 50 200

1.0 200 400

1.5 450 300

2 500 200

2.5 650 200

3 700 100

3.5 750 100

4 800 50

4.5 800 0

5.0 800 0

The 1-hr UH is obtained from Eq 3. using readings 1-hr intervals:

Time IUH𝑡 IUHt−1 1-hr UH

0 0 0 0

1 400 0 200

2 200 400 300

3 100 200 150

4 50 100 75

5 0 50 25

6 0 0 0
 Synthetic Unit Hydrograph

A synthetic unit hydrograph retains all the features of the unit hydrograph, but does not require
rainfall-runoff data. A synthetic unit hydrograph is derived from theory and experience, and its
purpose is to simulate basin diffusion by estimating the basin lag based on a certain formula or
procedure.

The first synthetic unit hydrograph was developed by Snyder in 1938. 1 In order to provide
sufficient flexibility for simulating a wide range of diffusion amounts, Snyder devised two
parameters: (1) a time parameter Ct, and (2) a peak parameter Cp. A larger Ct meant a greater basin
lag and, consequently, greater diffusion. A larger Cp meant a greater peak flow and, consequently,
less diffusion.

Snyder’s Synthetic Unit Hydrograph

The synthetic unit hydrograph of Snyder (1938) is based on relationships found between three
characteristics of a standard unit hydrograph and descriptors of basin morphology. These
relationships are based on a study of 20 watersheds located in the Appalachian Highlands and
varying in size from 10 to 10,000 square miles. The hydrograph characteristics are the effective
rainfall duration, tr, the peak direct runoff rate, qp, and the basin lag time, tl. From these
relationships, five characteristics of a required unit hydrograph for a given effective rainfall
duration may be calculated (e.g., Chow et al., 1988; Bras, 1990): the peak discharge per unit of
watershed area, qpR, the basin lag, tlR, the base time, tb, and the widths, W (in time units) of the
unit hydrograph at 50 and 75 percent of the peak discharge.
1. Basin lag: tl = Ct (LLc )0.3

where tl = basin lag time (hr.)

Ct = coefficient for types and location of streams ranging
from 1.8 to 2.2
L = length of basin outlet to the basin divide (mile or km)
Lc = length along the mainstream to a point nearest to a
basin centroid (mile or km)

𝑪 𝟐 𝑪𝒑 𝑨
2. Peak Discharge: Qp =
𝒕𝒍
where Qp = peak discharge (m3/s or ft3/s)
 A = drainage area (mi2 or km2)
Cp = storage coefficient ranging from 0.56 to 0.69
C2 = 2.78 if metric system and 640 if English system

𝒕
3. Time base: tb = 3 + ( 𝒍 )
𝟖

where tb = time base (days)

𝒕
4. Duration of excess rainfall: tr = 𝒍
𝟓.𝟓
where tr = standard duration of excess rainfall (hr.)

𝒕𝑹 −𝒕𝒓
5. Adjusted lag time: tla = tl + ( 𝟒
)
𝟐𝟏 𝒕𝑹
tla = 𝟐𝟐 𝒕𝒍 + 𝟒

where tla = adjusted lag time (hr.)

tR = desired duration (hr.)

𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝒑 𝑨
6. Adjusted peak flow: Qpa = 𝒕𝒍𝒂

𝑸𝒑
7. Width at 50% of peak discharge : W50 = Cw ( 𝑨 )-1.08
where Cw = 2.14 in metric system and 770 English system
𝑸𝒑
Width at 75% of peak discharge : W75 = Cw ( 𝑨 )-1.08
where Cw = 1.22 in metric system and 440 in English system
Usually, 1/3 of its width is distributed before the peak time and 2/3 after the peak time

𝒕𝑹
8. Time to peak: Tp = + tla
𝟐
where Tp = time to peak (hr.)
Sample Problem:

Characteristics of two catchments M and N measured from a map are given below.

For the 6-h unit hydrograph in catchment M, the peak discharge is at 200 m 3/s and occurs at 37 h
from the start of the rainfall excess. Assuming the catchments M and N are meteorologically
similar; determine the elements of the 6-h synthetic unit hydrograph for catchment N by using
Snyder’s method.

Item Catchment M Catchment N

Lca 76 km 52 km

L 148 km 106 km

A 2718 km2 1400 km2

For catchment M
Qp = 200 m3/s
Tp =37h
tR = 6h

Solution:
𝑡𝑅 21 𝑡𝑅 C2 Cp A
TP = + tla tla = 22 tl + tl = Ct (LLc )0.3 Qp =
2 4 tl
6 21 6 2.78 Cp (2718)
37 = 2 + tla 34 = 22 tl + 4 34.048 = Ct (76×148)0.3 200 = 34.048

tla = 34h tl = 34.048h Ct =2.074 Cp = 0.901

For catchment N
Qpa -1.08
tl = Ct (LLc )0.3 W50 = Cw ( )
A

126.367 -1.08
tl = (2.074) (106× 52)0.3 W50 = 2.14 ( )
1400

tl = 27.5h W50 = 28.739h

 t Qpa -1.08
tr = 5.5l W75 = Cw ( )
A

27.5 126.367 -1.08

tr = W75 = 1.22( )
5.5 1400

tr = 5h W75 = 16.384h

𝑡𝑅 −𝑡𝑟 t
tla = tl + ( ) tb = 3 + ( 8la )
4

6−5 27.75
tla = 27.5 + ( ) tb = 3 + ( )
4 8

24hr
tla = 27.75h tb = 6.5 days × 1 day
= 156h

C2 Cp A 𝑡𝑅
Qpa = Tp = + tla
tla 2

2.78(0.901)(1400) 6
Qpa = Tp = 2 + 27.75
27.75

Qpa = 126.367 m3/s Tp = 30.75h

Point Time(hr.) Flow(m3/s)

O 0 0

A 21.2 63.2

B 25.3 94.8

C 30.75 126.367

D 41.7 94.8

E 49.9 63.2

F 156 0
SCS Synthetic Unit hydrograph

The SCS synthetic unit hydrograph is the dimensionless unit hydrograph developed by
Victor Mockus in the 1950’s. This hydrograph was developed based on the analysis of a large
number of natural unit hydrographs from a wide range of catchment sizes and geographic
locations. The method has come to be recognized as the SCS synthetic unit hydrograph and has
been applied to midsize catchments throughout the world. It uses a constant ratio of actual time
base to time-to-peak, tb/tp=5. The method requires only the determination of the time peak and the
peak discharge.

To calculate catchment lag, SCS method uses the following two methods: (1) the curve
number method and (2) the velocity method. The curve number method is limited to catchments
of areas less than 16 km2.

In the curve number method, the lag is expressed by the following formula:

𝐿0.8(2540−22.86𝐶𝑁)0.7
tl = (Metric system) ………. (eqtn.1)
14104𝐶𝑁0.7 𝑌0.5

𝐿0.8(1000−9𝐶𝑁)0.7
tl = (English system) ………. (eqtn.2)
1900𝐶𝑁0.7 𝑌0.5

in which tl = catchment lag in hours; L = hydraulic length (m or ft); CN = runoff curve number;
and Y = average catchment slope.

The velocity method is used for catchments larger than 16km 2, or for curve numbers
outside the range of 50-95. The lag is estimated as:

tl = 0.6 tc …………………. (eqtn.3)

in which tl = lag and tc = concentration time.

 In the SCS method the ratio of time-to-peak to unit hydrograph duration is fixed at

𝑡𝑝
=5 …………………. (eqtn.4)
𝑡𝑟

Assuming uniform effective rainfall for simplicity, the time-to-peak is by definition equal
to
𝑡𝑟
tp = + tl …………………. (eqtn.5)
2

eliminating tr from eqtns. 4 and 5, lead to

𝑡𝑝 10
= ………………. (eqtn.6)
𝑡𝑙 9

Therefore:

𝑡𝑟 2
=9 …………………. (eqtn.7)
𝑡𝑙

and

𝑡𝑟 2
= 15 ………………….. (eqtn.8)
𝑡𝑐

given eqtns. 3and 5 the time-to-peak can be calculated as:

tp = 0.5tr + 0.6tc …………………. (eqtn.9)

 The peak flow
formula is given
as:

2.08𝐴
Qp = 𝑡𝑝
(metric system)
………………
(eqtn.10)

484𝐴
Qp =
𝑡𝑝
(English system)
………….
(eqtn.11)

in which Qp = unit hydrograph peak flow(m3/s or ft3/s); A = catchment area(km2 or mi2); and tp =
time-to-peak(hr.).
Example:

Calculate the SCS synthetic unit hydrograph for a 6.42 km 2 catchment with the following data:
Hydraulic length L = 2204m; runoff curve number CN = 62; average land slope Y = 0.02.

Solution:

𝐿0.8 (2540−22.86𝐶𝑁)0.7 𝑡𝑏
tl = =5
14104𝐶𝑁0.7 𝑌 0.5 𝑡𝑝
22040.8 (2540−22.86×62)0.7
tl = tb = 5(2)
14104(62)0.7 (0.02)0.5

tb = 10h

tl = 1.8h

𝑡𝑝 10 2.08𝐴
= Qp =
𝑡𝑙 9 𝑡𝑝
10 2.08(6.42)
tp = (1.8) Qp =
9 2

tp = 2h Qp = 6.68 m3/s
 FLOOD ROUTING TECHNIQUES
Flow Routing
Flood routing is the technique of determining the flood hydrograph at a section of a
river by utilizing the data of flood flow at one or more upstream sections. The hydrologic
analysis of problems such as flood forecasting, flood protection, reservoir design and
spillway design invariably include flood routing.
Flow routing is a procedure to estimate downstream hydrograph from upstream
hydrograph. Since flow routing has been widely used in flood estimations, flow routing is
usually called flood routing. The routed hydrograph is delayed by a time lag (translation)
and is attenuated. Flow routing is divided into river flow routing and reservoir flow routing .

Basic Equations

From the conservation of mass, water balance for a system in Figure 2 can be expressed as

𝑑𝑆
𝐼−𝑂 = . . . . . . 𝑒𝑞. (1)
𝑑𝑡
where I is upstream inflow, O is downstream outflow, S is the storage (reservoir or a river
reach). In practical calculation, it is more convenient to use a finite difference form of eq(1)
for a ∆t duration. The mean values for the inflow and outflow are used instead of the
instantaneous value.
 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 𝑂1 + 𝑂2 𝑆2 + 𝑆1
− =
2 2 ∆𝑡

To estimate the downstream outflow, it is also necessary to get the storage function that links
the input and output
𝑆 = 𝑓(𝐼, 𝑂)
It is then possible to solve the outflow.

2 Types of flow routing

1. Lumped/hydrologic

 Flow is calculated as a function of time alone at a particular location

 Governed by continuity equation and flow/storage relationship
2. Distributed/hydraulic

 Flow is calculated as a function of space and time throughout the system

 Governed by continuity and momentum equations
Applications of hydrologic routing techniques to problems of flood prediction, evaluations of
flood control measures, and assessments of the effects of urbanizations are numerous.

Most flood warning system instituted by NOAA and the Corps of engineers incorporate this
technique to predict flood stages in advance of a severe storm. It is the method most
frequently used to size spillways for small, intermediate, and large dams.

HYDROLOGIC RESERVOIR FLOW ROUTING (Level Pool Routing Method)

Reservoir storage is closely related to the outflow rate. In reservoir routing methods, the storage-
discharge relation is used for repeatedly solving the continuity equation, each solution being a step
in delineating the outflow hydrograph. A reservoir routing method is suited for channel routings if
the channel has certain reservoir-like characteristics. Suitable channels are those with wetlands or
other flat areas in the routing reach with a constriction or similar control at the foot of the reach.
Reservoir routing methods are also suitable for routing through any stream reach if the inflow
hydrograph rises and falls so slowly that nearly steady flow occurs and makes storage in the reach
closely related to the outflow rate.
The equation of continuity used in all hydrologic routing as the primary equation states that the
difference between the inflow and outflow rate is equal to the rate of change of storage, i.e.
When a reservoir has a horizontal water surface elevation, the storage function is a function of its
water surface elevation or depth in the pool. The outflow is also a function of the water surface
elevation, or head on the outlet works.
S=f (Q)
where S= storage and Q= Outflow
The peak or the maximum outflow occurs when the outflow hydrograph intersects the inflow
hydrograph which is shown below.

Lag

ATTENUATION. The peak of the outflow hydrograph will be smaller than of the inflow
hydrograph. This reduction in the peak value is called attenuation.
TIME LAG. The peak of the outflow occurs after the peak of the inflow; the time difference
between the two peaks is known as lag. The attenuation and lag of a flood hydrograph at a reservoir
are two very important aspects of a reservoir operating under a flood-control criteria.

The continuity equation used in reservoir routing methods is that for the conservation of mass: for
a given time interval, the volume of inflow minus the volume of outflow equals the change in
volume of storage. The principal assumption is that the water in the reservoir is level (Level Pool
Routing). The equation is often written in the simple form:

Δt (Ī - Ō) = ΔS

Where:
 ∆t = time interval, t2 − t1

t1 = time at the beginning of the time interval

t2 = time at the end of the time interval

Ī = average rate of inflow during the time interval

Ō = average rate of outflow during the time interval

∆S = change in volume of storage during the time interval

In most applications of the continuity equation, the flow and storage variables are expanded as
follows:

I1 +I2
Ī = 2

O1 +O2
Ō=
2

ΔS = S2 − S1

The Storage-Indication method is a level pool routing procedure for calculating the outflow
hydrograph of a system with horizontal water surface, given its inflow hydrograph, and storage
outflow characteristics. The solution involves integrating the continuity equation as indicated
below, and rearranging terms such that all the unknown quantities are on the left-hand side of the
equation.
 dS
 I (t )  Q(t )
dt
S j 1 ( j 1) t ( j 1) t
 dS   Idt   Qdt
Sj jt jt

S j 1  S j I j 1  I j Q j 1  Q j
 
t 2 2
2 S j 1 2S j
 Q j 1  I j 1  I j  Qj
t t
Unknown Known

Storage-Indication Routing Equation:

2S j 1 2S j
 Q j 1  I j 1  I j  Qj
t t
For a level pool reservoir, the storage is a unique function of elevation; and the outflow is a
unique function of elevation. Thus, the left-hand side of the equation above is a unique function
of elevation in the system, only. Usually, the storage-elevation relationship is available from
topographic surveys, and the outflow-elevation relationship is available from hydraulic
considerations with respect to the outlet structures (e.g. spillways, etc.)

Q/H Relationships

Program for Routing Flow through an NRCS Reservoir

In reservoir routing, the following data are known:

(i) Elevation vs Storage

 (ii) Elevation vs Outflow discharge and hence storage vs outflow
discharge
(iii) Inflow hydrograph, and
(iv) Initial values of inflow, outflow O, and storage S at time t = 0.

Level Pool Routing - Example

Use the Storage-Indication Method to route the Input hydrograph tabulated below.
This hydrograph flows into a reservoir whose storage and discharge characteristics are as presented
in the following table. The initial storage in the system is 1,000,000 m3, and the initial outflow is
20 m3/s.
The solution involves the development of the function 2S/ Δt + O = f (O) and then solving it
sequentially for every time step. These steps are illustrated below.
A. Develop the function 2S/ Δt + O vs. O. Use a Δt of 6 hours, as suggested by the time interval of the
inflow hydrograph.
In the table above, Columns 1-3 are given. Columns 2 and 5 correspond to the desired function, 2S/
Δt + O vs. O, which has been graphed above.

B. Proceed with the routing of the inflow hydrograph by using the Storage-Indication routing
equation sequentially for every time step.

Using the relationship (2S/ Δt + O) vs. O developed in Part A, obtain the outflow O1 corresponding
to the value of (2S1 / Δt + O1) obtained above. This is done by entering the graph with the value
of (2S1 /Δt + O1) and exiting with the value of O1. Use interpolation as indicated below.

Using the relationship (2S/ Δt + O) vs. O developed in Part A, obtain the outflow O2 corresponding
to the value of (2S2 / Δt + O2) obtained above. This is done by entering the graph with the value
of (2S2 /Δt + O2) and exiting with the value of O2. Use interpolation as indicated below.

Proceed as above for every time step. Results are tabulated below.
Outflow hydrograph using level pool method
River Flow Routing (The Muskingum Method)

The storage function in a river reach is linked with both inflow and outflow.

where K is the storage time constant for the reach, X is a weighing factor ( between 0~
0.5, usually around 0.2).
Estimation K of and X

Example.

The following inflow and outflow hydrographs were observed in a river reach.
Estimate the values of K and x applicable to this reach for use in the muskingnum equation

Time 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66

Inflow 5 20 50 50 32 22 15 10 7 5 5 5

(m3/s)

Outflow 5 6 12 29 38 35 29 23 17 13 9 7

(m3/s)
 Solution: using the increment Δt=6h, the calculations are performed in a tabular manner.
The incremental storage ΔS and S are calculated in columns 6 and 7 respectively. It is
advantageous to use the units [(m3/s)] for storage terms

Time I O(m3/s) (I- Average ΔS= S=Δs X=0.35 X=0.30 X=0.25

(m3/s) O) age (average
(h) age x t
(I-O)

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10

0 5 5 0 0 5.0 5.0 5.0

7.0 42

6 20 6 14 42 10.9 10.2 9.5

26.0 156

12 50 12 38 198 25.3 23.4 21.5

29.5 177

18 50 29 21 375 36.4 35.3 34.3

7.5 45

24 32 38 -6 420 35.9 36.2 36.5

-9.5 -57

30 22 35 -13 363 30.5 31.1 31.8

-13.5 -81

36 15 29 -14 282 24.1 24.8 25.5

-13.5 -81

42 10 23 -13 201 18.5 19.1 19.8

-11.5 -69
48 7 17 -10 132 13.5 14.0 14.5

-9.0 -54

54 5 13 -8 78 10.2 10.6 11

-6.0 -36

60 5 9 -4 42 7.6 7.8 8.0

-.3.0 -18

66 5 7 -2 24 6.3 6.4 6.5

SAINT VENANT EQUATIONS
\Saint Venant Equations
- The Saint Venant Equations were formulated in the 19th century by two
mathematicians, de Saint Venant and Bousinnesque.
- The solution of the St. Venant equations is known as dynamic routing, which is
generally the standard to which other methods are measured or compared.
Continuity Equation

Q A
 0
x t
Momentum Equation

1 Q 1   Q 2  y
    g  g ( S o  S f )  0
A t A x  A  x
Where:
Q = Discharge through the channel
A = Area of cross-section of flow
y = Depth of flow
S0 = Channel bottom slope
Sf = Friction slope
Assumptions for St. Venant Equation
• Flow is one-dimensional
• Hydrostatic pressure prevails and vertical accelerations are negligible
• Streamline curvature is small.
• Bottom slope of the channel is small.
• Manning’s equation is used to describe resistance effects
• The fluid is incompressible
• Channel boundaries are considered fixed and therefore
not susceptible to erosion or deposition.
Elevation View
Elevation View
CONTINUITY EQUATION
1-D Open channel flow
Q = inflow to the control volume
q = lateral inflow
Q
x Rate of change of flow with distance.

Q
Q dx
x Outflow from the C.V. Plan View
( Adx)
t Change in mass

In 1-D open channel flow continuity equation becomes,

Q A
 0 Conservation form

x t
(Vy) y
 0 Non-conservation form
x t (velocity is dependent
variable)

y V y
V y  0
x x t
Example:
Calculate the inlet velocity Vin from the diagram shown.

MOMENTUM EQUATION
• The change in momentum of a body of water in a flowing channel is equal to the
resultant of all the external forces acting on that body.
Conservation of Momentum
• This law states that the rate of change of momentum in the control volume is equal to the
net forces acting on the control volume.
• Since the water under consideration is moving, it is acted upon by external forces which
will lead to the Newton’s second law.
 INFILTRATION AND PERCOLATION: PROCESSES AND MEASUREMENTS

Infiltration is the process of water entering the soil. The rate of infiltration is the
maximum velocity at which water enters the soil surface. When the soil is in good condition or
has good soil health, it has stable structure and continuous pores to the surface. This allows water
from rainfall to enter unimpeded throughout a rainfall event.

A low rate of infiltration is often produced by surface seals resulting from weakened
structure and clogged or discontinuous pores. Infiltration rate in soil science is a measure of the
rate at which soil is able to absorb rainfall or irrigation. It is measured in inches per hour or
millimeters per hour. The rate decreases as the soil becomes saturated. If the precipitation rate
exceeds the infiltration rate, runoff will usually occur unless there is some physical barrier. It is
related to the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the near-surface soil. The rate of infiltration can
be measured using an infiltrometer. We should differentiate between percolation and infiltration
Percolation is the process by which water moves through soil because of gravity. It should be
mentioned that the main reason of studying Infiltration is determining the runoff in the rain fall-
runoff relation. The rate and quantity of water which infiltrates is a function of soil type, soil
moisture, soil permeability, ground cover, drainage condition, depth of water table i.e. water
characteristics and intensity and volume of precipitation. Infiltration is the downward movement
of water from the land surface into the soil profile. Some water that infiltrates will remain in the
shallow soil layer, where it will gradually move vertically and horizontally through the soil and
subsurface material. Eventually, it might enter a stream by seepage into the stream bank. Some
of the water may continue to move deeper (percolate), recharging the local groundwater aquifer.
A dry soil has a defined capacity for infiltrating water. The capacity can be expressed as a depth
of water that can be infiltrated per unit time, such as inches per hour. soil has a defined capacity
for infiltrating water. The capacity can be expressed as a depth of water that can be infiltrated per
unit time, such as inches per hour.
Factors Affecting Infiltration Capacity

 Slope of the land

The steeper the slope, the less the infiltration or seepage.

 Degree of Saturation

The more saturated the loose Earth materials, the less the infiltration.
 Porosity

Porosity is the percentage of open space in earth surface. The greater the
porosity, the greater the amount of infiltration.

 Compaction

The clay surfaced soils are compacted even by the impact of rain drops which
reduce infiltration.

 Vegetation

Grasses, trees and other plants capture falling precipitation on leaves and
branches keeping that water from being absorbed into the ground.
 Land Use

Roads, parking lots, and buildings create surfaces that are not longer
permeable. Thus, infiltration is less.

 Temperature

At high temperature viscosity decreases and infiltration increases.

Methods of measuring Infiltration

A. Lab Measurements (Rain fall simulator)

A device (sprinklers) that simulate the rainfall with certain intensity, rate and time by
placing the soil with whatever conditions I like (slope, soil characteristics, etc.) taking in
consideration all the boundary conditions for the artificial water shed developed and by
measuring the volume at the predefined outlet the infiltration will be the difference between the
volume out from the sprinklers and the volume measured from the outlet.

B. Field Measurements (Infiltrometers)

Single ring infiltrometer

The single ring involves driving a ring into the soil and supplying water in the ring either
at constant head or falling head condition. Constant head refers to condition where the amount of
water in the ring is always held constant. Because infiltration capacity is the maximum
infiltration rate, and if infiltration rate exceeds the infiltration capacity, runoff will be the
consequence, therefore maintaining constant head means the rate of water supplied corresponds
to the infiltration capacity. The supplying of water is done with a Mariotte's bottle. Falling head
refers to condition where water is supplied in the ring, and the water is allowed to drop with
time. The operator records how much water goes into the soil for a given time period. The rate of
which water goes into the soil is related to the soil's hydraulic conductivity.
Double ring infiltrometer
Double ring infiltrometer requires two rings: an inner and outer ring. The purpose is to
create a one dimensional flow of water from the inner ring, as the analysis of data is simplified.
If water is flowing in one-dimension at steady state condition, and a unit gradient is present in
the underlying soil, the infiltration rate is approximately equal to the saturated hydraulic
conductivity. An inner ring is driven into the ground, and a second bigger ring around that to
help control the flow of water through the first ring. Water is supplied either with a constant or
falling head condition, and the operator records how much water infiltrates from the inner ring
into the soil over a given time period.

Methods of calculations of Infiltration

Infiltration can be measured by calculation of infiltration rate. The infiltration rate (ƒ),
expressed in inches per hour or centimeters per hour, is the rate at which water enters the soil at
the surface. If water is ponded on the surface, the infiltration occurs at the potential infiltration
rate. If the rate of supply of water at the surface, for example by rainfall, is less than the potential
infiltration rate then the actual infiltration rate will also be less than the potential rate. Most
infiltration equations describe the potential rate. The cumulative infiltration F is the accumulated
depth of water infiltrated during a given time period and is equal to the integral of the infiltration
rate over that period:

where τ is a dummy variable of time in the integration. Conversely, the infiltration rate is the
time derivative of the cumulative infiltration:

A. Horton’s Equation
Several rainfall-runoff generating processes have been recognized over the years (Dunne, 1978;
Freeze, 1980; Beven, 1989). The transformation of precipitation into surface runoff is controlled
by the independent interaction of many spatially variable processes. Horton runoff (Horton,
1933) and Dunne runoff (Dunne and Black, 1970) are perhaps the two most important
conceptual models for surface runoff. Horton runoff is considered the excess of precipitation
intensity over soil infiltration rate at a point (Freeze, 1974).

f(t) = f + ( f - f ) e-kt

where f(t) is the infiltration at time t (cm/hr), f0 is the initial infiltration rate (cm/hr), fc
is the constant infiltration rate (cm/hr), and k is a decay constant.

Example:
The initial infiltration capacity of a watershed is estimated as fo = 1.5 in/hr, and the time
constant taken to be k=0.35 hr^-1. The equilibrium capacity is estimated as fc=0.2 in/hr. What is
the values of infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration at t=30 min.
Answer: 1.291 in/hr ; 0.696in

B. Philip’s Equation
Philip (1957) solved Richards equation under less restrictive conditions by relating conductivity
and diffusivity to the soil moisture content. The cumulative infiltration F can expressed

F = S t1/2 + Kt

where S is sorptivity. The infiltration rate at time t can be obtained by differentiating the above
equation
Example:
Compute the infiltration rate and the cumulative infiltration after 1 hour. If after 15 min
the cumulative infiltration was 30 mm. K = 0.4mm/hr.
Answer: 30.3 mm/hr ; 60.2 mm

C. Green-Ampt method
Green and Ampt (1911) developed approximate solutions of Richards equation for infiltration
calculation. The Green-Ampt method of infiltration estimation accounts for many variables that
other methods, such as Darcy's law, do not. It is a function of the soil suction head, porosity,
hydraulic conductivity and time. Once integrated, one can easily choose to solve for either
volume of infiltration or instantaneous infiltration rate.
Example:

Use Green-Ampt method to compute infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration at every
0.25 hr from the beginning of infiltration for silty clay soil. Suction head, =29.22cm ; K=0.05
cm/hr. Assume the initial effective saturation is 30% and it has continous ponding.

Answer : 0.4735 cm ; 0.9636 cm/hr ; 0.6745 cm ; 0.6914 cm/hr ; 0.8307 cm ; 0.5708 cm/hr ;
0.9638 cm ; 0.4988 cm/hr

Percolation Rate

Water percolation rate of the soil refers to the rate of the movement of water through the soil as it
passes through the small holes or spaces between the particles of the soil. The soil percolation
rate indicates how quickly water moves through soil and helps evaluate the ability of the soil to
absorb and treat effluent — waste water that has received preliminary treatment in a septic tank.
The percolation rate is measured in minutes per inch (mpi). Soils with slower percolation rates,
through which it takes longer for water to travel, need larger drain fields to handle a given
amount of waste water than those with faster percolation rates. Soils with very slow percolation
rates may be unsuitable for drain fields.
Calculation

 Determine the porosity () of the pea gravel.

 Calculate the correction factor (C)

 Determine the conversion factor (K)

Where,

P= percolation rate

R= Average precipitation rate

I = Inside diameter

O= Outside diameter

D= Actual diameter
 Range of Values of Porosity

Example:

An average percolation rate of 29 min/in was obtained from a percolation test using the
12-inch diameter test hole. The actual diameter of the test hole was found to be 12.5 inches.
The inside and outside diameters of the perforated pipe were 9.8 and 10.1inches respectively.
The porosity of the pea gravel used was found to be =0.37.

Answer : 3.801 min/in

I. GROUNDWATER STORAGE AND THE FLOW OF WATER

What is groundwater?

Groundwater is fresh water (from rain or melting ice and snow) that soaks into the soil
and is stored in the tiny spaces (pores) between rocks and particles of soil. Groundwater accounts
for nearly 95 percent of the nation’s fresh water resources. It can stay underground for hundreds
of thousands of years, or it can come to the surface and help fill rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, and
wetlands. Groundwater can also come to the surface as a spring or be pumped from a well. Both
of these are common ways we get groundwater to drink. About 50 percent of our municipal,
domestic, and agricultural water supply is groundwater.
How does the ground store water?

Groundwater is stored in the tiny open spaces between rock and sand, soil, and gravel.
How well loosely arranged rock (such as sand and gravel) holds water depends on the size of the
rock particles. Layers of loosely arranged particles of uniform size (such as sand) tend to hold
more water than layers of rock with materials of different sizes. This is because smaller rock
materials settle in the spaces between larger rock materials, decreasing the amount of open space
that can hold water. Porosity (how well rock material holds water) is also affected by the shape
of rock particles. Round particles will pack more tightly than particles with sharp edges. Material
with angular-shaped edges has more open space and can hold more water.

Groundwater is found in two zones. The unsaturated zone, immediately below the land
surface, contains water and air in the open spaces, or pores. The saturated zone, a zone in which
all the pores and rock fractures are filled with water, underlies the unsaturated zone. The top of
the saturated zone is called the water table. The water table may be just below or hundreds of
feet below the land surface.

What is an aquifer?
Where groundwater can move rapidly, such as through gravel and sandy deposits, an
aquifer can form. In an aquifer, there is enough groundwater that it can be pumped to the
surface and used for drinking water, irrigation, industry, or other uses. For water to move
through underground rock, pores or fractures in the rock must be connected. If rocks have good
connections between pores or fractures and water can move freely through them, we say that the
rock is permeable. Permeability refers to how well a material transmits water. If the pores or
fractures are not connected, the rock material cannot produce water and is therefore not
considered an aquifer. The amount of water an aquifer can hold depends on the volume of the
underground rock materials and the size and number of pores and fractures that can fill with
water.
TYPES OF AQUIFER

A. UNCONFINED AQUIFER

In unconfined aquifers, water has simply infiltrated from the surface and saturated the
subsurface material. These aquifers are sometimes called groundwater tables, because they
are the first to be found when sinking a well. Unconfined aquifers generally acts like water
table aquifers or alluvial aquifers. Their supply area is proportional to their extent, which
can be quite considerable, producing an aquifer with a large storage capacity.

WATER TABLE WELL

A water table well is a well that brings water to the surface from the water table or the
upper surface of the zone of saturation wherein water must be pulled or pumped up to be
used.
B. CONFINED AQUIFER

Confined aquifer is an aquifer that is confined between two relatively impermeable layers
or aquitards. As name implies, not in direst vertical communication with surface, but are
overlain by a confining layer. Rather than a water table surface that defines the top of the
water, this aquifer has a potentiometric surface, which is the level to which water rises in a
cased well that has its base in that aquifer.

CONFINING LAYER BROKEN INTO 3 CATEGORIES:

1. AQUITARD – describes the less permeable beds in stratigraphic sequence, also known as
“leaky confining layer” – retards flow significantly.

2. AQUIFUGE – totally impermeable to flow

3. AQUICLUDE – is a saturated geologic formation that is incapable of transmitting

significant amounts of water under ordinary circumstances.
ARTESIAN WELL

In a confined aquifer, the water level in a well may rise above the top of the aquifer. If this
is the case, the well is referred to as an artesian well, and the aquifer is said to exist under
artesian conditions.

FLOWING ARTESIAN WELL

In some cases, the water level may flow above the ground surface, in which case the aquifer
is known as flowing artesian well, and the aquifer is said to exist under flowing artesian
conditions. This doesn't require a pump to bring water to the surface; this occurs when
there is enough pressure in the aquifer. The pressure forces the water to the surface
without any sort of assistance.
C. PERCHED AQUIFER

A perched aquifer is a special case of unconfined aquifer. A perched aquifer forms on top of
an impermeable layer located well above the water table. These aquifers are mainly formed
in sedimentary deposits when a low permeability layer (often clay) in the saturated zone
creates a small aquifer situated above the main reservoir. The extent of these aquifers can
be poor. They can also be perennial or seasonal. When sinking wells, it is important not to
mistake a perched aquifer for the unconfined aquifer that is being sought.

PERCHED WATER TABLE WELL

A perched water table well is a well that brings water to the surface from the perched
water table where there is an impermeable layer of rock or sediment (aquiclude) or
relatively impermeable layer (aquitard) above the main water table/aquifer but below the
land surface.
SPECIFIC YIELD AND SPECIFIC RETENTION

A. Specific yield (Sy) tells how much water is available for man’s use. The total amount of
water in aquifer of area (A) and thickness (b) is,

𝑉 = 𝐴𝑏𝑛
Where,
V- total volume of water
A- surface area of aquifer
b- thickness of the aquifer
n- porosity

However, the total amount of water that will drain freely from an aquifer is,

𝑉𝑑 = 𝐴𝑏𝑆𝑦

Where,
𝑉𝑑 - volume of free draining water
𝑆𝑦 - specific yield

From the equation, 𝑉𝑑 = 𝐴𝑏𝑆𝑦 , Ab is equivalent to the volume of aquifer that can be represented
by 𝑉𝑡 , thus we can say that specific yield of an aquifer is equal to,

𝑉𝑑
𝑆𝑦 =
𝑉𝑡
 B. Specific retention (Sr) tells how much water remains in the rock after it is drained by
gravity. It is the ratio of volume of retained water to volume of aquifer as a film on the
surface of grainsor held in small openings by molecular attraction.

𝑉𝑟
𝑆𝑟 =
𝑉𝑡

Where,
Vt- volume of retained water

Example:

What is the volume of free-draining water in an unconfined aquifer of surface area A=

130 sq. miles, thickness b= 300 ft, and specific yield= 0.05? Express your answer in cubic
miles.

Answer : 0.369 mi^3

SPECIFIC STORAGE, TRANSMISSIVITY AND STORATIVITY

A. SPECIFIC STORAGE (Ss)

Specific storage of a confined aquifer is defined as the volume of water released per unit volume
of aquifer per unit decrease in hydraulic head. Compressibility considerations lead to the
following expression for specific storage:

Ss = ρg(α+nβ)

In which Ss = specific storage in L-1 units.

Where

ρ = mass/volume ratio (density) (M/L3)

g = gravity acceleration (9.81 m/s2) (L/T2)
α= aquifer compressibility (T2L/M)
n = total porosity (unitless)
β= water compressibility (4.4 x 10-10 m/sec2/kg or Pa-1) (T2L/M)
Values of Specific Storage Assuming Porosity Equal to 15% (after Younger, 1993)

TYPICAL LITHOLOGIES SPECIFIC STORAGE (m-1)

Clay 9.81 x 10-3

Silt, fine sand 9.82 x 10-4

Medium sand, fine 9.87 x 10-5

Coarse sand, medium gravel, highly fissured 1.05 x 10-5

Coarse gravel, moderately fissured rock 1.63 x 10-6

Unfissured rock 7.46 x 10-7

To estimate storativity for an aquifer of known lithology and thickness, select appropriate
specific storage from the above table and multiply by the aquifer thickness.

B. TRANSMISSIVITY (T)

Transmissivity is the volume of water per unit time passing from per-unit width under unit
hydraulic gradient through the whole saturation thickness. It is another very important
transmission property of an aquifer, which is different from hydraulic conductivity (K) in that it
includes the whole saturation thickness, m, of the aquifer while K is defined for unit saturation
thickness only.

T = Kb

In which T = transmissivity (L2T-1) units.

Where

K = hydraulic conductivity (LT-1) units

b = aquifer thickness (L units)

Logically, high transmissivity values imply high potentiality. Generally accepted numerical
boundary values and their verbal explanations are given in the table below (Wiest, 1965):
 TRANSMISSIVITY (m2/day) POTENTIALITY DESCRIPTION
T<5 NEGLIGIBLE
5<T<50 WEAK
50<T<500 MODERATE
T>500 HIGH

C. STORATIVITY (S)

Storativity of a confined aquifer is defined as the volume of water released from storage per unit
surface area of the aquifer per unit decline in hydraulic head. It is also known by the terms
coefficient of storage and storage coefficient.

The groundwater fraction which is of interest for abstraction is quantified by the storativity. In a
confined aquifer, water release is related to the water-expansion and aquifer compaction effect
attributes to aquifer pressure changes due to pumping. The elastic water release is quantified by
the storage coefficient:

S = Ssb

In which S = storativity a dimensionless unit.

Where

Ss = ρg(α+nβ) in which,
ρ = mass/volume ratio (density) (M/L3)
g = gravity acceleration (9.81 m/s2) (L/T2)
α= aquifer compressibility (T2L/M)
n = total porosity (unitless)
β= water compressibility (4.4 x 10-10 m/sec2/kg or Pa-1) (T2L/M)
b = aquifer thickness

Typical values of storativity vary in the range of 0.005 to 0.00005. Given the definition of
specific storage, large decreases in hydraulic head over extensive formations are required in
order for a confined aquifer to yield substantial amounts of water.

In unconfined aquifers, the concept of specific yield is equivalent to the storativity of confined
aquifers. Typical values of specific yield vary in the range 0.01 to 0.30. The higher values of
specific yield – as compared to storativity – reflect the fact that releases from an unconfined
aquifer represent an actual dewatering of the pore spaces. On the other hand, releases from
confined aquifers represent only the secondary effect of aquifer compaction caused by changes
in fluid pressure. The favorable yield properties of unconfined aquifers make them suited to well
exploitation.
Example:
1. Calculate the storativity of a confined aquifer of thickness b=50m, porosity
n=0.05, and compressibility =1.0 X 10^-8 Pa. Assume fluid density p= 1g/cm^3
and compressibility =4.4 X 10^-10 Pa.
Answer : 0.00492

2. An Aquifer has 723 m thickness and the hydraulic conductivity is calculated as

2X10^-6 m/s. what is the aquifer potentiality?
Answer : 124.934 m^2/day

II. HYDROLOGIC INVESTIGATIONS IN DETERMINING SUBSURFACE

RESOURCE

The intensity of groundwater investigations depends on project purposes and scope,

complexity of site conditions, and availability and accuracy of existing information and records.
Recommendations must conform to State, Federal, Tribal, and local water and health laws.

A. Reconnaissance Investigations

A reconnaissance investigation is based on a review of existing information and an

examination of surface features at the site. Prior to making a reconnaissance of the site, the
investigator should assemble and study topographic, geologic, and soil maps and literature and
reports regarding geology and groundwater applying to the area. Data from a field
reconnaissance should contain general descriptions and locations of the surface features and
conditions, including the following items:
 general geology of the project site
 geologic conditions that influence groundwater movement and recharge
 surface features resulting from groundwater movement, such as seeps, springs,
and landslides
 general character of streams and valleys including volumes of flow, streambanks and
bed, steepness of valley grades, and side slopes
 groundwater development, yields, quality, and use
 water well logs
 groundwater quality reports and data

B. Preliminary investigation

A preliminary investigation is made to determine the geologic and hydrologic characteristics of

the subsurface material. This will establish the feasibility of the project, be a basis for estimating
costs, and determine the need and intensity of further study.

(1) Maps.
A study of available resource maps is an excellent way to start a preliminary groundwater
investigation.
 (2) Imagery
Aerial photos and GIS data sets can be used to make initial interpretations of geologic structure,
landforms, potential recharge areas, springs, land use, and vegetation patterns. Satellite imagery,
as well as Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) data, may also be used if available for the area
of study.

(3) Field study

In areas where stratified sedimentary rocks are exposed, the details of local structure and its
relationship to possible aquifers in the geologic section must be determined.

(4) Mapping
A geologic map should always be prepared on the best available base map including:

 areal and surficial geology

 structure of bedrock, stratification, folding, faults, or fractures
 surface groundwater features including springs, seeps, swamps, and marshes
 sinkholes and disappearing or reappearing streams
 legend listing all formations shown on map. This includes a brief description of
characteristics of aquifers, aquicludes, and other pertinent information
 locations of wells. Well record data and logs will be included in reports

(5) Geologic sections

To complete and interpret the information on a geologic map, one or more geologic sections and
fence diagrams should be prepared, based on logs of wells, test holes, geophysical studies, or
other related information. The fence diagram is constructed in three-dimensional perspective
from actual well logs to show geologic relationships.

(6) Report of preliminary investigation

A geologic report generally following the outline in this chapter should be prepared for a
preliminary groundwater investigation. The report should include a concise discussion of
groundwater conditions, interpretations, conclusions, and recommendations for solving any
problems. The preliminary report should also include recommendations for methods to be used
in making a detailed groundwater investigation, where needed. Well records, log of borings, and
other supporting data should be reviewed, interpreted, and included where applicable with the
preliminary investigation report. Geologic maps and sections should be included.

(C) Detailed investigations

A detailed investigation collects data for making sound geologic interpretations. Specific site
materials and groundwater conditions are documented to provide sufficient subsurface
information for the design and construction of project measures.

(1) Data collection

Geophysical survey—seismic or various types of electrical resistivity equipment

can be used to determine depths to bedrock and depths to a water table, as well as fracture
 zones. Multiple-probe seismographs are useful in rapid analyses, especially using
variable shock sources and post processing software. Portable electrical resistivity meters
can be used to perform rapid surveys over long traverses.

Test drilling—detailed plans should be prepared showing locations and depths of

wells desired to obtain sufficient information on the position, depth, gradient, and nature
of the aquifer or underground cavernous or water storage area. Field permeability tests
may be needed on the aquifer and overlying materials. Samples of water should be
obtained to determine its quality.

Sampling—when drilling is done during the detailed investigation, samples

should be collected to:
 determine gradation, storage capacity, chemical composition, and permeability rates of
unconsolidated materials and rock formations
 assist in the correlation of horizons or rock formations
 determine the nature and extent of faulting, jointing, and cavernous conditions
 determine the possibility of surface subsidence or collapse of certain horizons
 determine the nature of an aquifer, its storage potential, productive capacity, and
transmissibility of groundwater

Tracers—to use tracers in groundwater investigations, the “upstream” or intake

area must be accessible. If not, drill holes or test pits will need to be prepared. The
discharge area also must be accessible, or holes or pits will be needed at a measured
distance in the down -gradient direction where water samples can be quickly observed or
tested.

The following dyes are the most common ones used: Fluorescein, potassium
permanganate, rhodamine “B”, methylene blue, aniline red, aniline blue, and auramine
yellow. Caution is advisable in using any kind of tracers, especially if large amounts are
used and they find their way into drinking water for humans or animals or into water used
for fish and wildlife. Poisonous or objectionable tracers should not be used.

(2) Correlation and interpretation

After reviewing the available information and completion of geophysical, drilling, and
excavation investigations, detailed geologic sections and fence diagrams can be prepared and
correlated. The data obtained should be complete enough to provide accurate correlation of
geologic conditions and to supply the desired information on groundwater, showing stratigraphic
sequence, geologic age, thickness, character, and composition of unconsolidated and
consolidated strata. Continuity, confining or impervious strata, barriers or aquicludes, water-
bearing formations, cavernous or fractured rock conditions, and water levels will be noted.

(3) Report of detailed investigation

A detailed investigation contains collected data on observations made and other information
assembled during the investigation. The report also includes interpretations, conclusions, and
recommendations made from these factual data
 III. SUBSURFACE RESOURCE

 Water Resource Definition

Surface water isn't simply water sitting in a pond, lake or river. The Arizona Department
of Water Resources classifies surface water as water from all sources, whether it flows in
canyons, streams or ravines. It doesn't matter if it is floodwater or wastewater. Subsurface
water, also called groundwater, fills the spaces in geologic strata and soils underground.

 Surface Water Sources

Precipitation replenishes subsurface water through a process called recharging. About 10
to 20 percent of that precipitation winds up in aquifers. An aquifer is a layer of rock that
holds water. Recharging usually happens during the winter in temperate climates and in
tropical climates when the rainy season arrives. Subsurface water can flow to the surface
if the atmospheric pressure above ground is lower than the subsurface water pressure.

IV. HYDRAULICS OF FLOW OF GROUNDWATER

 Hydraulic Gradient
The Hydraulic Gradient is a vector gradient between two or more hydraulic head
measurements over the length of the flow path.

For Groundwater it is also called the 'Darcy slope':

 Groundwater flow direction determination

In order to define groundwater flow directions and rates through aquifers, individual
measurements of hydraulic head are combined to generate contour maps of water level –
or potential energy. These maps define the potentiometric surface, which is much like a
topographic contour map, but defines the distribution of potential energy in the
groundwater system. Each contour, or equipotential, represents a line of equal hydraulic
head.

To first approximation, groundwater flows down-gradient (from high to low hydraulic

head). As is the case with surface water, or a ball rolling down a hill, the water flows in
the direction of the steepest gradient, meaning that it flows perpendicular to
equipotentials. There are exceptions to this – for example, if the hydraulic conductivity of
the aquifer is much higher in one direction than another, or dominated by fractures with
particular orientations, then these can redirect groundwater flow askew to the maximum
gradient.

 Groundwater Storage
is the difference between recharge and discharge over the time frames that these
processes occur, ranging from days to thousands of years. Changes to both groundwater
and surface-water levels may ultimately alter the interaction between groundwater and
surface water and the interaction between natural and societal water supply and demand
(Hanson et al., 2012).

Most groundwater occurs in small pore space within rock and unconsolidated sediment.
Water flows through this sediment slowly.
 Groundwater tends to collect above materials that are impermeable.

 Porosity

the amount of space in between sediment grains, cracks or fractures in rocks

 Permeability

This is the ability to transmit water. Rocks may have high porosity but if the pores are not
interconnected then the permeability will be low.
 Discharge and Recharge

Discharge – volume of groundwater flowing out at an aquifer over time.

Recharge – water flowing into an aquifer.
 Darcy’s Law
Henri Darcy established empirically that the energy lost ∆ℎ in water flowing through a
permeable formation is proportional to the length of the sediment column ∆𝐿.

The constant of proportionality K is called the hydraulic conductivity. The Darcy’s

Velocity 𝑉𝐷 :

∆ℎ
𝑉𝐷 = −𝐾 ( )
∆𝐿

And since,

𝑄 = 𝑉𝐷 𝐴

Therefore;

∆ℎ
𝑄 = −𝐾𝐴( )
∆𝐿

Darcy’s experiment (1856)

1. Velocities are small 𝑉~0 so,

𝑃1 𝑃2
+ 𝑍1 = + 𝑍2 + ℎ𝐿
𝛾 𝛾

2. Head Difference doesn’t change with inclination of the sand filter.

3. Again, Darcy related reduced flow rate to head loss and length of
column through a constant of proportionality K,

𝑄 ∆ℎ
𝑉= = −𝐾( )
𝐴 ∆𝐿
 Hydraulic Conductivity

K represents a measure of the ability for flow through porous media:

 Darcy’s Velocity
 V is the specific discharge (Darcy’s Velocity)
 (-) indicates that V occurs in the direction of the decreasing head.
 Specific discharge has units of velocity.
 The specific discharge is a macroscopic concept and is easily measured. It should
be noted that Darcy’s Velocity is different.
 From the miscroscopic velocities associated with the actual paths if individual
particles of water as they wind their way through the grains of sand.
 The microscopic velocity are real, but are probably impossible to measure.

 Darcy & Seepage Velocity

Darcy velocity is a fictitious velocity since it assumes that flow occurs across the entire
cross-section of the soil sample. Flow actually takes place only through interconnected
pore channels.

From the continuity equation:

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉𝐷 =𝐴𝑣 𝑉𝑠

Where:

Q= flow rate

A= total cross-sectional area of material

𝐴𝑣 =area of voids

𝑉𝑠 = seepage velocity

𝑉𝐷 = Darcy’s Velocity
𝐴
Therefore: 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝐷 (𝐴 )
𝑣
 Multiplying both sides by the length of the medium (L)
𝐴𝐿 𝑉
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑑 (𝐴 𝐿) = 𝑉𝐷 (𝑉𝑇 )
𝑣 𝑉

Where:

𝑉𝑇 =total Volume

𝑉𝑣 =void volume
𝑉
By definition, 𝑉𝑣 = 𝑛, the soil porosity.
𝑇

𝑽𝑫
Thus, 𝑽𝒔 = 𝒏

 Turbulence and Reynold’s Number

1. The path of water molecule takes is called streamline. In laminar flow,
streamlines do not cross and the viscous forces due to hydrogen bonds are
important.
2. In turbulent flow, acceleration and large scale motion away from a smooth
path is important (this is the F=ma) and streamlines cross.
3. We could take the ratio of inertial to viscous forces. When the number is
“large”, inertial forces are more important and flows are turbulent.
4. This ration is known as the Reynold’s number 𝑅𝑒:
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠

 Viscosity
 1. Viscosity is a fluid’s resistance to flow.
𝑘𝑔
2. Dynamic viscosity 𝝁 , units 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠 = 𝑁 ∙ 𝑠/𝑚2 or 𝑚∙𝑠 is determined
experimentally. If a fluid with a viscosity of one 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠 is placed between two
plates and one plate is pushed sideways with a shear stress of one Pascal, it
moves a distance equal to the thickness of the layer between the plates in one
second.
3. Kinematic viscosity 𝒗, is the dynamic viscosity divided by the density. The
𝑚2
SI unit of 𝑣 is .
𝑠

 Reynolds: Inertial/Viscous Forces

Gravity: 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝐿3 𝑔

𝑑𝑢
Viscosity: 𝐹𝑣 = 𝜇 (𝑑𝑦) 𝐴 = 𝜇𝑉𝐿

Inertia: 𝐹𝑖 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝜌𝑉 3 𝐿𝑇 −2 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿2

So,

𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿2
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇𝑉𝐿

𝑉𝐿
= 𝜇
𝜌

(𝑽𝑳)
=
𝒗

Example:

A confined aquifer has a source of recharge. K for the aquifer is 50 m/day and n=0.2. the
piezometric head in two wells 1000 m apart is 55 m and 50 m respectively, from a common
datum. The average thickness of the aquifer is 30 m, and the average width of aquifer is 5m.

Find:

(a) The rate of flow through the aquifer

(b) The average time of travel from the head of the aquifer
(c) Seepage velocity
Solution:

Cross-sectional area = 30(5)(1000) = 15 × 104 𝑚2

(55−50)
Hydraulic Gradient = = 5 × 10−3
1000

K = 50 m/day

50𝑚
𝑄=( ) (15 × 104 )(5 × 10−3 )
𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑚3
𝑄 = 37,500
𝑑𝑎𝑦

• Seepage velocity:
𝑉𝐷 = 𝑄𝐴

0.25𝑚
𝑉𝐷 = 37500(15 × 104 ) =
𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑉𝐷
𝑉𝑠 =
𝑛

0.25 m
𝑉𝑠 = = 1.25
0.2 day

 Time to travel 5km downstream:

 4(1000)
𝑇= 𝑚 = 3200 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑜𝑟 8.77 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
1.25
𝑑𝑎𝑦

Example 2:

A channel runs almost parallel to a river, and they are 2000 ft apart, as shown in figure
below. The water level in the river is at an elevation of 120 ft . The channel is at an
elevation of 110ft. A pervious formation averaging 30 ft thick and with hydraulic
conductivity K of 0.25 ft/hr joins them. Determine the flow rate Q of seepage from the
0.9𝑓𝑡 3
river to the channel. (ans: 𝑄 = )
𝑑𝑎𝑦

V. GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

 Groundwater as a Resource
The Philippines obtain its supply from different source. These include:

 Rainfall
 Surface water resource
 Rivers
 Lakes
 Reservoirs
 Groundwater resource
Several groundwater basiins are underlain by about 100,000 sq km of various rock formation and
that these resources are located in:

 Northern Kuzon
 Central Luzon
 Laguna Lake Basin
 Cavite-Batangas-Laguna basin
 Southeast Luzon
 Mindoro Island
 Negros Island
 Northeast Leyte
 Ormoc-Kananga basin
 Agusan-Davao basin
 Occidental Misamis basin
 Lanao-Bukidnon-Misamis basin

 Groundwater Exploration
Groundwater exploration is the investigation of underground formations to understand
the hydrologic cycle, know the groundwater quality, and identify the nature, number and
type of aquifers.

Most of the liquid freshwater resources are stored underground as groundwater (99%).
The regional distribution on earth, however, varies and depends mainly on climatic
conditions as well as the geology of the subsurface. In contrast to many raw materials, a
great amount of the groundwater is recharged in the hydrologic cycle by infiltrating
precipitation.

The data required for a resource assessment are obtained by:

 Hydrogealogical exploration, obeservations and measurements

at boreholes and wells.
 Geophysical investigations on the earth’s surface
 Airbone geophysical surveys
 Satellite image analysis or meteorological observations
 Groundwater Exploitation
Water exploitation is referred to the extraction of water for irrigation and human
consumption. Water exploitation is greatly connected with agriculture. Nevertheless, a
large contribution to water exploitation is connected with the industrial and residential
sectors and seasonally with tourism. Water exploitation can be estimated by “the
exploitation index” that is defined as withdrawal of conventional freshwater resources
(surface and groundwater) over total renewable resources.

The proper exploitation of groundwater resources involves apart from the location of
suitable source, the construction of properly designed wells. The design and the execution
of water supply systems and their maintenance is an integral part of the scheme of
exploration and management. Numerous problems of groundwater exploration &
exploitation require systematic use of scientific techniques.
 Negros ORientalState University
College of Engineering and Architecture
Main Campus II, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City

CE 427-HYDROLOGY
(Class Schedule: M-F 9:30-11:30am)

CHAPTER IV:
Concepts of Probability and Statistics
in Hydrology

Reporters:
Paculanang, Joann Day A.
Remolano, Suzette C.

Submitted to:
Engr. Irismay T. Jumawan, Ph. D.
 TOPICS:

[Link] Probability Concepts and Probability Models

[Link] Period, Design Storm and Design Turn-off

[Link] and Correlation

[Link] Estimation
Statistics- is the study of the collection, organization, analysis and interpretation of data; it deals with
all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and
Probability- is a mathematical basis of prediction which for an exhausted set of outcome is the ratio of
the outcomes that will produce a given event to the total number of possible outcome; deals with the
measure or chance or the likelihood based on the sampled data.
- estimates, predict
Approaches to assessing/estimate/evaluate probability:
a) Priori probability-logically examining a circumstance or existing information regarding a situation
b) Empirical probability- is an estimated probability based upon previous evidence or experimental
results
c) Subjective probability-derived from an individual's personal judgment or own experience about
whether a specific outcome is likely to occur

I. Basic Probability Concepts and Probability Models

Elements of Statistics

1. Population and Sample

a)Sample-a collection of subject under
consideration(e.g. annual flood peaks or annual rainfall over a period of time)
b)Population-the whole collection of object under
consideration(e.g. values of annual flood peaks from the immemorial to eternity)
c)Variables-a characteristics of a segment of population and usually designated
as X(e.g. flood peaks, rainfall, stream flow, temperature)
d)Variate-a particular value or individual observation of any variable
e)Random Variate-the result of an unexpected trial

2. Measure of Central Tendency

It is a single figure which is a representative of general level of magnitude or values of
a item in a set of data. It is a measure that determines where the group tends to cluster or to
center. It is a single value which best represents the entire group.
a) Mean-is the arithmetic average of all the sampled data in a distribution

x
x
n


x
For population mean use n
 b) Median-is the value of the variate having a 50% cumulative frequency. It is the
middle value or the variate which divides the frequencies into equal portions. In simple
term, it is the central value that divides the ordered data collection into two equal parts or
is the value of the middle term after arranging the data in ascending or descending order.

For grouped data:

𝑛
(2) − 𝐶𝑓
𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿𝑚 +
𝑓𝑚
Where:
=Cumulative frequency up to the class just
before the median class
=Lower limit of the median class
=the frequency of the median class
=width of the class interval
c) Mode-most frequent data value; could be multiple
Example:
Find the mode of the set of numbers
2, 3, 6, 10, 13, 25, 6, 7, 9
3. Measure of Variability-it is a measure which aids in the comparison. It is a
measure which describes how far away from the mean is the sampled data. It is also called
dispersion of a probability distribution curve and is given by the following perimeters.
a) Mean Deviation-is the mean of the absolute deviations of values from their
mean
MD   x  x
n

b) Median – is the value of the variate having a 50% cumulative frequency.

It is the middle value or the variate which divides the frequencies into
equal portions. In simple term, It is the central value that divides the
ordered data collection into two equal parts or is the value of the middle
term after arranging the data in ascending or descending order.

𝑛
(2) − 𝐶𝑓
𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿𝑚 +
𝑓𝑚

Where: 𝐶𝑓 = cumulative frequency up to the class just before the median class

𝐿𝑚 =lower limit of the median class

𝑓𝑚 = the frequency of the median class
𝐶𝐼 = width of the class interval

c) Mode-most frequent data value; could be multiple

Example:
Find the mode of the set of numbers
2, 3, 6, 10, 13, 25, 6, 7, 9

3) Measure of Variability-it is a measure which aids in the comparison. It is a measure

which describes how far away from the mean is the sampled data. It is also called
dispersion of a probability distribution curve and is given by the following perimeters.

a) Mean Deviation-is the mean of the absolute deviations of values from their
mean
MD   x  x
n

b) Standard Deviation – is the mean of the absolute deviations of values from

their mean

𝑑2
𝑆𝐷 = √
𝑁

c) Variance – is the square of the standard deviation ( G2 or S2 )

𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑆𝐷 2

d) Range – denotes the difference between the largest and smallest values

𝑅𝑔 = 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛
e) Coefficient of Variation – is the standard deviation divided by the mean

𝑆𝐷
𝐶𝑉 =
𝑥̅
4) Measure of Skewness (asymmetry)-is the lack of symmetry of a distribution

*Population Skewness

*Sample Skewness

*For Flood data (Foster)

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
1) Find the standard deviation of the following data
16, 18, 20, 13, 14, 10, 15, 19, 8, 17
STEP1: N=10
STEP 2:

Mean 
 values  150
N 10
Mean=15
Table 1

2) Given the following data get the Mean, Mean Deviation, Standard
Deviation, Variance, Range, and Coefficient of Variation.
 Three Statistical Key Concepts:
1) Cumulative Probability (Fi) is the probability that precipitation takes
a value less than or equal to a given amount. To calculate the
Cumulative Probability function (e.g. annual rainfall equal to or less
than a certain amount):
PROCEDURE:
a) Rank annual rainfall from lowest to highest
b) Rank is m, where 1 is the rank given to the lowest precipitation
c) n is the number of data points (number of years in this case)

Fi=m/(n+1) x 100%
2. Exceedance Probability (p) is the probability that rainfall of that
much or higher will occur in a given year. Although simple in concept,
no end of confusion is created by the fact that the same equation is used
as for the cumulative probability frequency. The big difference is that m
in this case is rank where the highest value receives a rank of (m=1)
p=m/(n+1)
 3) The Recurrence Interval or Return Period (Tr) is the average interval
in years between events equaling or exceeding a certain magnitude. The
return period is calculated from:
Tr=1/p

Where: p=m/(n+1); therefore Tr=(n+1)/m

Working example with 10 years of precipitation data from Kenya.

Therefore n=10 and n+1=11

Return Period, Design Storm and Design Turn-off

Recurrence Interval – is the average interval in years between the occurrence of a flood of specified
magnitude and an equal or larger flood. It is also referred to as return period or simply frequency and
designated by the variable Tr. Weibull Formula (for external distribution),

Probability of Occurrence, P – is the reciprocal of a return period of a certain occurrence being

equaled or exceeded in any year
1
𝑃(𝑋 ≥ 𝑥) =

Probability 𝑇𝑟
  Any event will not occur in any given year, = 1- P
 An event with a return period, Tr:
Will be equaled or exceeded at least once in the next N years

Example 1)
What is the probability a flood equal to or greater than the 20-year flood occurring during the next
three years
Given: n = 3 years
=20 years
Find: 𝑃(𝑋≥𝑥)

𝑃(𝑋≥𝑥)=1−〖(1−1/𝑇_𝑟) 〗^𝑛

𝑃(𝑋 ≥ 𝑥)= 1 − (1 −1/20 )^3

= 0.143 𝑜𝑟 14.3%

Example 2) What design period should be use to be approximately 90% certain that design will not
exceed in the next 5 years?
Given: N=5 years
P=90% or 0.9
1 𝑁
P=(1 − )
𝑇𝑟
1
0.9=(1 − 𝑇𝑟)5

Tr=47.96 years or 48 years

Example 3) What is the probability that exact (3) 100-year floods will occur during the 50-year
expected life of a particular highway bridge?
Find: K in N
Solution:
 𝑁! 1 𝐾 1
𝐾 𝑖𝑛 𝑁 = 𝐾!(𝑁−𝐾)! (𝑇𝑟) (1 − 𝑇𝑟)𝑁−𝐾

50! 1 3 1
𝐾 𝑖𝑛 𝑁 = 3!(50−3)! (100) (1 − 100)50−3

𝐾 𝑖𝑛 𝑁 = 0.0122 𝑜𝑟 1.22%

DESIGN STORM
In the context of hydraulic design, hydrologic analysis provides estimates of flood magnitudes as a result
of precipitation. These estimates consider processes in a watershed that transform precipitation to runoff and that
transport water through the system to a project’s location.
The design of drainage facilities requires to:
-Select the level of protection desired, specified in terms of probability of capacity exceedance.
-Find the corresponding flow rate and/or volume, computing in many cases the corresponding water surface
elevation.
-Use that as a basis for design.
In the design of facilities such as storm drain systems, culverts, and bridges, floods are usually considered
in terms of peak runoff or discharge in cubic feet per second or cubic meters per second. For systems that are
designed to control the volume of runoff, such as detention storage facilities, or where flood routing through
culverts is used, the discharge per time will be of interest. Thus, depending on the needs of a particular project,
the hydrology study may provide:
-A flow rate for which the probability of exceedance is specified.
-A volume of water expected with a specified storm duration, for which the probability of exceedance is
specified.
-A hydrograph—flow rate as a function of time—for a specified probability of exceedance. This provides
information about peak, volume, and timing of runoff level of protection desired.
These results may be obtained through statistical analysis of historical observations or through empirical
or conceptual models of the relevant watershed and channel processes.
Data Requirements Vary with Method Used
Data and information required for hydrologic analysis varies from method to method. The conceptual methods
require somewhat detailed information about the watershed and channel properties, whereas the empirical
methods require streamflow data to establish the relationships and only limited data on watershed and channel
properties to use the derived relationship.
Specific requirements for the different methods, but broad categories of data required include the following:
-Geographic and geometric properties of the watershed.
-Land use, natural storage, vegetative cover, and soil property information.
-Description of the drainage features of the watershed. Rainfall observations and statistics of the precipitation.
-Streamflow observations and statistics of the streamflow.

Design Storm Development

A design storm is a precipitation pattern or intensity value defined for design of drainage facilities. Design storms
are either based on historical precipitation data or rainfall characteristics in the project area or region. Application
of design storms ranges from point precipitation for calculation of peak flows using the rational method to storm
hyetographs as input for rainfall-runoff analysis in the hydrograph method. The fundamental assumption using
design storms is that precipitation of an AEP yields runoff of the same AEP.

An intensity-duration-frequency curve is a mathematical function that relates the rainfall intensity with its
duration and frequency of occurrence. These curves are commonly used in hydrology for flood forecasting and
civil engineering for urban drainage design.
Rational Method
The rational method is appropriate for estimating peak discharges for small drainage areas of up to about 200
acres (80 hectares) with no significant flood storage. The method provides with a peak discharge value, but does
not provide a time series of flow nor flow volume.
Assumptions and Limitations
-The method is applicable if tc for the drainage area is less than the duration of peak rainfall intensity.
-The calculated runoff is directly proportional to the rainfall intensity.
-Rainfall intensity is uniform throughout the duration of the storm.
-The frequency of occurrence for the peak discharge is the same as the frequency of the rainfall producing that
event.
-Rainfall is distributed uniformly over the drainage area.
-The minimum duration to be used for computation of rainfall intensity is 10 minutes. If the time of concentration
computed for the drainage area is less than 10 minutes, then 10 minutes should be adopted for rainfall intensity
computations.
-The rational method does not account for storage in the drainage area. Available storage is assumed to be filled.
Runoff Coefficients
Hydrograph Method
A hydrograph represents runoff as it varies over time at a particular location within the watershed. The area
integrated under the hydrograph represents the volume of runoff. Estimation of a runoff hydrograph, as opposed
to the peak rate of runoff, is necessary for watersheds with complex runoff characteristics. The hydrograph
method also should be used when storage must be evaluated, as it accounts explicitly for volume and timing of
runoff. The hydrograph method has no drainage area size limitation.
The hydrograph method accounts for losses (soil infiltration for example) and transforms the remaining (excess)
rainfall into a runoff hydrograph at the outlet of the watershed.

Hyetograph Development Procedure

In the rational method the intensity is considered to be uniform over the storm period. Hydrograph techniques,
however, account for variability of the intensity throughout a storm. Therefore, when using hydrograph
techniques, it is a must to determine a rainfall hyetograph: a temporal distribution of the watershed rainfall, as
shown in the Figure .

Empirical Dimensionless Hyetograph

Empirical dimensionless hyetographs (Williams-Sether et al. 2004, Asquith et al. 2005) have been developed for
application to small drainage areas (less than approximately 160 square miles) in urban and rural areas. The
cumulative hyetographs are dimensionless in both duration and depth, and are applicable for storm durations
ranging from 0 to 72 hours. The hyetograph shapes are not given by a mathematical expression but are provided
graphically for 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th quartile storms as well as for a combined (1st through 4th quartile) storm.

To use the hyetographs, determine the appropriate storm depth and duration for the annual exceedance
probability (AEP) of interest. The quartile defines in which temporal quarter of the storm the majority of the
precipitation occurs – the graphs for individual quartiles as well as corresponding tabulations are available in
Williams-Sether et al., (2004).
CORRELATION AND REGRESSION

Correlation is a bivariate analysis that measures the strength of association between two variables and
the direction of the relationship. Thus, we are dealing with 2 variables measured simultaneously at
single location or at the single time, additional statistic can be obtained that measure the degree of co-
variation of the two data sets (i.e. The degree to which high values of one variable are related with
high (or low) values of the other variable)

Co-variance- measures linear co-variation of two data sets of variables x and y.

-depends on actual values of values
1
𝐶𝑥𝑦 = ∑(𝑥 − 𝑀𝑥 )(𝑦 − 𝑀𝑦 )
𝑛

Where: x and y is the values

Mx and My is the mean
n is the number of pairs of the observe value

Correlation coefficient provides a measure of linear co-variation that is normalized with respect to the
magnitudes of the variables x and y.

Correlation – is a statistical measurement of the relationship between two variables. Possible

correlations range from +1 to -1. A zero correlation indicates that there is no relationship between the
variables. A correlation of -1 indicates a perfect negative correlation, meaning that as one variable
goes up, the other goes down. A correlation of +1 indicates a perfect positive correlation, meaning
that both variables move in the same direction together.
Regression is a powerful statistical method that allows you to examine the relationship between two
or more variables of interest. The core of regression is to examine the influence of one or more
independent variables on a dependent variable.

Regression and correlation includes many techniques for modeling and analyzing several variables,
when the focus is in the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent
variable. The method of least squares is used.

Two variables y (dependent) and x (independent) can be correlated by plotting them on

x-axis and y-axis. If they are plotted on a straight line, there is a close relationship; on the other hand,
if the points depart appreciably (without a definite trend), the graph is called Scattered diagram or
plot. If the trend is a straight line, the relationship is linear and has the equation

𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 𝐸𝑞. 1
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑞𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐸𝑞. 1 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

∑ 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑥 + 𝑏 ∑ 𝑥 2

𝑎 = ∑𝑦 − 𝑏∑𝑥

𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑦 − ∑ 𝑥 ∑ 𝑦
𝑏=
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 2 − (∑ 𝑥)2
Where: n= number of pairs of observed values of x and y
Example 1)
Annual rainfall and runoff data for the Damodar River at Rhondia (east India) for 17 years are
given below. Determine the linear regression line between rainfall and runoff, the correlation
coefficient.
Table no.1 Solution for Regression Line Equation and Correlation Coefficient n=17
For regression line equation:

1.

Using Eq. (5)

𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑦 − ∑ 𝑥 ∑ 𝑦
𝑏=
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 2 − (∑ 𝑥)2
Solution:
17(1218916) − (22097)(9093)
𝑏=
17(29100057) − (29100057)

𝑏 = 0.8194133783

𝑎 = ∑ 𝑦̅ − 𝑏 ∑ 𝑥̅
 𝑎 = 9093/17 − 0.819(22097)/17

𝑎 = −529.210

𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥
𝒚 = −𝟓𝟑𝟎. 𝟐𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟗 𝒙
Or 𝒓𝒖𝒏𝒐𝒇𝒇 (𝒚) = (𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟗)𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒂𝒍𝒍(𝒙) − 𝟓𝟑𝟎. 𝟐𝟏
CHAPTER V: “ROLE OF HYDROLOGY IN WATER RESOURCES PLANNING AND
MANAGEMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES”

OBJECTIVES

 To cite and identify the agencies involved in the collection of hydrologic data in the
Philippines

 Problems of Watershed Management and Watershed Protection

UNESCO AND WMO (1992) give the following definitions of Hydrology:

a) Science that deals with waters above and below the land surface of the Earth, their occurrence,
circulation and distribution, both in time and space, their biological, chemical and physical
properties, their reaction with the environment , including their relation to living beings

b) Science that deals with the processes governing the depletion and replenishment of water
resources of the land areas of the Earth, and treats the various phases of the hydrological cycle.

HYDROLOGY

BASIC TASK IMPORTANCE

accurate definition
and control of global
rise of
the water balance for growth of
water
different water needs
scarcity
space and time
increments

Water is one of our most important natural resources. Without it, there would be no life on
earth. Supply may be available, but it is not always in the right place, at the right time and of the
right place. That's why Hydrological Data is important.

Collection of Hydrological Data

The ultimate goal of data collection in hydrology, be it in precipitation measurements,

water-level recordings, discharge gaugings, groundwater monitoring and water quality sampling,
is to provide a set of sufficient good quality data that can be used in decision-making in all
aspects of water resources management, in the wide range of operational applications as well as
in research.
The authority and jurisdiction of these water institutions differ as illustrated in a hiererchy of
their coverage. Another way of looking at relevance and completeness of Philippine Water
Institutions is to identify the institutions’ responsibility and/or state in relation to the different
component or aspects of the water cycle. The decisions and actions on water resources and thus
coming from multi-sectional and multi-level institutes, aside ftom multi-thematic concerns such
as technical, social, economic and political. Because of the wide range of functions, the water
sector is inherently fragmented with some overlaps of responsibility, resulting to conflicts among
agencies.

These key institutions in the water sector the collect, interpret and use hydrologic data are
led by the National Economic Development Authority and National Water Resources Board.

To cite and identify the agencies involved in the collection of hydrologic data in the Philippines

The water-related functions of these agencies include :

 Water quality and sanitation

 Watershed management
 Integrated area management
 Data Collection
 Flood management
 Irrigation
 Water supply and research
 Cloud Seeding
 Fisheries
 Use allocation and regulations

National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA)

- the Philippines’ social and economic development planning and policy coordinating body
- key institutions in the water sector that collect, interpret, and use hydrological data
- is the lead agency providing policy advice on socioeconomic issues to the country’s
president and the rest of government

National Water Resource Board (NWRB)

- is the lead government agency in the Philippine water sector, conferred with
policy-making, regulatory and quasi-judicial functions
- is responsible for ensuring the optimum exploitation, utilization, development,
conservation, and protection of the country's water resource, consistent with the principles
of Integrated Water Resource Management
- is under the administrative supervision of the Department of Environment and Natural
Resources

The following are other institutions that have an important role in the management of Philippine
water resources.

Department of National Resources (DENR)

 -is responsible for watershed management and monitoring, and management of water
resources

Within DENR are the following agencies with the role in water:

 Environmental Management Bureau (EMB)

- is the lead agency under DENR that handles implementation of the Philippine Clean
Act, it develops and reviews water quality management policies, rules and regulations
such as ambient water quality guidelines and effluent standards.
 National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA)
- responsible for providing the public with mapmaking services and acting as the
central mapping agency, depository, and distribution facility of natural resources data
in the form of maps, charts, texts, and statistics.
 Ecosystem Research Development Bureau (EDRB)
- is the principal research and development unit of DENR.
 Forest Management Bureau (FMB)
- formulates and recommends policies and programs for the effective protection,
development, occupancy, management and conservation of forest lands and
watersheds.
 Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA)
- is a quasi-government agency that by virtue of RA 4850, leads, promotes and
accelerates sustainable development in the Laguna de Bay region.
 Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB)
- responsible for the administration and disposition, conservation, management,
development and proper use of the country’s mineral lands and mineral resources.

Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG)

- through the PMO WSSP provides technical assistance and capacity building to Local
Government Units to help them manage water supply, sewerage, and sanitation services

Within DILG are the following agencies with the role in water:

 Barangay
- services and facilities related to general hygiene and sanitation and maintenance of
water supply systems
 Municipality
- extension and on-site research and facilities related to agriculture and fishery
activities

 Province
- assistance in organization of farmers and fishermen’s cooperatives and other
collective organizations
 City
- all the services and facilities of the municipalities and provinces
Department of Agriculture (DA)
- is the lead agency to boost farmers’ income to reduce poverty in the rural sector and to
provide sufficient food and sustainable livelihood to the Filipino people

Within the DA are the following agencies with a role in water:

 Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources ( BFAR)

- formulates plans for proper management accelerated development and roper
utilization of fisheries and aquatic resources
 Bureau of Soils and Water Management ( BSWM)
- is the mapping arm of DA and is mandated to advise and render assistance on the
utilization of soils and water as vital agricultural resources.
 National Irrigation Administration (NIA)
- undertakes program-oriented and comprehensive water resources projects for
irrigation as well as flood control, drainage, and reclamation, hydropower development,
watershed management and etc.

Department of Health (DOH)

- is responsible for implementing and enforcing the Sanitation Code of the Philippines

Within DOH are the following agencies with role in water:

 Environmental Health Service ( EHS)

- is responsible for water supply and sanitation programs and strategies to forestall
environment related diseases.
 Bureau of Research Laboratories (BRL)
- monitor quality drinking water
 Environmental and Occupational Health Office (EOHO)

Department of Science and Technology (DOST)

- is the premiere science and technology body in the country charged with the twin
mandates of providing central direction, leadership, and coordination of all scientific and
technological activities, and of formulating polices, programs, and projects to support
national developments

Within DOST are the following agencies with role in water:

 Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration

( PAG-ASA)
- it collects hydrologic data which be used for weather and flood forecasting and
various research projects of the agency.
 Philippine Council for Agriculture and Aquatic Resources Development (PCAARD)
- formulates national agriculture, forestry and natural resources research and
development program on multi-disciplinary inter-agency approach for the various
commodities including water resources.
 Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI)
 - conduct research and development of the application of isotope and nuclear
techniques in water resources management and protection.

Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH)

- is responsible for flood control and drainage. It provides technical support to LGUs in the
development of water supply systems, is tasked to prepare a national program on sewerage
and septage management, and is also responsible for flood control.

Within the DPWH are the following agencies with a role in water:

 Bureau of Research and Standards (BRS)

- is engaged in monitoring and studies of water resources as well as conducting
water research and setting water-quality standards.
 Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS)
- assumes jurisdiction, supervision and control overall waterworks and sewerage
system in Metro Manila, in the Province of Rizal and in some municipalities in
Bulacan and Cavite.
 Project Management Office-Rural Water Supply ( PMO-RWS)
- manages the planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of foreign
assisted rural water supply projects

 Local Water Utilities Administration-Water Districts (LWUA-WD)

- promotes the development of provincial water supply and offers financial
assistance to water districts

National Power Corporation (NPC)

- is responsible for the development of power sources including hydro-power so has a
vested jurisdiction for watershed areas supporting power generating plants responsible for
the collection of stream flow data.

Pasig River Rehabilitation Commission (PRRC)

- Created to ensure that the Pasig River is rehabilitated to its historically pristine condition
conducive to transport, recreation, and tourism.

PROBLEMS OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AND WATERSHED

PROTECTION IN THE PHILIPPINES

Watershed management is a term used to describe the process of implementing land use
practices and water management practices to protect and improve the quality of the water and other
natural resources within a watershed by managing the use of those land and water resources in a
comprehensive manner.

Watershed Protection is a means of protecting a lake, river or stream by managing the entire
watershed that drains into it.
 Watershed is a natural system whose boundary is determined on the ground by the
highest points or ridgelines near or around a water body.

The Philippines, due to its geographical location, has abundant water resources. It has an
average annual rainfall of about 2,500 millimeters. The dependable supply is estimated about
126,000 million cubic meters per year (MCM/year) based on recent assessment. On the other hand,
groundwater safe yield of aquifers covering some 50,000 square kilometers found extensively in
the plains of the three major islands is estimated at 20,200 MCM/year.(Barba, P, 2003).

However, despite of the abundance, it is becoming one of the critical resources in the
Philippines.

PROBLEMS IN WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Disparities between water supply and demand

Despite the abundant water resources in the Philippines, distribution of these

resources varies widely in time and place because of the different geographic and
climate conditions prevailing in different parts of the country (Barba, P, 2003).

Water resources are unevenly distributed throughout the country, often resulting in
water shortages in highly populated areas, especially during the dry season. Several river
basins (Pampanga, Agno, Pasig-Laguna, and on the island of Cebu) are also experiencing
generalized water scarcity (PEM, 2004).

Lack of water allocation formula

Most of the problems encountered in the water sector today arise from an issue of
conflicts of use and water allocation. With the increase of population coupled with
worsening pollution of water, lack of infrastructure and facilities result in allocation issues
and conflicting rights over limited water supply. The principle in the Water Code of "first in
time priority in right" may no longer be an equitable approach in resolving such conflicts.

Economic Pricing

The existing water pricing system in the country does not reflect the realities of scarcity
or abundance of water with minimal attention on economic value of water. Consequently, it does
not serve the function of allocating the scarce resource to the most productive users and does not
provide economic incentive for efficient use and conservation of water.
It is well accepted that the proper pricing of raw water is one way of resolving a number
of problems in the [Link] proper pricing of raw water will;
1) result to more efficient allocation of water;
 2) encourage conservation of water; and
3) greater efforts in the part of suppliers to reduce non-revenue water. Pricing water, if
implemented and enforced fairly and equitably, would generate revenues that could be used for
sector improvement. Policy changes of this nature will be difficult to implement mainly because
of political opposition based on fear that prices to poorer families and irrigation farmers will
increase. Adverse public reaction is expected and the perception of political weakness of the
government will ensue on account of public resistance.

Corporations also directly compete with the people for the control and use of available
freshwater resources

For instance, Benguet Corporation, a U.S. mining firm which is now venturing into the
water business, holds 65 water appropriation permits issued by the NWRB. The permits cover
major creeks, springs, and rivers in the municipality of Itogon in Benguet province that
communities use for their domestic and agricultural needs. In San Pablo City, Laguna, farmers
and residents complain of declining water availability and blame the operation of a mineral
water plant by Nestle Philippines, Inc. (Padilla, A., 2007).

Weak water use regulation and enforcement

The investigation and processing of water permit applications constitute the

type functions for which NWRB is not properly equipped in terms of either
manpower or resources.

Inefficient water use

There is tremendous waste of water in distribution lines, irrigation canals, and at

homes. Inefficiency in water usage was exacerbated by the absence of regulations,
economic incentives, and institutional arrangements needed to promote water conservation
and rational use of water.
Apart from increasing industrial and domestic demand, another contributing factor
to the water shortage in Metro Manila is the high level of water loss due to leaking pipes
and illegal connections.

Lack of data

The absence of reliable water resources information system diminishes the capacity of concerned
authorities to make difficult and controversial water allocation decisions. Besides, it would be
difficult for the private sector to invest in the water sector when reliable water resources-related
data are being collected and processed by various concerned agencies and kept in their
independent database. The absence of reliable water resources information system diminishes the
capacity of concerned authorities to make difficult and controversial water allocation decisions.
Depletion of groundwater resources

Indiscriminate groundwater abstraction resulting to salt-intrusion is noticeable in Metro

Manila and Cavite (Region IV), Iloilo (Region VI), and Cebu (Region VII). The indiscriminate
use of groundwater wells for residential and industrial areas due to the failure of major utility
providers to service these areas is the major cause for the depletion of the groundwater
resources in the country.

Fragmented management

One of the most critical issues confronting the Philippine water sector is the lack of an
appropriate institutional framework to address issues of development and management of water
and related resources. At present, there are over 30 government agencies and departments
separately dealing with water supply, irrigation, hydropower, flood control, pollution, watershed
management, etc. It is this fragmented approach to water management which causes an overlap
of work and conflicts among agencies and results in a fractional water management plan that
does not adequately meet the requirements for sustainability (Barba, 2005).

Many projects are being implemented in many cases without considering the interactions
between hydrological and economic system, thus, resulting in inefficient resource use, economic
and social losses, and environmental degradation.

Environmental degradation/water-related disasters

The chronic shortage of water supply in Metro Manila and the countryside has placed in the
forefront the increased recognition of the adverse effects of man’s activities in the watersheds
which has caused erosion and siltation problems in the country’s rivers, lakes and reservoirs. One
particular concern is deforestation leading to siltation of dams and waters stored in inland lakes
such as the Laguna Lake near Metro Manila and the Ambuklao Reservoir in the north.
To address problems on watershed degradation, many environmental laws were enacted;
-Forestry Reform Code
- Water Codes
-Provincial Water Utilities Act
- NIPAS Act and Water Crisis Act

Watershed degradation takes in several form or combination of the following;

*Soil Degradation- Decline in soil productivity as the topsoil erodes and the hydrological,
biological, chemical, and physical properties of the soil are changed.
*Vegetation degradation- Decrease in vegetative ground cover and the decline in the quality
and quantity of natural biomass.

*Water Degradation- Decrease in the quantity and quality of both surface and ground water and
increased risk of downstream flood damage.
*Land Conversion- Dwindling arable and forest lands due to land use change such as urban
settlements, industrial parks, roads, and golf courses.

*Biodiversity Degradation- Reduction in the diversity of species. The most extreme form of
degradation is the extinction of some species of fauna and flora.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR IMPROVED WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Ecological Sustainability

-The technologies and production processes involved in using and developing a watershed’s
natural resources should not have adverse environmental effects.

Social and Cultural sustainability

-The use and development of the watershed’s resources should be compatible with the
culture and values of the people affected by it and should strengthen community identity.

Economic Sustainability

-Resources must be used and managed in an economically efficient manner and must
benefit the greatest number of people.

Institutional Sustainability

-Community-based organizations, NGOs, LGUs, and national agencies involved in

watershed management planning, implementation, and monitoring should have the financial
and human resources to sustain the delivery of services.

Examples of watershed management strategies

 Protection strategies, which include all activities geared to protect the watershed from the
forces of denudation such as illegal logging, fire, encroachment, pests and diseases.

 Conservation strategies include all programs and activities designed to sustain the
long-term productivity of all watershed resources (e.g., water, timber and soil).

 Development strategies, which include soil erosion control, land use planning,
reforestation, infrastructure development and all other activities related to the
rehabilitation and improvement of the existing condition of watershed resource.
References

Problems of watershed management and watershed protection .Retrieved from

[Link]
and-W atershed-Protection

The Philippines: Challenges in Water Resources Management. Retrieved from

[Link]
A519/5 ` [Link]

Watershed protection. Retrieved from

[Link]
[Link]/S afeWater/watershed/[Link]

Integrated Land Use Planning and Sustainable Watershed Management. Retrieved from
[Link]

[Link]
nning-And

[Link]
 Chapter VII
PD 1067 (The Water Code of the Philippines)
PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No.1067 – “THE WATER CODE OF THE
PHILIPPINES”

A decree instituting a Water Code, thereby revising and consolidating the laws governing the
ownership, appropriation, utilization, exploitation, development, conservation and protection of water
resources.
CHAPTER I
DECLARATION OF OBJECTIVES AND PRINCIPLES

Article 1. This Code shall be known as The Water Code of the

Philippines.
Article 2. The objectives of this Code are:
a. To established the basic principles and framework relating to the appropriation, control and
conservation of water resources to achieve the optimum development and rational
utilization of theseresources;
b. To define the extent of the rights and obligations of water users and owners including
the protection and regulation of suchrights;
c. To adopt a basic law governing the ownership, appropriation, utilization, exploitation,
development, conservation and protection of water resources and rights to land related
thereto; and
d. To identify the administrative agencies which will enforce thisCode.
Article 3. The underlying principles of this code are:
a. All waters belong to theState.
b. All waters that belong to the State cannot be the subject to acquisitiveprescription.
c. The state may allow the use or development of waters by administrativeconcession.
d. The utilization, exploitation, development, conservation and protection of water resources
shall be subject to the control and regulation of the government through the National Water
Resources Council, hereinafter referred to as theCouncil.
e. Preference in the use and development of waters shall consider current usage and be
responsiveto the changing needs of the country.
Article 4. Waters, as used in this Code, refers to water under the grounds, water above the ground,
water in the atmosphere and the waters of the sea within the territorial jurisdiction of the Philippines.
CHAPTER II
OWNERSHIP OF WATERS

Article 5. The following belong to the State:

a. Rivers and their naturalbeds;
b. Continuous or intermittent waters of springs and brooks running in their natural beds and the
beds themselves
c. Natural lakes and lagoons;
d. All other categories of surface waters such as water flowing over lands, water from rainfall
whether natural or artificial, and water from agriculture runoff, seepage anddrainage;
e. Atmosphericwater;
f. Subterranean or ground waters; and
g. Seawater
Article 6. The following waters found on private lands also belong to the States:
a. Continuous or intermittent waters rising on suchlands;
b. Lakes and lagoons naturally waters rising on suchlands;
c. Rain water and falling on suchlands;
d. Subterranean or ground waters; and,
e. Waters in swamps andmarshes.

NOTE: The owner of the land where the water is found may use the same for domestic purposes without securing a permit,
provided that such use shall have been registered, when required by the Council. The Council, however, may regulate such
use when there is wastage, or in times of emergency.

Article 7. Subject to the provisions of this Code, any person who captures or collects water by means
of cisterns, tanks, or pools shall have exclusive control over such water and the right to dispose of the
same.

Article 8. Water legally appropriated shall be subject to the control of the appropriator from the
moment it reaches the appropriator's canal or aqueduct leading to the place where the water will be
used or stored and, thereafter, so long as it is being beneficially used for the purposes for which it
was appropriated.

CHAPTER III
APPROPRIATION
OFWATERS

Article 9. Waters may be appropriated and used in accordance with the provisions of this Code.

NOTE: Appropriation of water, as used in this Code, is the acquisition of rights over the use of waters
or the taking or diverting of waters from a natural source in the manner and for any purpose allowed
by law.

Article 10. Water may be appropriated for the following purposes:

a. Domestic - utilization of water for drinking, washing, bathing, cooking or other household
needs, home gardens, and watering or lawns or domesticanimals.
b. Municipal - utilization of water for supplying the water requirements of the community.
c. Irrigation - utilization of water for producing agriculturalcrops.
d. Power generation - utilization of water for producing electrical or mechanicalpower.
e. Fisheries - utilization of water for the propagation and culture of fish as a commercialenterprise.
f. Livestock raising - utilization of water for large herds or flocks of animals raised
as a commercialenterprise.
g. Industrial - utilization of water in factories, industrial plants and mines, including the
useof water as an ingredient of a finishedproduct.
h. Recreational - utilization of water for swimming pools, bath houses, boating, water skiing,
golf courses and other similar facilities in resorts and other places ofrecreation.
i. Otherpurposes

Article 11. The state, for reasons of public policy, may declare waters not previously appropriated, in
whole or in part, exempt from appropriation for any or all purposes and, thereupon, such waters may
not be appropriated for those purposes.
 Article 12. Waters appropriated for a particular purpose may be applied for another purposes only
upon prior approval of the Council and on condition that the new use does not unduly prejudice the
rights of other permittees, or require an increase in the volume of water.

Article 13. Except as otherwise herein provided, no person, including government instrumentalities
or government-owned or controlled corporations, shall appropriate water without a water right,
which shall be evidenced by a document known as a water permit.
NOTE: Water right is the privilege granted by the government to appropriate use of water.

Article 14. Subject to the provisions of this Code concerning the control, protection, conservation, and
regulation of the appropriation and use of waters, any person may appropriate or use natural bodies of
water without securing a water permit for any of the following:
a. Appropriation of water by means of hand carried receptacles;and
b. Bathing or washing, watering or dipping of domestic or farm animals, and
navigation of watercrafts or transportation of logs and other objects byflotation.

Article 15. Only citizens of the Philippines, of legal age, as well as juridical persons, who are duly
qualified by law to exploit and develop water resources, may apply for water permits.

Article 16. Any person who desires to obtain a water permit shall file an application with the Council
who shall make known said application to the public for any protests.
NOTE: In determining whether to grant or deny an application, the Council shall consider the following: protests filed, if
any; prior permits granted; the availability of water; the water supply need for beneficial use; possible adverse effects; land-
use economics; and other relevant factors. Upon approval of an application, a water permit shall be issued and recorded.

Article 17. The right to the use of water is deemed acquired as of the date of filing of the application
for a water permit in case of approved permits, or as of the date of actual use in a case where no permit
is required.

Article 18. All water permits granted shall be subject to conditions of beneficial use, adequate
standards of design and construction, and such other terms and conditions as may be imposed by the
Council.
NOTE: Such permits shall specify the maximum amount of water which may be diverted or withdrawn, the maximum rate
diversion or withdrawal, the time or times during the year when water may be diverted or withdrawn, the points or points of
diversion or location of wells, the place of use, the purposes for which water may be used and such other requirements the
Council deems desirable.

Article 19. Water rights may be leaded or transferred in whole or in part to another person with prior
approval of the Council, after due notice and hearing.

Article 20. The measure and limit of appropriation of water shall be beneficial use.
NOTE: Beneficial use of water is the utilization of water in the right amount during the period that the water is needed for
producing the benefits for which the water is appropriated.

Article 21. Standards of beneficial use shall be prescribed by the council for the appropriator of water
for different purposes and conditions, and the use of waters which are appropriated shall be measured
and controlled in accordance therewith.
NOTE: Excepting those for domestic use, every appropriator of water shall maintain water control and measuring devices,
and keep records or water withdrawal. When required by the council, all appropriators of water shall furnish information on
water use.
 Article 22. Between two or more appropriation of water from the same sources of supply, priority in
time of appropriation shall give the better right, except that in times of emergency the use of water for
domestic and municipal purposes shall have a better right over all other uses; provided, that where
water shortage is recurrent and the appropriator for municipal use has a lower priority in time of
appropriation, then it shall be his duty to find an alternative source of supply in accordance with
conditions prescribed by theCouncil.

Article 23. Priorities may be altered on grounds of greater beneficial use, multi-purpose use, and other
similar grounds after due notice and hearing, subject to payment of compensation is proper cases.

Article 24. A water right shall be exercised in such a manner that rights of third persons or of other
appropriators are not prejudiced thereby.

Article 25. A holder of a water permit may demand the establishment of easements necessary for the
construction and maintenance of the works and facilities needed for the beneficial use of the waters
to be appropriated subject to the requirements of just compensation and to the following conditions:
a. That he is the owner, lessee, mortgage or one having real right over the land upon
which he purposes to use water;and
b. That the proposed easement is the most convenient and the least onerous to the
servientestate
NOTE: Easement relating to the appropriation and use of waters may be modified by agreement of the contracting parties
provided the same is not contrary to law or prejudicial to third persons.

Article 26. Where water shortage is recurrent, the use of the water pursuant to a permit may, in the
interest of equitable distribution of benefits among legal appropriators, be reduced after due notice
and hearing.

Article 27. Water users shall bear the diminution of any water supply due to natural causes or force
majeure.

Article 28. Water permits shall continue to be valid as long as water is beneficially used; however, it
may be suspended on the grounds of non-compliance with approved plans and specifications or
schedules of water distribution; use of water for a purpose other than that for which it was granted;
non-payment of water charges, wastage; failure to keep records of water diversion, when required; and
violation of any term or condition of any permit or of rules and regulations promulgated by the
Council.
NOTE: Temporary permits may be issued for the appropriation and use of water for short periods under special circumstances.

Article 29. Water permits may be revoked after due notice and hearing on grounds of non-use; gross
violation of the conditions imposed in the permit; unauthorized sale of water; willful failure or
refusal to comply with rules and regulations or any lawful order; pollution, public nuisance or acts
detrimental to public health and safety; when the appropriator is found to be disqualified under the
law to exploit and develop natural resources of the Philippines; when, in the case of irrigation, the
land is converted to non- agricultural purposes; and other similar grounds.

Article 30. All water permits are subject to modification or cancellation by the Council, after due
notice and hearing, in favor of a project of greater beneficial use or for multipurpose development,
and a water permittee who suffers thereby shall be duly compensated by the entity or person in
whose favor the cancellation was made.
 CHAPTER IV
UTILIZATION OF WATERS

Article 31. Preference in the development of water resources shall consider security of the State,
multiple use, beneficial effects, adverse effects and cost of development.

Article 32. The utilization of subterranean or ground water shall be coordinated with that of surface
waters such as rivers, streams, springs and lakes, so that a superior right in one is not adversely
affected by an inferior right in the other.
(For this purpose the council shall promulgate rules and regulations and declare the existence of control areas
for the coordinated development, protection, and utilization of subterranean or ground water and surface
waters.)
NOTE: Control area is an area of land where subterranean or ground water and surface water are so interrelated that
withdrawal and use in one similarly affects the other. The boundary of a control area may be altered from time to time, as
circumstances warrant.

Article 33. Water contained in open canals, aqueducts or reservoirs of private persons may be used
by any person for domestic purpose or for watering plants as long as the water withdrawn by manual
methods without checking the stream or damaging the canal, aqueduct or reservoir; provided, that
this right may be restricted by the owner should it result in loss or injury to him.

Article 34. A water permittee or appropriator may use any watercourse to convey water to another
point in the watercourse for the purpose stated in a permit and such water may be diverted or
recaptured at that point by said permittee in the same amount less allowance for normal losses in
transit.

Article 35. Works for the storage, diversion, distribution and utilization of water resources shall
contain adequate provision for the prevention and control of diseases that may be induced or spread
by such works when required by the Council.

Article 36. When the reuse of waste water is feasible, it shall limited as much as possible, to such uses
other than direction human consumption. No person or agency shall distribute such water for public.
consumption until it is demonstrated that such consumption will not adversely affect the health and safety
of the public.

Article 37. In the construction and operation of hydraulic works, due consideration shall be given to
the preservation of scenic places and historical relics and, in addition to the provisions of existing
laws, no required the destruction or removal of such places or relics shall be undertaken without
showing that the destruction or removal is necessary and unavoidable.

Article 38. Authority for the construction of dams, bridges and other structures across of which may
interfere with the flow of navigable or floatable waterways shall first be secured from the
Department ofPublic Works, Transportation and Communications.

Article 39. Except in cases of emergency to save life or property, the construction or repair of the
following works shall be undertaken only after the plans and specifications therefore, as may be
required by the Council, are approved by the proper government agency; dams for the diversion or
storage of water; structures for the use of water power; installations for the utilization of
subterranean or ground water and other structures for utilization of water resources.
Article 40. No excavation for the purpose of emission of a hot spring or for the enlargement of the
existing opening thereof shall be made without prior permit.
NOTE: Any person or agency who intends to develop a hot spring for human consumption must first obtain a permit from the
Department of Health.

Article 41. No person shall develop a stream, lake, or spring for recreational purposes without first
securing a permit from the Council.

Article 42. Unless-otherwise ordered by the President of the Philippines and only in times of national
calamity or emergency, no person shall induce or restrain rainfall by any method such as cloud
seeding without a permit from the proper government agency.

Article 43. No person shall raise or lower the water level of a river stream, lake, lagoon or marsh nor
drain the same without a permit.

Article 44. Drainage systems shall be so constructed that their outlets are rivers, lakes, the sea,
natural bodies of water, such other water course as any be approved by the proper government
agency.

Article 45. When a drainage channel is constructed by a number of persons for their common benefit,
the cost of construction and maintenance of the channel be borne by each in proportion to the benefits
drived.

Article 46. When artificial means are employed to drain water from higher to lower land, the owner of
the higher land shall select the routes and methods of drainage that will cause the minimum damage to
the lower lands, subject to the requirements of just compensation.

Article 47. When the use, conveyance or storage of water results in damage to another, the person
responsible for the damage shall pay compensation.

Article 48. When a water resources project interferes with the access of landowner to a portion of his
property or with the conveyance of irrigation or drainage water, the person or agency constructing
the project shall bear the cost of construction and maintenance of the bridges, flumes and other
structures necessary for maintaining access, irrigation, or drainage in addition to paying
compensation for land and incidental damages.

Article 49. Any person having an easement for an aqueduct may enter upon the servient land for the
purpose of cleaning, repairing or replacing the aqueduct or the removal of obstructions there from.

Article 50. Lower estates are obliged to receive the waters which naturally and without the
intervention of man flow from the higher estates, as well as the stone or earth which they carry with
them.
NOTE: The owner of the lower estate cannot construct works which will impede this natural flow, unless he provides
an alternative method of drainage; neither can the owner of the higher estate make works which will increase this
natural flow.

Article 51. The banks or rivers and streams and the shores of the seas and lakes throughout their
entire length and within a zone of three (3) meters in urban areas, twenty (20) meters in
agricultural areas and forty (40) meters in forest areas, along their margins, are subject to the
easement of public use in the interest of recreation, navigation, flotage, fishing and salvage. No
person shall be allowed to stay in thiszone longer than what is necessary for recreation,
navigation, flotage, fishing or salvage or to build structures of any kind.
Article 52. The establishment, extent, form, and conditions of easements of water not expressly
determined by the provisions of this Code shall governed by the provisions of the Civil Code.

CHAPTER V
CONTROL OF WATERS

Article 53. To promote the best interest and the coordinated protection of flood plain lands, the
Secretaryof Public Works, Transportation and Communications may declare flood control areas and
promulgate guidelines for governing flood plain management plans in these areas.

Article 54. In declared flood control areas, rules and regulations may be promulgated to prohibit or
control activities that may damage or cause deterioration of lakes and dikes, obstruct the flow of
water, change the natural flow of the river, increase flood losses or aggravate flood problems.

Article 55. The government may construct necessary flood control structures in declared flood
control areas, and for this purpose it shall have a legal easement as wide as may be needed along and
adjacent to the river bank and outside the bed or channel of the river.

Article 56. River beds, sand bars and tidal flats may not be cultivated except upon prior permission
from the Secretary of the Department of Public works, Transportation and Communication and such
permission shall not be granted where such cultivation obstructs the flow of water or increase flood
levels so as to cause damage to other areas.

Article 57. Any person may erect levees or revetments to protect his property from flood,
encroachment by the river or change in the course of the river, provided that such constructions
does not cause damage to the property of another.

Article 58. When a river or stream suddenly changes its course to traverse private lands, the owners of
the affected lands may not compel the government to restore the river to its former bed; nor can they
restrain the government from taking steps to revert the river or stream to its former course. The
owners of the lands thus affected are not entitled to compensation for any damage sustained thereby.
However, the former owners of the new bed shall be the owners of the abandoned bed proportion to
the area lost by each.
NOTE: The owners of the affected lands may undertake to return the river or stream to its old bed at their own expense;
provided, that a permit therefore is secured from the Secretary of Public Works, Transportation and Communication and
work pertaining thereto are commenced within two years from the change in the course of the river or stream.
Article 59. Rivers, lakes and lagoons may, upon the recommendation of the Philippines Coast
Guard, be declared navigable either in whole or in part.

Article 60. The rafting of logs and other objects on rivers and lakes which are floatable may be
controlled or prohibited during designated season of the year with due regard to the needs of irrigation
and domestic water supply and other uses of water.

Article 61. The impounding of water in ponds or reservoirs may be prohibited by the Council
upon consultation with the Department of Health if it is dangerous to public health, or it may order
that such pond or reservoirs be drained if such is necessary for the protection of public health.

Article 62. Waters of a stream may be stored in a reservoir by a permittee in such amount as will not
prejudice the right of any permittee downstream. Whoever operates the reservoir shall, when
required, release water for minimum stream flow.
NOTE: All reservoir operations shall be subject to rules and regulations issued by the Council or any proper government
agency.

Article 63. The operator of a dam for the storage of water may be required to employ an engineer
possessing qualifications prescribed for the proper operations, maintenance and administration of the
dam.
Article 64. The Council shall approve the manner, location, depth, and spacing in which borings for
subterranean or ground water may be made, determine the requirements for the registration of every
boring or alteration to existing borings as well as other control measures for the exploitation of
subterranean or ground water resources, and in coordination with the Professional
RegulationCommission prescribe the qualifications of those who would drill such borings.
NOTE: No person shall drill a well without prior permission from the Council.

Article 65. Water from one river basin may be transferred to another river basin only with approval of
the Council. In considering any request for such transfer, the Council shall take into account the full
costs of the transfer; the benefits that would accrue to the basin of origin without the transfer, the
benefits would accrue to the receiving basin on account of the transfer, alternative schemes for
supplying water to the receiving basin, and other relevant factors.

CHAPTER VI
CONSERVATION AND PROTECTION OF WATERS
AND WATERSHEDS AND RELATED LAND
RESOURCES

Article 66. After due notice and hearing when warranted by circumstances, minimum stream flows
for rivers and streams and minimum water levels for lakes may be established by the Council under
such conditions as may be necessary for the protection of the environment, control of pollution,
navigation, prevention of salt damage, and general public use.

Article 67. Any watershed or any area of land adjacent to any surface water or overlying any ground
water may be declared by the Department of Natural Resources (DENR) as protected area. Rules and
regulations may be promulgated by such Department to prohibit or control such activities by the
owners or occupants thereof within the protected area which may damage or cause the deterioration
of the surface water or ground water or interfere with the investigation, use, control, protection,
management or administration of suchwaters.

Article 68. It shall be the duty of any person in control of a well to prevent the water from flowing
on the surface of the land, or into any surface water, or any porous stratum underneath the surface
without being beneficially used.

Article 69. It shall be the duty of any person in control of well containing water with minerals or
other substances injurious to man, animals, agriculture, and vegetation to prevent such waters from
flowing on the surface of the land or into any surface water or into any other aquifer or porous
stratum.

Article 70. No person shall utilize an existing well or pond or spread waters for recharging
subterranean or ground water supplies without prior permission of the Council.

Article 71. To promote better water conservation and usage for irrigation purposes, the merger of
irrigation associations and the appropriation of waters by associations instead of by individuals shall
be encouraged.
NOTE: No water permit shall be granted to an individual when his water requirement can be supplied through an irrigation
association.
Article 72. In the consideration of a proposed water resource project, due regard shall be given to
ecological changes resulting from the construction of the project in order to balance the needs of
development and the protection of the environment.

Article 73. The conservation of fish and wild life shall receive proper consideration ad shall be
coordinated with other features of water resources development programs to insure that fish and
wildlife values receive equal attention with other project purposes.

Article 74. Swamps and marshes which are owned by the State and which have a primary value for
waterfowl propagation or other wildlife purposes may be reserved and protected from drainage
operation and development.

Article 75. No person shall, without prior permission from the National Pollution Control
Commission(now EMB), build any works that may produce dangerous or noxious substances or perform
any actwhich may result in the introduction of sewage, industrial waste, or any pollutant into any source
of water supply.
NOTE: Water pollution is the impairment of the quality of water beyond a certain standard. This standard may vary
according to the use of the water and shall be set by the (National Pollution Control Commission) EMB.

Article 76. The establishment of cemeteries and waste disposal areas that may affect the source of a
water supply or a reservoir for domestic or municipal use shall be subject to the rules and regulations
promulgated by the Department of Health.

Article 77. Tailings from mining operations and sediments from placer mining shall not be dumped
into rivers and waterways without prior permission from the Council upon recommendation by the
NationalPollution Control Commission (now EMB).

Article 78. The application of agriculture fertilizers and pesticides may be prohibited or regulated
by the National Pollution Control Commission in areas where such application may cause pollution
of a source of water supply.

CHAPTER VII
ADMINISTRATION OF WATERS AND
ENFORCEMENT OF THE PROVISIONS OF THIS
CODE

Article 79. The Administration and enforcement of the provisions of this Code, including the
granting of permits and the imposition of penalties for administrative violations hereof, are hereby
vested in the Council, and except in regard to those functions which under this Code are specifically
conferred upon other agencies of the government, the Council is hereby empowered to make all
decisions and determinations provided for in this Code.

Article 80. The Council may deputize any official or agency of the government to perform any of its
specific functions or activities.

Article 81. The Council shall provide a continuing program for data collection, research and manpower
development need for the appropriation, utilization, exploitation, conservation, and protection of the
water resources of the country.
Article 82. In the implementation of the provisions of this code, the Council shall promulgate the
necessary rules and regulations which may provide for penalties consisting of a fine not exceeding
Onethousand Pesos (Php1,000.00) and/or suspension or revocation of the water permit or other right
to the use of water. Violations of such rules and regulations may be administratively dealt with by the
Council. (Such rules and regulations shall take effect fifteen (15) days after publication in newspapers of
general circulation.)
NOTE: Rules and regulations prescribed by any government agency that pertain to the utilization, exploitation,
development, control, conservation, or protection of water resources shall, if the council so requires, be subject to its
approval.

Article 83. The Council is hereby authorized to impose and collect reasonable fees or charges for water
resources development from water appropriators, except when it is for purely domestic purpose.

Article 84. The Council and other agencies authorized to enforce this Code are empowered to enter
upon private lands, with previous notice to the owner, for the purpose of conducting surveys and
hydrologic investigations, and to perform such other acts as are necessary in carrying out their
functions including the power to exercise the right of eminent domain.

Article 85. No program or project involving the appropriation, utilization, exploitation, development,
control, conservation, or protection of water resources may be undertaken without prior approval of
the Council, except those which the council may, in its discretion, exempt.
NOTE: The Council may require consultation with the public prior to the implementation of certain water resources
development projects.

Article 86. When plans and specifications of a hydraulic structure are submitted for approval, the
government agency whose functions embrace the type of project for which the structure is intended,
shall review the plans and specifications and recommend to the Council proper action thereon and the
latter shall approve the same only when they are in conformity with the requirements of this Code and
the rules and regulations promulgated by the Council. Notwithstanding such approval, neither the
engineer who drew up the plans and specifications of the hydraulic structure, nor the constructor who
built it, shall be relieved of his liability for damages in case of failure thereof by reason of defect in
plans and specifications, or failure due to defect in plan construction, within ten (10) years from the
completion of the structure.
NOTE: Any action recover such damages must be brought within five (5) years following such failure.
Article 87. The Council or its duly authorized representatives, in the exercise of its power to
investigate and decide cases brought to its cognizance, shall have the power to administer oaths,
compel the attendance of witnesses be subpoena and the production of relevant documents by
subpoena duces tecum.
NOTE: Non-compliance or violation of such orders or subpoena and subpoena duces tecum shall be punished in the same
manner as indirect contempt of an inferior court upon application by the aggrieved party with the proper Court of First
Instance in accordance with the provisions of Rule 71 of the Rules of Court.
Article 88. The Council shall have original jurisdiction over all disputes relating to appropriation,
utilization, exploitation, development, control, conservation and protection of waters within the
meaning and context of the provisions of this Code.
NOTE: The decisions of the Council on water rights controversies shall be immediately executory and the enforcement
thereof may be suspended only then a bond, in a amount fixed by the Council to answer for damages occasioned by the
suspension or stay of execution, shall have been filed by the appealing party, unless the suspension is by virtue of an order of
a competent court. All disputes shall be decided within sixty (60) days after the parties submit the same for decision or
resolution. The Council shall have the power to issue writs of execution and enforce its decisions with the assistance of local
or national police agencies.
Article 89. The decisions of the Council on water rights controversies may be appealed to the
Court ofFirst Instanceof the province where the subject matter of the controversy is situated within
fifteen (15) days from the date the party appealing receives a copy of the decision, of any of the
following grounds:
(1) grave abuse of discretion; (2) question of law; (3) questions of fact andlaw.
CHAPTER VIII
PENAL
PROVISIONS
Article 90. The following acts shall be penalized by suspension or revocation of the violator's water
permit or other right to the use of water and/or a fine of not exceeding One thousand Pesos
(Php1,000.00), in the discretion of the council:
a. Appropriation of subterranean or ground water for domestic use by an overlying
landowner without registration required by theCouncil;
b. Non-observance of any standard of beneficial use ofwater.
c. Failure of the appropriator to keep a record of water withdrawal whenrequired.
d. Failure to comply with any of the terms or conditions in a water permit or a water rightsgrant.
e. Unauthorized use of water for a purpose other than that for which a right or permit wasgranted.
f. Construction or repair of any hydraulic work or structure without duly approved plans
and specifications, when required.
g. Failure to install a regulating and measuring device for the control volume of
waterappropriated, whenrequired.
h. Unauthorized sale, lease, or transfer of water and/or waterrights.
i. Failure to provide adequate facilities to prevent or control diseases when required by
theCouncil in the construction of any work for the storage, diversion, distribution and
utilization ofwater.
j. Drilling of a well without permission of theCouncil.
k. Utilization of an existing well or ponding or spreading of water for recharging
subterranean or ground water supplies without permission of theCouncil.
l. Violation of or non-compliance with any order, rules and regulation of theCouncil. Illegal taking
or diversion of water in an open canal, aqueduct orreservoir.
m. Malicious destruction of hydraulic works or structures valued at not exceeding
Php5,000.00. Article 91. A. A fine of not exceeding Three Thousand Pesos (Php3,000.00) or
imprisonment for not more than three (3) years, or both such fine and imprisonment, in the
discretion of the Court, shall be imposed upon any person who commits any of the
followingacts:
1. Appropriation of water without a water permit, unless such person is expressly exempted
from securing a permit by the provisions of thisCode;
2. Unauthorized obstruction of an irrigationcanal.
3. Cultivation of river bed, sand bar or tidal flat withoutpermission.
4. Malicious destruction of hydraulic works or structure valued at not exceeding Twenty-
Five Thousand Pesos (Php25,000.00)
B. A fine exceeding Three Thousand Pesos (Php3,000.00) but not more than Six Thousand Pesos
(Php6,000.00) or imprisonment exceeding three years (3) years but not more than (6) yearsor both
such fine and imprisonment in the discretion of the Court, shall be imposed on any person who
commits any of the followingacts:
1. Distribution for public consumption of water which adversely affects the health and safety of
the public.
2. Excavation or enlargement of the opening of a hot spring withoutpermission.
3. Unauthorized obstruction of a river or waterway, or occupancy of a river bank or
 seashore withoutpermission.
4. Establishment of a cemetery or a waste disposal area near a source of water supply or
reservoir for domestic or municipal use withoutpermission.
5. Constructing, without prior permission of the government agency concerned, works that
produce dangerous or noxious substances, or performing acts that result in the introduction
of sewage, industrial waste, or any substance that pollutes a source of watersupply.
6. Dumping mine tailings and sediments into rivers or waterways withoutpermission.
7. Malicious destruction of hydraulic works or structure valued more than Twenty-five
Thousand (Php25,000.00) but not exceeding One Hundred Thousand
Pesos(Php100,000.00)
C. A fine exceeding Six Thousand Pesos (Php6,000.00) but not more than ten Thousand Pesos
(Php10,000.00) or imprisonment exceeding six (6) years but not more than twelve (12) years, or
both such fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the Court, shall be imposed upon any
person who commits any of the followingacts:
1. Misrepresentation of citizenship in order to qualify for waterpermit.
2. Malicious destruction of a hydraulic works or structure, valued at more than One
Hundred Thousand Pesos(Php100,000.00).

Article 92. If the offense is committed by a corporation, trust, firm, partnership, association or any
other juridical person, the penalty shall be imposed upon the President, General Manager, and other
guilty officer or officers of such corporation, trust, firm, partnership, association or entity, without
prejudice to the filing of a civil action against said juridical person. If the offender is an alien, he
shall be deported after serving his sentence, without further proceedings.
NOTE: After final judgment of conviction, the Court upon petition of the prosecution attorney in the same proceedings,
and after due hearing, may when the public interest so requires, order the suspension of or dissolution of such corporation,
trust, firm, partnership association or juridical person.

Article 93. All actions for offenses punishable under Article 91 of this code shall be brought before the
proper court.
Article 94. Actions for offenses punishable under this Code by a fine of not more than
Three Thousand (Php3,000.00) or by an imprisonment of not more than three (3) years, or both such
fine and imprisonment, shall prescribed in five (5) years; those punishable by a fine exceeding
ThreeThousand Pesos (Php3,000.00) but not more than six thousand Pesos (Php6,000.00) or an
imprisonmentexceeding three (3) years but not more than six years (6) yearsor both such fine and
imprisonment,shall prescribe in seven (7) years; and those punishable by a fine exceeding Six
Thousand Pesos (P6,000.00)but not more than Ten Thousand Pesos(P10,000.00) or an imprisonment
exceeding Six (6) years but notmore than Twelve (12) years, or both such fine and imprisonment,
shall prescribe in ten (10) years.

CHAPTER IX TRANSITORY AND FINAL

PROVISIONS

Article 95. Within two (2) years from the promulgation of this Code, all claims for a right to use
water existing on or before December 31, 1974 shall be registered with the Council which shall be
confirm said rights in accordance with the provisions of this Code, and shall set their respective
priorities. When priority in time of appropriation from a certain source of supply cannot be
determined, the order of preference in the use of the waters shall be as follows:
a. Domestic and municipaluse
b. Irrigation
c. Powergeneration
d. Fisheries
 e. Livestockraising
f. Industrial useand;
g. Otheruses
NOTE: Any claim not registered within said period shall be considered waived and the use of the water deemed abandoned,
and the water shall thereupon be available for disposition as inappropriate waters in accordance with the provisions of this
code.

Article 96. No vested or acquired right to the use of water can arise from acts or omissions which are
against the law or which infringe upon the rights of others.

Article 97. Acts and contracts under the regime of old laws, if they are valid in accordance therewith,
shall be respected, subject to the limitations established in this Code. Any modification or extension
of these acts and contracts after the promulgation of this code, shall be subject to the provisions
hereof.

Article 98. Interim rules and regulations promulgated by the Council shall continue to have binding
force and effect, when not in conflict with the provisions of this Code.

Article 99. If any provision or part of this Code, or the application thereof to any person or
circumstance, is declared unconstitutional or invalid for any reason, the other provisions or parts
therein shall not be affected.

Article 100. The following laws, parts and/or provisions of laws are hereby repealed:
a. The provisions of the Spanish Law of Waters of August 3, 1866, the Civil Code of Spain of
1889 and the Civil Code of the Philippines (R.A. 386)on ownership of waters, easement
relating to waters, use of public waters and acquisitive prescription on the use of waters,
which are inconsistent with the provision of theCode;
b. The provisions of R. A. 6395, otherwise known as the Revised Charter of the National
Power Corporation, particularly section 3, paragraph (f ), and section 12, so far as they
relate to the appropriation of waters and the grantthereof;
c. The provisions of Act. No. 2152 as amended, otherwise known as the Irrigation Act,
section 3, paragraphs (k) and (m) of P.D. No. 813, R. A. 2056; Section 90, C. A 137;and,
d. All Decrees, Laws, Acts, parts of Acts, rules of Court, executive orders, and
administrative regulations which are contrary to or inconsistent with the revisions of
thisCode.

Article 101. This Code shall take effect upon its promulgation.