Theorem
Ex. In a group (G, *) , Prove that the identity element is
unique.
Proof :
a) Let e1 and e2 are two identity elements in G.
Now, e1 * e2 = e1 …(1) (since e2 is the identity)
Again, e1 * e2 = e2 …(2) (since e1 is the identity)
From (1) and (2), we have e 1 = e2
Identity element in a group is unique.
Theorem
Ex. In a group (G, *) , Prove that the inverse of any element is
unique.
Proof:
Let a ,b,c G and e is the identity in G.
Let us suppose, Both b and c are inverse elements of a .
Now, a * b = e …(1) (Since, b is inverse of a )
Again, a * c = e …(2) (Since, c is also inverse of a )
From (1) and (2), we have
a*b=a*c
b = c (By left cancellation law)
In a group, the inverse of any element is unique.
Theorem
Ex. In a group (G, *) , Prove that
(a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1 for all a,b G.
Proof :
Consider,
(a * b) * ( b-1 * a-1)
= (a * ( b * b-1 ) * a-1) (By associative property).
= (a * e * a-1) ( By inverse property)
= ( a * a-1) ( Since, e is identity)
= e ( By inverse property)
Similarly, we can show that
(b-1 * a-1) * (a * b) = e
Hence, (a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1 .
Ex. If (G, *) is a group and a G such that a * a = a ,
then show that a = e , where e is identity element in G.
Proof: Given that, a * a = a
a * a = a * e ( Since, e is identity in G)
a = e ( By left cancellation law)
Hence, the result follows.
Ex. If every element of a group is its own inverse, then show that
the group must be abelian .
Proof: Let (G, *) be a group.
Let a and b are any two elements of G.
Consider the identity,
(a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1
(a * b ) = b * a ( Since each element of G is its own
inverse)
Hence, G is abelian.
Note: a2 = a * a
a3 = a * a * a etc.
Ex. In a group (G, *), if (a * b)2 = a2 * b2 a,b G
then show that G is abelian group.
Proof: Given that (a * b)2 = a2 * b2
(a * b) * (a * b) = (a * a )* (b * b)
a *( b * a )* b = a * (a * b) * b ( By associative law)
( b * a )* b = (a * b) * b ( By left cancellation law)
( b * a ) = (a * b) ( By right cancellation law)
Hence, G is abelian group.
Finite groups
Ex. Show that G = {1, -1} is an abelian group under multiplication.
Solution: The composition table of G is
. 1 –1
1 1 –1
–1 –1 1
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are
the elements of the given set, the set G is closed under
multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are real numbers, and we know that
multiplication of real numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 G.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements
of
1 and – 1 are 1 and – 1 respectively.
Contd.,
Hence, G is a group w.r.t multiplication.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are
identical. Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.
Hence, G is an abelian group w.r.t. multiplication..
Ex. Show that G = {1, , 2} is an abelian group under multiplication.
Where 1, , 2 are cube roots of unity.
Solution: The composition table of G is
. 1 2
1 1 2
2 1
2 2 1
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the
elements of the given set, the set G is closed under multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are complex numbers, and we know that
multiplication of complex numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 G.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of
1 , 2 are 1, 2, respectively.
Contd.,
Hence, G is a group w.r.t multiplication.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table
are identical. Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.
Hence, G is an abelian group w.r.t. multiplication.
Ex. Show that G = {1, –1, i, –i } is an abelian group under multiplication.
Solution: The composition table of G is
. 1 –1 i -i
1 1 -1 i -i
-1 -1 1 -i i
i i -i -1 1
-i -i i 1 -1
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are
the elements of the given set, the set G is closed under
multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are complex numbers, and we know
that multiplication of complex numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 G.
Contd.,
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse
elements of
1 -1, i, -i are 1, -1, -i, i respectively.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table
are identical. Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.
Hence, (G, .) is an abelian group.
Modulo systems.
Addition modulo m ( +m )
let m is a positive integer. For any two positive integers a and b
a +m b = a + b if a + b < m
a +m b = r if a + b m where r is the remainder obtained
by dividing (a+b) with m.
Multiplication modulo p ( p )
let p is a positive integer. For any two positive integers a and b
a p b = a b if a b < p
a p b = r if a b p where r is the remainder obtained
by dividing (ab) with p.
Ex. 3 5 4 = 2 , 5 5 4 = 0 , 2 5 2 = 4
[Link] set G = {0,1,2,3,4,5} is a group with respect to addition modulo 6.
Solution: The composition table of G is
+6 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table
are the elements of the given set, the set G is closed under +6 .
Contd.,
2. Associativity: The binary operation +6 is associative in G.
for ex. (2 +6 3) +6 4 = 5 +6 4 = 3 and
2 +6 ( 3 +6 4 ) = 2 +6 1 = 3
3. Identity : Here, The first row of the table coincides with the top
row. The element heading that row , i.e., 0 is the identity element.
4. . Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse
elements of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. 5 are 0, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 respectively.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table
are identical. Therefore the binary operation +6 is commutative.
Hence, (G, +6 ) is an abelian group.
[Link] set G = {1,2,3,4,5,6} is a group with respect to multiplication
modulo 7.
Solution: The composition table of G is
7 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 4 6 1 3 5
3 3 6 2 5 1 4
4 4 1 5 2 6 3
5 5 3 1 6 4 2
6 6 5 4 3 2 1
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table
are the elements of the given set, the set G is closed under 7 .
Contd.,
2. Associativity: The binary operation 7 is associative in G.
for ex. (2 7 3) 7 4 = 6 7 4 = 3 and
2 7 ( 3 7 4 ) = 2 7 5 = 3
3. Identity : Here, The first row of the table coincides with the top
row. The element heading that row , i.e., 1 is the identity element.
4. . Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse
elements of 1, 2, 3, 4. 5 ,6 are 1, 4, 5, 2, 5, 6 respectively.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table
are identical. Therefore the binary operation 7 is commutative.
Hence, (G, 7 ) is an abelian group.
More on finite groups
In a group with 2 elements, each element is its own inverse
In a group of even order there will be at least one element (other
than identity element) which is its own inverse
The set G = {0,1,2,3,4,…..m-1} is a group with respect to addition
modulo m.
The set G = {1,2,3,4,….p-1} is a group with respect to multiplication
modulo p, where p is a prime number.
Order of an element of a group:
Let (G, *) be a group. Let ‘a’ be an element of G. The smallest
integer n such that an = e is called order of ‘a’. If no such number
exists then the order is infinite.
Examples
Ex. G = {1, -1, i, -i } is a group w.r.t multiplication. The order –i is
a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) 1
True/False
a) The order of every element of a finite group is finite and is a
divisor of the order of the group.
b) The order of an element of a group is same as that of its inverse.
c) In the additive group of integers the order of every element
except 0 is infinite
d) In the infinite multiplicative group of nonzero rational numbers
the order of every element except 1 is infinite.
Sub groups
Def. A non empty sub set H of a group (G, *) is a subgroup of G,
if (H, *) is a group.
Note: For any group {G, *}, {e, * } are trivial sub groups.
Ex. G = {1, -1, i, -i } is a group w.r.t multiplication.
H1 = { 1, -1 } is a subgroup of G .
H2 = { 1 } is a trivial subgroup of G.
Ex. ( Z , + ) and (Q , + ) are subgroups of the group (R +).
Theorem: A non empty subset H of a group (G, *) is a sub group of G
iff
i) a * b H a, b H
ii) a-1 H aH
Theorem
Theorem: A necessary and sufficient condition for a non empty
subset H of a group (G, *) to be a sub group is that
a H, b H a * b-1 H.
Proof: Case1: Let (G, *) be a group and H is a subgroup of G
Let a,b H b-1 H ( since H is is a group)
a * b-1 H. ( By closure property in H)
Case2: Let H be a non empty set of a group (G, *).
Let a * b-1 H a, b H
Now, a * a-1 H ( Taking b = a )
e H i.e., identity exists in H.
Now, e H, a H e * a-1 H
a-1 H
Contd.,
Each element of H has inverse in H.
Further, a H, b H a H, b-1 H
a * (b-1)-1 H.
a * b H.
H is closed w.r.t * .
Finally, Let a,b,c H
a,b,c G ( since H G )
(a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
* is associative in H
Hence, H is a subgroup of G.
Ex. Show that the intersection of two sub groups of a group G is again a
sub group of G.
Proof: Let (G, *) be a group.
Let H1 and H2 are two sub groups of G.
Let a , b H1 H2 .
Now, a , b H1 a * b-1 H1 ( Since, H1 is a subgroup of G)
again, a , b H2 a * b-1 H2 ( Since, H2 is a subgroup of G)
a * b-1 H1 H2 .
Hence, H1 H2 is a subgroup of G .
Ex. Show that the union of two sub groups of a group G need not be
a sub group of G.
Proof: Let G be an additive group of integers.
Let H1 = { 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, …..}
and H2 = { 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, …..}
Here, H1 and H2 are groups w.r.t addition.
Further, H1 and H2 are subsets of G.
H1 and H2 are sub groups of G.
H1 H2 = { 0, 2, 3, 4, 6, …..}
Here, H1 H2 is not closed w.r.t addition.
For ex. 2 , 3 G
But, 2 + 3 = 5 and 5 does not belongs to H1 H2 .
Hence, H1 H2 is not a sub group of G.
Homomorphism and Isomorphism.
Homomorphism : Consider the groups ( G, *) and ( G1, )
A function f : G G1 is called a homomorphism if
f ( a * b) = f(a) f (b)
Isomorphism : If a homomorphism f : G G1 is a bijection then f is
called isomorphism between G and G1 .
Then we write G G1
Example
Ex. Let R be a group of all real numbers under addition and R+ be a
group of all positive real numbers under multiplication. Show that
the mapping f : R R+ defined by f(x) = 2x for all x R is an
isomorphism.
Solution: First, let us show that f is a homomorphism.
Let a , b R .
Now, f(a+b) = 2a+b
= 2a 2b
= f(a).f(b)
f is an homomorphism.
Next, let us prove that f is a Bijection.
Contd.,
For any a , b R, Let, f(a) = f(b)
2a = 2 b
a = b
f is [Link]-one.
Next, take any c R+.
Then log2 c R and f (log2 c ) = 2 log2 c = c.
Every element in R+ has a pre image in R.
i.e., f is onto.
f is a bijection.
Hence, f is an isomorphism.
Example
Ex. Let R be a group of all real numbers under addition and R+ be a
group of all positive real numbers under multiplication. Show that
the mapping f : R+ R defined by f(x) = log10 x for all x R is
an isomorphism.
Solution: First, let us show that f is a homomorphism.
Let a , b R+ .
Now, f(a.b) = log10 (a.b)
= log10 a + log10 b
= f(a) + f(b)
f is an homomorphism.
Next, let us prove that f is a Bijection.
Contd.,
For any a , b R+ , Let, f(a) = f(b)
log10 a = log10 b
a = b
f is [Link]-one.
Next, take any c R.
Then 10c R and f (10c) = log10 10c = c.
Every element in R has a pre image in R+ .
i.e., f is onto.
f is a bijection.
Hence, f is an isomorphism.
Theorem
Theorem: Consider the groups ( G1, *) and ( G2, ) with identity
elements e1 and e2 respectively. If f : G1 G2 is a group
homomorphism, then prove that
a) f(e1) = e2
b) f(a-1) = [f(a)]-1
c) If H1 is a sub group of G1 and H2 = f(H1),
then H2 is a sub group of G2.
d) If f is an isomorphism from G1 onto G2,
then f –1 is an isomorphism from G2 onto G1.
Proof
Proof: a) we have in G2,
e2 f(e1) = f (e1) ( since, e2 is identity in G2)
= f (e1 * e1) ( since, e1 is identity in G1)
= f(e1) f(e1) ( since f is a homomorphism)
e2 = f(e1) ( By right cancellation law )
b) For any a G1, we have
f(a) f(a-1) = f (a * a-1) = f(e1) = e2
and f(a-1) f(a) = f (a-1 * a) = f(e1) = e2
f(a-1) is the inverse of f(a) in G2
i.e., [f(a)]-1 = f(a-1)
Contd.,
c) H2 = f (H1) is the image of H1 under f; this is a subset of G2.
Let x , y H2.
Then x = f(a) , y = f(b) for some a,b H1
Since, H1is a subgroup of G1, we have a * b-1 H1.
Consequently,
x y-1 = f(a) [f(b)]-1
= f(a) f(b-1)
= f (a * b-1) f(H1) = H2
Hence, H2 is a subgroup of G2.
Contd.,
d) Since f : G1 G2 is an isomorphism, f is a bijection.
f –1 : G2 G1 exists and is a bijection.
Let x, y G2. Then x y G2
and there exists a, b G1 such that x = f(a) and y = f(b).
f –1 (x y ) = f –1 (f(a) f(b) )
= f –1 (f (a* b ) )
= a*b
= f –1 (x) * f –1 (y)
This shows that f –1 : G2 G1 is an homomorphism as well.
f –1 is an isomorphism.
Cosets
If H is a sub group of( G, * ) and a G then the set
Ha = { h * a h H} is called a right coset of H in G.
Similarly aH = {a * h h H} is called a left coset of H in G.
Note:- 1) Any two left (right) cosets of H in G are either identical or
disjoint.
2) Let H be a sub group of G. Then the right cosets of H form a
partition of G. i.e., the union of all right cosets of a sub group H is
equal to G.
3) Lagrange’s theorem: The order of each sub group of a finite group
is a divisor of the order of the group.
4) The order of every element of a finite group is a divisor of the
order of the group.
5) The converse of the lagrange’s theorem need not be true.
Example
Ex. Prove that every sub group of an abelian group is abelian.
Solution: Let (G, * ) be a group and H is a sub group of G.
Let a , b H
a,bG ( Since H is a subgroup of G)
a * b = b * a ( Since G is an abelian group)
Hence, H is also abelian.
State and prove Lagrange’s Theorem
Lagrange’s theorem: The order of each sub group H of a finite
group G is a divisor of the order of the group.
Proof: Since G is finite group, H is finite.
Therefore, the number of cosets of H in G is finite.
Let Ha1,Ha2, …,Har be the distinct right cosets of H in G.
Then, G = Ha1Ha2 …, Har
So that O(G) = O(Ha1)+O(Ha2) …+ O(Har).
But, O(Ha1) = O(Ha2) = ….. = O(Har) = O(H)
O(G) = O(H)+O(H) …+ O(H). (r terms)
= r . O(H)
This shows that O(H) divides O(G).