CLIMATE AND WEATHER IN EAST AFRICA

Climate is the average weather condition of a given place recorded over a long period of time
usually 30 – 35 years.

East Africa experience different forms of climate which include;

1. Equatorial climate
2. Savannah or tropical climate
3. Montane climate
4. Modified equatorial
5. Semi or desert climate.
A sketch map of east Africa showing climatic regions

CHARACTERISTICS OF EQUATORIAL CLIMATE

1. Hot temperatures (over 200C) all year round

2. High humidity of over 80%
3. Heavy rainfall of over 1000mm
4. Rainfall received is bimodal/double maxima/two rainfall peaks with the first season heavier
than the second
5. Rainfall is received throughout the year/absence of a distinct dry season
6. There is thick cloud cover
7. There is a small diurnal temperature range (1-80C)
8. There is low pressure during the equinox (March & September) when the sun overhead the
equator
9. The length of day and night is almost equal throughout the year.
10. -The climate is almost hot and wet with a small annual temperature range

Economic activities carried out in equatorial climatic regions

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1. Lumbering due to forests which are source of timber
2. Crop growing due to reliable rainfall
3. Animal rearing due to plenty of pasture
4. Tourism because of forests which are habitants to eco system
5. Agro – processing industries due to presence of a variety of agro raw materials
6. Charcoal making from the forests
7. Transportation of agricultural produce to market centers
8. Trade and commerce of eh produce from agriculture, charcoal burning and processing
industries.
Characteristics of tropical climate

1. There is moderate rainfall of 500-1000mm

2. Rainfall is seasonal with one wet season
3. Hot temperatures throughout the year (210-300C)
4. There is a distinct dry season
5. High humidity during the wet season and low during the dry season
6. Clear skies in the dry season
7. It experiences mainly convectional rainfall
8. There is a moderate annual temperature range.
9. High humidity is received
10. Much rainfall is received near the equator and less towards the semi desert margins
Characteristics of semi desert climate

[Link] is low humidity of less than 25

[Link] is a limited cloud cover/clear sky/cloudless sky
[Link] is little rainfall between 250-500 mm per annum
[Link] is a large diurnal temperature range because of the low temperatures during the night
and hot temperatures during day
5. There is a prolonged dry season
6. It experiences dry winds
7. It experiences hot day time temperatures & cold night temperatures.
8. Atmospheric pressure is low
MONTANE CLIMATE

This is mostly located in mountain areas for example;

1. Kenya highlands
2. Rwenzori
3. Kilimanjaro among others.
Characteristics of montane climate

1. Temperature is very low due to high altitude

2. Low atmospheric pressure
3. High humidity levels
4. High rainfall of about 1000mm. this type of climate can exist in any climatic region provided
there is a mountain.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CLIMATE OF EAST AFRICA

1. Latitudes
East Africa lies astride the equator and hence hot temperatures because of the overhead sun. The
areas close to the equator experience rainfall throughout the year due to the hot temperatures
while the areas far away from the equator receive seasonal rainfall due to the apparent
movement of the sun north and south of the equator

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-the areas along the equator experience a double maxima rainfall due to the overhead position of
the sun (At the equinox)

2. Altitude (height of land)

The higher altitudes experience relatively cool temperatures because temperatures decrease with
increasing height (i.e. the higher one goes, the cooler it becomes). This partly explains the low
amounts of rainfall over most parts of the east African plateau while the lower altitudes
experience hot temperatures because temperatures increase with decreasing altitudes for
example the coastal areas of east Africa

3. Relief
Highland areas experience temperature inversion due to upward displacement of warm air from
valleys by cool air. The windward slope in the highland areas receive heavy rainfall due to
ascending winds.-The leeward slopes receive little or no rainfall due to descending winds while
the highland areas experience orographic /relief rainfall on the windward side due to the
condensation of the rising warm moist wind

4. Distance from the water body/continentality

Areas along the shores of water bodies receive heavy rainfall because of the influence of the moist
onshore winds (Sea/lake breeze).Areas far away from the water bodies receive little rainfall
because of the influence of the warm dry winds which have lost moisture along the coast. Water
bodies lower the temperatures of the adjacent areas because of the influence of sea/lake breezes
during the day while the south-east trade winds cause dry conditions in the central parts of
Tanzania, North-western Tanzania, Ankole-Masaka dry corridor and the Nyika plateau south-
eastern Kenya because they have lost moisture.

5. Winds
The south-east trade winds cause heavy rainfall along the coast of East Africa and the western
shores of Lake Victoria because they are warm and moist. The North-eastern trade winds cause
dry conditions over north-eastern Uganda, Northern and North-eastern Kenya due to having lost
moisture originate from dry land while the westerly winds bring heavy rainfall to parts of
western Uganda and west Nile because they pick moisture from the Atlantic Ocean and the
Congo basin.

6. Vegetation
Areas with thick vegetation cover experience heavy rainfall due to evapotranspiration. Areas
with thick vegetation cover experience cool temperatures due to the influence of the shade
provided by the foliage. Areas with scanty vegetation experience hot temperatures due to the
direct heating of the ground by the Sun’s insolation while Areas with scanty vegetation receive
little rainfall due to low humidity.

7. ocean currents
The warm Mozambique currents rises the temperatures of the adjacent coastal areas. The warm
Mozambique currents increases the rainfall conditions of the adjacent coastal areas through
moisture transported from the ocean

8. Aspect
The east facing slopes of the highlands of east Africa are warmer in the morning and cooler in the
evening while the west-facing slopes are cooler in the morning and warmer in the evening due to
the inclination of the sun’s rays/insolation over the land surface.

9. Human activities

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 a. Deforestation
b. Swamp reclamation/drainage
c. Afforestation
d. -Industrialization
e. -Bush burning
f. -Overgrazing etc
Effects of climate change

1. It leads to increased occurrence of floods/excessively heavy rainfall (el nino)

2. It leads to prolonged drought
3. It leads to rise in temperatures (Global warming)
4. It leads to occurrence of landslides in highland areas
5. It accelerates soil erosion
6. It leads to outbreak of diseases
7. It leads to destruction/extinction of wildlife
8. It leads to low crop yields
9. It leads to occurrence of famine
10. It lowers soil fertility
11. It leads to increased migration of people
12. It lowers water levels in lakes and rivers
13. It disrupts navigation
14. it reduces the potential for HEP generation
15. -It causes poor visibility
16. It leads to shortage of water ad pastures
17. it increases incidences of lightening

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CAUSES OF ARIDITY
Arid conditions in East Africa have been brought about by a number of factors.
The basic causes of aridity have been physical while human factors have
increased or contributed to further aridity in East Africa.
Physical causes of aridity
1. Prevalence of dry/desiccated winds.
Some areas in East Africa have been
influenced by dry winds for instance the N.E trade winds which emanate
from the Arabian Desert. Those winds pick some moisture as they blow
Southwards towards Africa however these winds tend to loose their
moisture in the Ethiopian highlands. Since they are dry they do not bring
in [Link] even absorb the little moisture that exists in the regions in
which they blow and even warm up such areas. This explains the dry
conditions experienced in Northern Kenya.
2. Limited water masses: Several areas in East Africa that experience
aridity such as Northern Kenya and Central Tanzania lack large water
bodies that could otherwise contribute to atmospheric moisture through
evaporation. This therefore results into limited atmospheric moisture in
such areas and therefore dry conditions result.
3. Highland relief causing the rain shadow effect on the leeward side of the highland. Relief has
contributed to aridity in East Africa because of the rain shadow effect produced on the leeward
side of mountains.
The prevailing winds that continue onto the leeward side from the
Windward side are desiccated or dry and do not bring in rainfall but
instead may even absorb the little moisture that may exist in the leeward
areas. Arid areas in East Africa that are due to the rain shadow effect
include Northern Kenya, the Masai steppe on the leeward side of the
Pare and Usambara mountains ranges in [Link] Tanzania. The western
rift valley zone area on the leeward side of the Rwenzori mountains.
In addition, the absence of highlands or mountains to trap high level winds
bearing moisture may also contribute to aridity, this is because winds
gather momentum and blow away to other areas.
4. Continentality: This refers to the remoteness from the sea. Areas far

from the Indian Ocean and whose climate is continental or affected by land conditions have tended
to suffer from aridity. Coastal areas are influenced by maritime conditions such as land and sea
breezes that lead to high rainfall. However, continental areas such as central and [Link]
Tanzania tend to be dry because of the long distance from the sea. ©

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5. Coastal configuration: this refers to the shape or alignment of the E. African coast. The coast
is aligned in a N.E or S.W direction. Due to this alignment winds from the N.E such as the N.E
trades tend to blow parallel to the coast especially along the Kenyan coast in a south westerly
direction and hardly blow inland. Therefore these moisture-laden winds which may not blow
inland deprive much of northern, central and southern parts of Kenya of rainfall. This therefore
partly explains the prevalence of arid conditions in these parts of Kenya.
6. Corriolis force effect: this is a drag force as a result of the earth’s rotation and has effect in that
any object moving in the northern hemisphere from the southern hemisphere is deflected to the
right.
This force accounts for the prevalence of arid conditions in the Ankole - Masaka corridor and
other parts to the [Link] of Lake Victoria. This is because when the S.E trade winds blowing
through Tanzania cross the Equator, they are deflected eastwards i.e. to the right leaving the North
Western parts of Lake Victoria without moist winds. This explains the semi-desert/arid conditions
experienced in the Ankole-Masaka corridor and the neighbouring areas.
7. Perturbation: This is a situation where low pressure conditions due to high temperatures are
created on the Indian Ocean and as a result air from the land or air that would have blown on shore
is instead redirected into this low pressure belt. Air will therefore blow from the land to the Indian
ocean thereby becoming offshore winds and as a result rain is formed in the Indian ocean while
parts of the East African mainland and including Northern Kenya are left dry.
Perturbation that may occur during certain seasons contributes to aridity and especially extended
drought in East Africa.
Human causes of aridity
These include mans’ environmentally unfriendly activities such as the following:
1. Deforestation: The removal of vegetation by man is a cause of aridity. This has been due to
mans’ activities in the clearance of forests and other forms of natural vegetation. The main
activities involved include cultivation, lumbering, industrialisation etc which have led to the
destruction of natural forests that contribute to atmospheric moisture.
Destruction of this source of atmospheric moisture results into aridity. Deforestation also
contributes to soil erosion, which in turn leads to poor plant growth consequently leading to poor
rates of transpiration thereby compounding the problem of aridity.

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2. Overstocking: The rearing of a big number of animals i.e. more than what the pastureland can
accommodate can lead to aridity. In case the carrying capacity of the land is exceeded, the
pastures are depleted very fast and the large number of animals trample the ground to create bare
patches of land and loosening the soils thereby promoting erosion. This results into poor
vegetation growth and low levels of transpiration and consequently leading to aridity.
3. Overgrazing: This may be as a result of continuous grazing by herbivorous animals without
leaving the land to rest. Overgrazing depletes the vegetation cover and may lead to low rainfall
because of limited transpiration.
4. Bush burning: This may also be responsible for aridity because it leads to the degeneration of
the grass and other plants and reduces transpiration. Traditional farmers normally burn grass with
the aim of ensuring growth of fresh pastures for the animals but this may have adverse effects on
the climate.
5. Reclamation of wetlands: Wetlands like swamps, swamp forests, grass swamps, marshlands,
dambos etc are major sources of atmospheric moisture through evapotranspiration and their
reclamation greatly reduces the process. In addition, the water table is lowered. In the final
analysis, humidity and rainfall are reduced and this leads to aridity. Reclamation in East Africa has
been due to the search for land, for cultivation, settlement as well as industrialisation.
6. Borehole drilling: The sinking of boreholes to provide underground water resources for
humans and animals may lead to the lowering of the water table. As the water table falls, plant
roots may fail to access the soil moisture and as a result the plants wither. This therefore reduces
the capacity of the natural vegetation to recharge the atmosphere with water vapour through
evapotranspiration and this may increase on the problems of aridity.
7. Industrialisation: Industrial development has also been a cause of aridity or desertification in
East Africa. Industrial plants or factories emit exhaust fumes or clouds of smoke containing
pollutants such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphurdioxide etc which tend to be green
house gases. Such gases are good absorbers of solar radiation thereby contributing to increase in
temperatures.
In addition, gases such as carbon dioxide and sulphurdioxide may dissolve in water leading to acid
rains. Acid rains lead to forest damage in that the plants loose their leaves, their growth stagnants
and may finally die. This in turn will also reduce on the ability of the natural vegetation to

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recharge the atmosphere with moisture through transpiration and hence aridity.
8. Mining: The extraction of minerals and more so through open cast method leads to the
destruction of surface vegetation meaning that the ability of the vegetation to contribute to the
atmospheric moisture is greatly reduced and thereby compounding the problem of aridity.
9. Poor methods of cultivation: Primitive or non-scientific methods of cultivation that expose
soils to erosion have also contributed to aridity. With erosion the ability of the soil to support plant
growth is reduced meaning that there would be poor vegetation and consequently low levels of
evapotranspiration. Such methods include shifting cultivation, cultivating up and down slope and
other forms of subsistence cultivation. In addition, the use of machinery such as tractor ploughs
that carry out deep cultivation tend to loosen soil particles making them prone to erosion.
10. Political conflicts/Wars: These may lead to destruction of vegetation through burning, cutting
down of trees, demolition of vegetation by armoured vehicles as well as emission of dangerous
chemicals and gases through explosives and bombs. Such explosives tend to harm the natural
vegetation. Consequently, transpiration is reduced and rainfall also reduces.
All these human environmentally unfriendly activities may result in reduced atmospheric moisture
and an increase in temperature. It is important to note that human causes of aridity increase desert
conditions. They are also, the causes of desertification. Otherwise the naturally existing desert
areas of East Africa are basically as a result of physical factors.

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DESERTIFICATION
This refers to the development of desert like conditions in an area and more so in a region adjacent
to a desert. It may be expressed as the advancement or extension of the desert. Desertification has
been commonly experienced in the Sahel region of Africa. In East Africa desert like conditions
have been experienced or developed in parts of Northern Kenya, Central and Northern Tanzania,
[Link] Uganda and the Ankole-Masaka corridor and parts of Western Uganda adjacent to Lake
Albert, Lake George, Albert Nile and within the East African rift valley.
Indicators of desertification
1. Decreasing rainfall amounts.
2. Rainfall becomes more unreliable i.e. more recurring cycles of drought start being experienced.
3. Increasing temperatures i.e. temperatures tend to rise.
4. Reducing relative humidity i.e. the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere reduces.
5. Increasing diurnal range of temperature.
6. Reducing thickness of cloud cover i.e. the skies tend to become clearer and clearer with each
passing year.
7. There is loss of water retention capacity of the vegetation and soils i.e. there are increasing
evapotranspiration rates.
8. Reduced bio-diversity i.e. there is degradation of the biological productivity of the land i.e.
reduced plant and animal species.
9. Increasing wind and run off erosion hence consequently resulting into reduced soil fertility.

Causes of desertification
Desertification is basically caused by environmentally unfriendly human activities. However to a
small extent it may be brought about by naturally existing conditions in the atmosphere that may
lead to cycles of drought. Such atmospheric systems that result into cyclic changes or occurances
in the atmosphere have compounded the problem of desertification.
Human activities that have contributed to desertification in East Africa in general include the
following:
1. Deforestation.
2. Overgrazing.
3. Overstocking.
4. Bush burning.
5. Reclamation of wetlands.
6. Borehole drilling.
7. Industrial activity.

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8. Mining/Quarrying.
9. Poor methods of cultivation.
10. Political conflicts/wars.

Problems of desertification
Desertification is associated with a number of negative effects and therefore it is undesirable. This
is because of the following:
1. It may lead to crop failure or low crop yields hence leading to famine and human suffering. In
sub – Saharan Africa it has been a major cause of famine. This is because of the prolonged dry
seasons and recurring droughts which lead to crop failure and consequently food shortages
resulting into human suffering and death due to hunger, starvation and disease.
2. The resultant decreasing rains may prompt irrigation. Consequently this may lead to salination
of the soils, which is also a form of soil degradation.
3. The high or increasing temperatures are unconducive for human settlement as well as human
activities such as cultivation.
4. The degradation or deterioration of the natural vegetation may cause a decrease in forestry
products and a reduction in the ability of the natural vegetation to protect the environment.
5. It encourages soil erosion and creates conducive conditions not only for run off water erosion
but also wind erosion.
6. It may lead to the encroachment of sand dunes due to wind erosion and such sand dunes are
normally unsuitable for human activities such as cultivation.
7. It may result into the disappearance of some drainage features such as small streams and
wetlands due to excessive evaporation and yet these drainage features play important roles i.e.
both protective and productive roles.
8. Leads to the destruction of the natural habitat for wildlife and hence reduced biodiversity. This
is because desertification leads to a change in the physical environment such as reduced vegetation
cover, increased temperatures and reduced wetlands. It also destroys the natural habitat for a
variety of wildlife.

Measures to combat desertification

In East Africa and other parts of Africa, the number of steps has been taken to combat
desertification or reverse the trend of desertification. These include;
1. Legislation against environmental degradation. Laws have been passed against the
destruction of the environment such as wetland reclamation. Most of such vulnerable areas have
been gazetted as nature reserves or conservation sites.

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2. Afforestation: this has involved the campaign to plant trees in order to arrest the effects of
desertification. Tree planting campaigns have been conducted by the government, NGO’s,
environmental/wildlife clubs as well as individuals.
3. Reafforestation: i.e. re-planting of trees where trees have been cut or where deforestation has
taken place e.g. Mabira forest, Kibaale forest etc.
4. Introduction and practice of improved methods of cultivation i.e. methods that do not harm
the environment. This has been mainly through protecting agricultural land by adopting practices
that conserve soils e.g. mulching, crop rotation, gully prevention measures, application of manure
and fertilizers etc.
5. Rotational grazing: This has been facilitated by paddocking. Efforts have also been made to
ensure that the carrying capacity of land is maintained in order to avoid overstocking. Rotational
grazing also helps to check overgrazing.
6. Re-settlement of people adjacent to forest reserves as well as eviction of forests encroachers.
Re-settlement of the people is to prevent encroachment upon the forests especially when
population is increasing and when land shortage problems are cropping up e.g. encroachers in
Kibaale forest reserve were evicted and resettled.
7. Sensitization of the public about the role of forests or natural vegetation. This has been
through the education of the masses on the dangers of deforestation and also how to utilize the
enviroment sustainably. This has created awareness about environmental issues such as
desertification-associated problems. This sensitization has been through a variety of mass media
e.g. the press, electronic media, seminars/workshops, schools, Local council meetings, public
rallies etc.
8. Introduction and encouragement of the use of fuel saving stoves or those that use saw dust
such that less biomass is used as fuel. This reduces on the tendency of the destruction of forests for
fuel.
9. Rural electrification and provision of other sources of energy such as solar energy, biogas etc
as an alternative to wood fuel.
10. Creation or establishment of environmental organizations to champion or spearhead the
fight against desertification through environmental protection and restoration of degraded lands.
Some of these organizations are governmental or non-governmental. They may also be
international, inter-state, national or local. Some are also voluntary organizations. Examples of
these bodies include; NEMA in Uganda (a parastatal body charged with protecting the
environment.) Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA). In addition, there are wildlife clubs, tree
planting clubs and anti-pollution clubs. International organizations include; the Kagera Basin
Organisation, Inter Governmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD), interstate
ones like the East African Wildlife Society and others like Karamoja Development Agency

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(KDA) to combat desertification and aridity and ensure development of the area.
11. Encouragement and use of indigenous methods of protecting the environment and more so
natural vegetation and drainage features i.e. through traditional customs and taboos.
12. Population control measures through population re-distribution and family planning as well
as encouraging late marriages, discouraging polygamy etc to avoid over population, which would
lead to land shortage and deforestation.

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EFFECTS OF CLIMATE ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES
Climate has influenced land use and human activities in several parts of East Africa. The different
climatic conditions such as equatorial climate, modified equatorial climate, tropical, montane,
semi desert and desert climates have had profound effect on human activities, or land
use in areas where they are experienced. This is because the rainfall and temperatures may vary
and create conditions for different land use or human activities. The effects can be seen in the
following ways;
1. In the equatorial or moist tropical type of climate, a variety of human land use activities have
cropped up e.g. forestry, cultivation of annual and perennial crops, dairy farming such as in the
Kenya highlands, areas around Lake Victoria etc.
2. In areas of tropical climate, there is cultivation of mainly annual crops as well as the rearing of
livestock, wildlife conservation and tourism have been important.
3. Temperate climatic conditions as experienced in the highland areas such as the Kenya and
Kigezi highlands, Rwenzori Mt. Ranges have cool conditions that have favoured dairy farming
and growth of vegetables or temperate crops such as wheat, Irish potatoes [Link] highland
areas have also favoured the growth of pyrethrum e.g. in Kabale and Bundibugyo.
4. Montane climatic conditions as experienced in the mountainous areas such as the Rwenzori,
Elgon, Kenya, Kilimanjaro, Meru etc have encouraged forestry especially montane forests which
may be temperate e.g. the Coniferous forests or they may be Bamboo forests. Other economic
activities in montane climatic regions include; Lumbering, Wildlife conservation and tourism such
as mountaineering or sight-seeing.
5. In the semi-desert climatic regions there has been the growth of drought - resistant crops e.g.
Sorghum, Millet, Maize and Sisal have been encouraged. Nomadic pastoralism has also been
practised in Semi-arid areas such as Karamoja, the Masailand, Turkana land and the Boran region
of Northern Kenya.

Furthermore, tourism and wildlife conservation have developed in these areas. Many of the semi-
desert regions have been gazetted as wildlife conservation sites such as National parks and Game
reserves thereby promoting tourism e.g. Tsavo National Park, Queen Elizabeth National Park,
Serengeti National Park, Kidepo Valley National Park, and Lake Mburo National Park etc.

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