Internet via a Wi-Fi connection, which uses a

NET wireless medium to send and receive data from

one or more remote servers.
CHAPTER 1
Some devices/technologies used in data
Data Communications communications are known as data
communication equipment (DCE) and data
What Does Data terminal equipment (DTE). DCE is used at the
Communications Mean? sending node, and DTE is used at the receiving
node.
Data communications (DC) is the process of
using computing and communication Another way to talk about different types of
technologies to transfer data from one place to data communications is to refer to the
another, or between participating parties. functionality that is available for a sender and a
receiver to use. In terms of communications
DC enables the movement of electronic or function, you have simplex communications,
digital data between two or more network
which are only one-way data communications,
nodes, regardless of geographical location,
technological medium or data contents. and you have half-duplex and full-duplex data
communications models, as well as serial data
communications.
Techopedia Explains Data
Communications With half-duplex communications, information
can go both ways, but not at the same time.
Data communications incorporate several Full-duplex models accommodate simultaneous
techniques and technologies to enable any form two-way communication of data.
of electronic communication. It’s a very broad
way to refer to all of this networked technology That last form, serial data communications, is
on any platform or in any digital environment. widely understood in networking. It means that
the data is packaged into units, and then sent
Some common types of data communications serially to the receiver by the sender. This
technologies include telecommunications, typically takes the form of creating data packets
computer networking and radio/satellite with their headers and other bits of information,
communication. Data communication usually and then sending them consecutively to the
requires the existence of a transportation or destination, typically through platforms using
communication medium between the nodes the seven-layer OSI model that demonstrates
wanting to communicate with each other, such the natures of different paths between nodes.
as copper wire, fiber optic cables, or wireless
signals. Data communication also relies on various
types of protocols, depending on the
For example, a common example of data environment in which the messages sent.
communications is a computer connected to the
Internet protocols like FTP, HTTP and HTTPS microwave, or satellite). There are two basic
types of media. Guided media are those in
were developed in order to optimize data which the message flows through a physical
communications over the Internet. media such as a twisted-pair wire, coaxial
cable, or fiber-optic cable; the media "guides"
One other useful way to think about data the signal. Wireless media are those in which
the message is broadcast through the air, such
communications is by analyzing the architecture as infrared, microwave, or satellite.
through which it occurs. In many cases, the circuits used in WANs are
provided by the various common carriers who
For the Internet, the traditional model has been sell usage of them to the public. We call the
circuits sold by the common carriers
client/server architecture. communication [Link] following sections
describe the medium and the basic
A client/server architecture consists of stations characteristics of each circuit type, in the event
that are ‘clients’ or consumers, and stations that you were establishing your own physical
network, whereas next topic describes how the
are ‘servers’ or producers. The client makes the circuits are packaged and marketed for
request of the server, and the server returns a purchase or lease from a common carrier. If
result. your organization has leased a circuit from a
common carrier, you are probably less
interested in the media used and more
Although this has been the dominant model, interested in whether the speed, cost, and
there are now emerging peer-to-peer reliability of the circuit meets your needs.
architectures that do not assign traditional roles
of client and server to each node in the data Guided Media
communications network.
Twisted-Pair Cable One of the most
commonly used types of guided media is
Increasingly, new systems will contemplate twisted-pair cable, insulated pairs of wires that
situations where devices either have less can be packed quite close together (Figure
3.9). The wires usually are twisted to minimize
defined roles, or other advances to make
the electromagnetic interference between one
network activity more versatile. pair and any other pair in the bundle. Your
house or apartment probably has a set of two
New advances like the Internet of Things twisted-pair wires (i.e., four wires) from it to the
telephone company network. One pair is used
promise different connectivity and different
to connect your telephone; the other pair is a
data communications models. spare that can be used for a second telephone
line. The twisted-pair cable used in LANs are
Communication Media usually packaged as four sets of pairs as
shown in Figure 3.9, whereas bundles of
(Data Communications several thousand wire pairs are placed under
city streets and in large buildings.
and Networking)
The medium (or media, if there is more than
one) is the physical matter or substance that
carries the voice or data transmission. Many
different types of transmission media are
currently in use, such as copper (wire), glass or
plastic (fiber-optic cable), or air (radio, infrared,
 called optical fibers. Figure 3.11 shows a fiber-
optic cable and depicts the optical core, the
cladding (metal coating), and how light rays
travel in optical fibers.
The earliest fiber-optic systems were
multimode, meaning that the light could reflect
inside the cable at many different angles.
Multimode cables are plagued by excessive
signal weakening (attenuation) and dispersion
(spreading of the signal so that different parts
of the signal arrive at different times at the
destination). For these reasons, early
multimode fiber was usually limited to about
500 meters. Graded-index multimode fiber
Figure 3.9 Category5e twisted-pair wire attempts to reduce this problem by changing
the refractive properties of the glass fiber so
that as the light approaches the outer edge of
the fiber, it speeds up, which compensates for
the slightly longer distance it must travel
compared with light in the center of the fiber.
Therefore, the light in the center is more likely
Figure 3.10 Coaxial cables. Thinnet and to arrive at the same time as the light that has
Thicknet Ethernet cables (right) and cross- traveled at the edges of the fiber.
sectional view (left) receiver/transmitter that uses a specific
Coaxial Cable Coaxial cable is a type of frequency range that does not interfere with
guided media that is quickly disappearing
(Figure 3.10). Coaxial cable has a copper core
(the inner conductor) with an outer cylindrical
shell for insulation. The outer shield, just under
the shell, is the second conductor. Because
they have additional shielding provided by their
multiple layers of material, coaxial cables are
less prone to interference and errors than basic
low-cost twisted-pair wires. Coaxial cables cost
about three times as much as twisted-pair
wires but offer few additional benefits other
than better shielding. One can also buy
specially shielded twisted-pair wire that
provides the same level of quality as coaxial
cable but at half its cost. For this reason, few
companies are installing coaxial cable today,
although some still continue to use existing
coaxial cable that was installed years ago.
Fiber-Optic Cable Although twisted-pair is the
most common type of guided media, fiber-optic Figure 3.11 Fiber-optic cable
cable also is becoming widely used. Instead of This increases the effective distance to just
carrying telecommunication signals in the under 1,000 meters.
traditional electrical form, this technology uses
high-speed streams of light pulses from lasers Single-mode fiber-optic cables transmit a
or LEDs (light-emitting diodes) that carry single direct beam of light through a cable that
information inside hair-thin strands of glass ensures the light reflects in only one pattern, in
part because the core diameter has been MANAGEMENT FOCUS
reduced from 50 microns to about 5 to 10
microns. This smaller-diameter core allows the The Southern Cross Trans Pacific Optical
fiber to send a more concentrated light beam, Research Test bed (SX Transport), will
resulting in faster data transmission speeds fundamentally change the way that Australian
and longer distances, often up to 100 scientists and researchers participate in global
kilometers. However, because the light source research initiatives. The network, built at a cost
must be perfectly aligned with the cable, of almost of $50 million, provides two 10-Gbps
single-mode products usually use lasers (10 billion bits per second) capacity fiber optic
(rather than the LEDs used in multimode circuits.
systems) and therefore are more expensive. The fiber optic cables, which run at the
Fiber-optic technology is a bottom of the Pacific Ocean, connect very high
revolutionary departure from the traditional speed Australian networks to very high-speed
copper wires of twisted-pair cable or coaxial networks in the United States. One of the 10-
cable. One of the main advantages of fiber Gbps circuits will connect through Hawaii and
optics is that it can carry huge amounts of terminate in the U.S. at Hillsboro, Oregon,
information at extremely fast data rates. This where it will interconnect with the Pacific Wave
capacity makes it ideal for the simultaneous very high speed network. The second 10-Gbps
transmission of voice, data, and image signals. circuit will terminate at San Luis Obispo in
In most cases, fiber-optic cable works better California and interconnect into other very high
under harsh environmental conditions than do speed networks in the United States.
its metallic counterparts. It is not as fragile or SX Transport is expected to facilitate research
brittle, it is not as heavy or bulky, and it is more in astronomy, an area where Australia is a
resistant to corrosion. Also, in case of fire, an global leader. Australia is one of the nations
optical fiber can withstand higher temperatures likely to host major internationally-funded next-
than can copper wire. Even when the outside generation radiotelescopes, SKA (Square
jacket surrounding the optical fiber has melted, Kilometer Array) and LOFAR (Low Frequency
a fiber-optic system still can be used. Array). These telescopes will be able to peer
back into the earliest days of the universe, and
answer fundamental questions about howthe
Wireless Media first stars and galaxies came into being. But
the scientific and technological benefits from
Radio One of the most commonly used hosting these telescopes, plus the hundreds of
forms of wireless media is radio; when millions of dollars of international investment in
people used the term wireless, they usually them, will only come to Australia if overseas
mean radio transmission. When you connect researchers can access these telescopes at
your laptop into the network wirelessly, you are gigabit speeds.
using radio transmission. Radio data Wireless technologies for LAN environments,
transmission uses the same basic principles as such as IEEE 802.11n.
standard radio transmission. Each device or
computer on the network has a radio radio
stations. The transmitters are very low power, Infrared Infrared transmission uses low-
designed to transmit a signal only a short frequency light waves (below the visible
distance, and are often built into portable spectrum) to carry the data through the air on a
computers or handheld devices such as direct line-of-sight path between two points.
phones and personal digital assistants. This technology is similar to the technology
used in infrared TV remote controls. It is prone
to interference, particularly from heavy rain,
Networking Australia smoke, and fog that obscure the light
transmission. Infrared transmitters are quite
small but are seldom used for regular
communication among portable or handheld
computers because of their line-of-sight
transmission requirements. Infrared is not very without having to change ISP or pay additional
common, but it is sometimes used to transmit fees.
data from building to building.
Microwave Microwave transmission is an The hotspots are located throughout the
extremely high-frequency radio communication airport. Users simply have to turn on their
beam that is transmitted over a direct line-of- wireless-equipped computers and they will
sight path between any two points. As its name immediately have access to the network. If
implies, a microwave signal is an extremely they are not existing customers of one of the
short wavelength, thus the word micro wave. offered ISPs, they can choose to access the
Microwave radio transmissions perform the Internet by paying €5.00 —€8.00 per hour,
same functions as cables. For example, point depending upon the ISP.
A communicates with point B via a through-the-
air microwave transmission path, instead of a
copper wire cable. Because microwave signals
approach the frequency of visible light waves,
they exhibit many of the same characteristics
as light waves, such as reflection, focusing, or
refraction. As with visible light waves,
microwave signals can be focused into narrow,
powerful beams that can be projected over
long distances. Just as a parabolic reflector
focuses a searchlight into a beam, a parabolic
reflector also focuses a high-frequency
microwave into a narrow beam. Towers are
used to elevate the radio antennas to account
for the earth’s curvature and maintain a clear
line-of-sight path between the two parabolic
reflectors; see Figure 3.12.

Munich Airport Provides Wireless

Hotspots

MANAGEMENT FOCUS
Munich is Germany’s second-
largest commercial airport, handling over 23
million passengers per year. It began offering Figure 3.12 A Microwave tower. The round
wireless Internet access in its terminal antennas are microwave antennas and the
buildings and main concourse in October 2001 straight antennas are cell phone antennas.
and was the first wireless local area network This transmission medium is typically used
provider to give users a choice of Internet for long-distance data or voice transmission. It
Service Providers (ISP). does not require the laying of any cable,
Travelers can use their home or work ISP because long-distance antennas with
when on the move, greatly simplifying access microwave repeater stations can be placed
and billing. ISPs, which will benefit from approximately 25 to 50 miles apart. A typical
increased loyalty and revenues, are already long-distance antenna might be ten feet wide,
planning to use the pioneering multi-service although over shorter distances in the inner
provider concept elsewhere, so ultimately cities, the dish antennas can be less than two
users may be able to travel wherever they want feet in diameter. The airwaves in larger cities
are becoming congested because so many
microwave dish antennas have been installed Satellite Communications Improve
that they interfere with one another.
Performance
Satellite Satellite transmission is similar to
microwave transmission except instead of
transmission involving another nearby MANAGEMENT FOCUS
microwave dish antenna, it involves a satellite
many miles up in space. Figure 3.13 depicts a Boyle Transportation hauls
geosynchronous satellite. Geosynchronous hazardous materials nationwide for both
means that the satellite remains stationary over commercial customers and the government,
one point on the earth. One disadvantage of particularly the U.S. Department of Defense.
satellite transmission is the propagation delay The Department of Defense recently mandated
that occurs because the signal has to travel out that hazardous materials contractors use
into space and back to earth, a distance of mobile communications systems with up-to-
many miles that even at the speed of light can the-minute monitoring when hauling the
be noticeable. department’s hazardous cargoes.
After looking at the alternatives, Boyle
realized that it would have to build its own
system. Boyle needed a relational database at
its operations center that contained information
about customers, pickups, deliveries, truck
location, and truck operating status. Data is
distributed from this database via satellite to an
antenna on each truck. Now, at any time, Boyle
can notify the designated truck to make a new
pickup via the bidirectional satellite link and
record the truck’s acknowledgment.
Each truck contains a mobile data terminal
connected to the satellite network. Each driver
uses a keyboard to enter information, which
transmits the location of the truck. This satellite
data is received by the main offices via a
leased line from the satellite earth station.
This system increased productivity by an
astounding 80 percent over 2 years;
administration costs increased by only 20
percent.

Media Selection
Which media are best? It is hard to say,
particularly when manufacturers continue to
Figure 3.13 Satellites in operation improve various media products. Several
Low earth orbit (LEO) satellites are placed in factors are important in selecting media (Figure
lower orbits to minimize propogation delay. 3.14).
Satellite transmission is sometimes also • The type of network is one major
affected by raindrop attenuation when satellite consideration. Some media are used only for
transmissions are absorbed by heavy rain. It is WANs (microwaves and satellite), whereas
not a major problem, but engineers need to others typically are not (twisted-pair, coaxial
work around it. cable, radio, and infrared), although we should
note that some old WAN networks still use
twisted-pair cable. Fiber-optic cable is unique
in that it can be used for virtually any type of Type Distance s d
network.
• Cost is always a factor in any business
Mode Mode
decision. Costs are always changing as new Radio LAN Low Short Poor
rate rate
technologies are developed and as competition
among vendors drives prices down. Among the
guided media, twisted-pair wire is generally the Infrare LAN, Mode
Low Short Poor Low
cheapest, coaxial cable is somewhat more d BN rate
expensive, and fiber-optic cable is the most
expensive. The cost of the wireless media is Low-
generally driven more by distance than any Micro Mode Mode
WAN Long Poor mode
other factor. For very short distances (several wave rate rate
rate
hundred meters), radio and infrared are the
cheapest; for moderate distances (several
hundred miles), microwave is cheapest; and for Low-
Satelli Mode Mode
long distances, satellite is cheapest. WAN Long Poor mode
te rate rate
• Transmission distance is a related rate
factor. Twisted pair wire, coaxial cable,
infrared, and radio can transmit data only a
short distance before the signal must be Figure 3.14 Media summary. BN = backbone
regenerated. Twisted-pair wire and radio network; LAN = local area network; WAN =
typically can transmit up to 100 to 300 meters, wide area network
and coaxial cable and infrared typically • Security is primarily determined by
between 200 and 500 meters. Fiber optics can whether the media is guided or wireless.
transmit up to 75 miles, with new types of fiber- Wireless media (radio, infrared, microwave,
optic cable expected to reach more than 600 and satellite) are the least secure because
miles. their signals are easily intercepted. Guided
Guide media (twisted pair, coaxial, and fiber optics)
d are more secure, with fiber optics being the
Media most secure.
Transmi • Error rates are also important. Wireless
Netw Error
ssion Secu Spee media are most susceptible to interference and
Media ork Cost Rate
T Distanc rity d thus have the highest error rates. Among the
ype s
e guided media, fiber optics provides the lowest
Twiste Goo Low- error rates, coaxial cable the next best, and
LAN Low Short Low twisted-pair cable the worst, although twisted-
d Pair d high
pair cable is generally better than the wireless
media.
Coaxi
Mode Goo Low- • Transmission speeds vary greatly among
al LAN Short Low
rate d high the different media. It is difficult to quote
Cable
specific speeds for different media because
transmission speeds are constantly improving
High- and because they vary within the same type of
Fiber Moderat Very Very
Any High very media, depending on the specific type of cable
Optics e-long good low
high and the vendor. In general, both twisted-pair
cable and coaxial cable can provide data rates
Radiate of between 1 and 100 Mbps (1 million bits per
d Media second), whereas fiber-optic cable ranges
between 100Mbps and 10 Gbps (10 billion bits
per second). Radio and infrared generally
Media Netw Cost Transmi Secu Error Spee
ork ssion rity Rate
provide 1 to 50Mbps, as do microwave and latency, and troubleshoot other network
satellite.
issues. Finally, the network topology is
useful when determining how different
CHAPTER 1 telecommunication networks should be
Network Topology configured, allowing tech personnel to set
Network topology is defined as the up computer networks, industrial field
physical arrangement through which buses, and command and control radio
various endpoints and links in an networks correctly.
enterprise network communicate with Different types of network topologies
each other. This article covers an in- exist, and businesses can choose the one
depth explanation of network topology, that best suits their requirements by
its different types, and the best practices considering the size, budget, and goals of
for selecting the ideal topology for your their organization.
organization. Before finalizing the network topology
What Is Network Topology? design, a comprehensive understanding
Network topology is a physical of the functionality of the network is
arrangement through which various crucial. Once that is accomplished, a
endpoints and links in an enterprise network topology mapping software can
network communicate with each other. generate topology diagrams that provide
Organizations use network topology to a visual overview of the network
define how their network nodes are environment. Such software would also
linked to each other. The two major be useful for visualizing the way devices
categories of topology are physical and connect, which can help IT teams identify
logical. Physical network topology refers the most efficient topology.
to the structure of the physical medium Once a network arrangement is chosen,
for data transmission. On the other hand, the next steps would be to implement the
logical network topology refers to how selected network topology, automate it,
the network transmits data between continuously monitor its performance,
devices, regardless of how these devices and troubleshoot any problems that may
are connected physically. arise. Here, configuration management
The structure of a network can directly tools, topology design software, and
impact its functioning. Therefore, network management solutions can be
companies must select the most suitable beneficial.
topology for their network to bolster See More: What Is a Content Delivery
performance and enhance data efficiency. Network (CDN)? Definition,
The right topology also optimizes Architecture and Best Practices
resource allocation and minimizes Types of Network Topology
operational costs. Some common physical network
Additionally, network topology diagrams topologies used by organizations include
allow IT teams to diagnose problems point to point, bus, ring, star, tree, mesh,
related to connectivity, investigate high and hybrid topology networks. Each type
consists of different node and link 2. Bus topology
configurations and has its own In a bus topology, all the nodes are linked
advantages and disadvantages. using a single cable with a terminator on
1. Point to point topology both ends. This configuration sees one
Point to point is a simple topology that main cable acting as the backbone for the
directly links two nodes and reserves the whole network.
entire bandwidth of the connection for
them to communicate with one another.
Physically, point-to-point connections
rely on a cable or wire that connects the
two endpoints. However, logical
topological connections using satellite
links and microwaves are more common
nowadays.

Bus Topology
In such an arrangement, the server node
transmits data from one end of the cable
and in a single direction to the client
node. As the data travels to each node, its
Point to Point Topology
A basic example of a point-to-point destination address (MAC/IP) is checked
connection is changing the temperature of to see if it is received and processed. If
an air conditioning unit using a remote there is a mismatch in the address, the
control. node does not do anything with the data.
This way, only the node that recognizes
Benefits of Point to Point Topology its address
Challenges uses the
of Point data that
to Point travels on
Topology
the single cable, while the other nodes are
unaffected. Once the data reaches the end
 Superior bandwidth, as of the cable, the terminator removes it to
only two nodes use the prevent signal bouncing.
link 3. Ring topology
 High speed when In a ring topology, each node is linked
compared to other types of with its neighbor to form a closed
network topologies network. This configuration sees the data
 Simple to implement move from one node to another, either
 Easy to maintain and unidirectionally or bidirectionally. Such
handle network topology is used in smaller
 Low instances of latency networks, like those in schools.
 Ring Topology Star Topology
Many ring networks use token passing In such a configuration, if one endpoint
to regulate data flow. In such an wants to transmit data to another
arrangement, a token is transferred from endpoint, it must send the request to the
one device to the next, and only the node central hub, forwarding the message to
with the token can transmit data. The the intended recipient.
device that receives the data from the 5. Tree topology
token sends it back to the server along In a tree topology, nodes are arranged in
with an acknowledgment. Only an a configuration that resembles a tree’s
endpoint with access to an ’empty’ token leaves, branches, and trunk. Endpoints, or
can transmit data at a given time, while ‘leaves,’ are connected to mid-level
the other computers have to wait for their nodes or ‘branches’ linked to the tree’s
turn. ‘trunk.’ The trunk is the backbone
4. Star topology connection that links multiple mid-level
In a star topology, all nodes are nodes.
connected to a central hub using a
communication link. Each node needs a
separate wire to establish a point-to-point
connection with the hub, which functions
as a server to control and manage the
entire network.

Tree Topology
Tree topologies are suitable for large
networks such as offices, university
campuses, and hospitals.
6. Mesh topology
In a mesh topology, all the nodes are
interconnected and can send and receive
their data and relay data from other
nodes.

Hybrid Topology
Two most commonly used hybrid
topologies are star-ring and star-bus. In
the former, the central hubs of multiple
star topologies are linked using a ring
topology. In the latter, the hubs of
numerous star topologies are connected
using a bus topology.
8. Daisy chain topology
Finally, the daisy chain topology links
Mesh Topology
nodes in a sequence. Data is transferred
Full mesh networks, wherein each node
from one node to the next until it reaches
is connected to every other node, are
its destination. The two types of a daisy
usually reserved for critical networks as
chain network topology are linear daisy
they are extremely costly to implement
chain and ring daisy chain.
and challenging to maintain. IT teams
also have the option of implementing
partial mesh networks, wherein all the
nodes are not connected. This is less cost-
intensive and easier to implement;
however, it does not have all the
advantages of a full mesh network.
7. Hybrid topology
A hybrid network topology, as the name
suggests, features characteristics of
Linear Daisy Chain Network Topology
multiple other topologies. The creation of
In the former, devices are linked in a
such a configuration depends on the
straight line with two ‘ends,’ similar to a
requirement of the network.
bus topology. In the latter, a ‘ring’ of
devices is formed. Ring daisy chain
topologies are usually more favorable
than linear daisy chain topologies as the
data travels in a loop, thereby halving the network. If not, it starts sending its data. After
finishing its transmission, it listens again to see
number of senders and receivers. Further,
if a
in case of a single node or link getting collision occurred. A collision occurs when two
damaged, the network does not grind to a devices send data simultaneously. When a
halt as the data can just switch directions collision
happens, each device waits a random length of
to reach its destination.
time before resending its data. In most cases,
CHAPTER 1 a collision
INTRO TO LAN will not occur again between the two devices.
Figure 2-6 A Repeater Connects Two Because of this type of network contention, the
Network Segments busier a
What Is a LAN? network becomes, the more collisions occur.
A LAN is a high-speed data network that This is why performance of Ethernet degrades
covers a relatively small geographic area. It rapidly as
typically connects the number of devices on a single network
workstations, personal computers, printers, increases.
servers, and other devices. LANs offer In token-passing networks such as Token Ring
computer users many and FDDI, a special network frame called a
advantages, including shared access to token is
devices and applications, file exchange passed around the network from device to
between connected users, device. When a device has data to send, it
and communication between users via must wait until it
electronic mail and other applications. has the token and then sends its data. When
LAN Protocols and the OSI Reference the data transmission is complete, the token is
Model released so
LAN protocols function at the lowest two layers that other devices may use the network media.
of the OSI reference model, as discussed in The main advantage of token-passing
Chapter 1, networks is that
“Internetworking Basics,” between the physical they are deterministic. In other words, it is easy
layer and the data link layer. Figure 2-2 to calculate the maximum time that will pass
illustrates how before a
several popular LAN protocols map to the OSI device has the opportunity to send data. This
reference model. explains the popularity of token-passing
LAN Media-Access Methods networks in some
Media contention occurs when two or more real-time environments such as factories,
network devices have data to send at the same where machinery must be capable of
time. Because communicating at a
multiple devices cannot talk on the network determinable interval.
simultaneously, some type of method must be For CSMA/CD networks, switches segment the
used to allow network into multiple collision domains. This
one device access to the network media at a reduces
time. This is done in two main ways: carrier the number of devices per network segment
sense multiple that must contend for the media. By creating
access collision detect (CSMA/CD) and token smaller
passing. collision domains, the performance of a
In networks using CSMA/CD technology such network can be increased significantly without
as Ethernet, network devices contend for the requiring
network addressing changes.
media. When a device has data to send, it first Normally CSMA/CD networks are half-duplex,
listens to see if any other device is currently meaning that while a device sends information,
using the it cannot
receive at the time. While that device is talking, In a unicast transmission, a single packet is
it is incapable of also listening for other traffic. sent from the source to a destination on a
This is network. First, the
much like a walkie-talkie. When one person source node addresses the packet by using the
wants to talk, he presses the transmit button address of the destination node. The package
and begins is then sent
speaking. While he is talking, no one else on onto the network, and finally, the network
the same frequency can talk. When the passes the packet to its destination.
sending person is A multicast transmission consists of a single
finished, he releases the transmit button and data packet that is copied and sent to a
the frequency is available to others. specific subset of
When switches are introduced, full-duplex nodes on the network. First, the source node
operation is possible. Full-duplex works much addresses the packet by using a multicast
like a address. The
telephone—you can listen as well as talk at the packet is then sent into the network, which
same time. When a network device is attached makes copies of the packet and sends a copy
directly to each node
to the port of a network switch, the two devices that is part of the multicast address.
may be capable of operating in full-duplex A broadcast transmission consists of a single
mode. In data packet that is copied and sent to all nodes
full-duplex mode, performance can be on the
increased, but network. In these types of transmissions, the
not quite as much as some like to claim. A 100- source node addresses the packet by using the
Mbps Ethernet segment is capable of broadcast
transmitting 200 address. The packet is then sent on to the
Mbps of data, but only 100 Mbps can travel in network, which makes copies of the packet and
one direction at a time. Because most data sends a copy
connections to every node on the network.
are asymmetric (with more data traveling in LAN Topologies
one direction than the other), the gain is not as LAN topologies define the manner in which
great as many network devices are organized. Four common
claim. However, full-duplex operation does LAN
increase the throughput of most applications topologies exist: bus, ring, star, and tree.
because the These topologies are logical architectures, but
network media is no longer shared. Two the actual
devices on a full-duplex connection can send devices need not be physically organized in
data as soon as it these configurations. Logical bus and ring
is ready. topologies, for
Token-passing networks such as Token Ring example, are commonly organized physically
can also benefit from network switches. In as a star. A bus topology is a linear LAN
large networks, architecture in
the delay between turns to transmit may be which transmissions from network stations
significant because the token is passed around propagate the length of the medium and are
the network. received by all
LAN Transmission Methods other stations. Of the three
LAN data transmissions fall into three most widely used LAN implementations,
classifications: unicast, multicast, and Ethernet/IEEE 802.3 networks—including
broadcast. 100BaseT—implement a bus topology, which
In each type of transmission, a single packet is is illustrated in Figure 2-3.
sent to one or more nodes. Figure 2-3 Some Networks Implement a
Local Bus Topology
A ring topology is a LAN architecture that In addition, all electrical signals, including
consists of a series of devices connected to electrical disturbances and other errors, are
one another by repeated and
unidirectional transmission links to form a amplified. The total number of repeaters and
single closed loop. Both Token Ring/IEEE network segments that can be connected is
802.5 and FDDI limited due to
networks implement a ring topology. Figure 2-4 timing and other issues.
depicts a logical ring topology. A hub is a physical layer device that connects
Figure 2-4 Some Networks Implement a multiple user stations, each via a dedicated
Logical Ring Topology cable.
A star topology is a LAN architecture in which Electrical interconnections are established
the endpoints on a network are connected to a inside the hub. Hubs are used to create a
common physical star network
central hub, or switch, by dedicated links. while maintaining the logical bus or ring
Logical bus and ring topologies are often configuration of the LAN. In some respects, a
implemented hub functions as
physically in a star topology, which is illustrated a multiport repeater.
in Figure 2-5. A LAN extender is a remote-access multilayer
A tree topology is a LAN architecture that is switch that connects to a host router. LAN
identical to the bus topology, except that extenders
branches with forward traffic from all the standard network
multiple nodes are possible in this case. Figure layer protocols (such as IP, IPX, and
2-5 illustrates a logical tree topology. AppleTalk) and filter
LAN Devices traffic based on the MAC address or network
Devices commonly used in LANs include layer protocol type. LAN extenders scale well
repeaters, hubs, LAN extenders, bridges, LAN because the
switches, and host router filters out unwanted broadcasts and
routers. multicasts. However, LAN extenders are not
Repeaters, hubs, and LAN extenders are capable of
discussed briefly in this section. The function segmenting traffic or creating security firewalls.
and Figure 2–7 illustrates multiple LAN extenders
operation of bridges, switches, and routers are connected to the host router through a WAN.
discussed generally in Chapter 4, “Bridging Figure 2-7 Multiple LAN Extenders Can
and Switching Basics,” and Chapter 5, Connect to the Host Router Through a WAN
“Routing Basics.”
A repeater is a physical layer device used to
CHAPTER 1
interconnect the media segments of an INTRO TO WAN
extended network. What Is a WAN?
A repeater essentially enables a series of cable A WAN is a data communications network that
segments to be treated as a single cable. covers a relatively broad geographic area and
Repeaters receive that often
signals from one network segment and amplify, uses transmission facilities provided by
retime, and retransmit those signals to another common carriers, such as telephone
network companies. WAN
segment. These actions prevent signal technologies generally function at the lower
deterioration caused by long cable lengths and three layers of the OSI reference model: the
large numbers of physical layer,
connected devices. Repeaters are incapable of the data link layer, and the network layer.
performing complex filtering and other traffic Figure 3-1 illustrates the relationship between
processing. the common
WAN technologies and the OSI model.
Point-to-Point Links the carrier’s network, and many customers
A point-to-point link provides a single, pre- share the carrier’s network. The carrier can
established WAN communications path from then create virtual
the customer circuits between customers’ sites by which
premises through a carrier network, such as a packets of data are delivered from one to the
telephone company, to a remote network. other through
Point-to-point the network. The section of the carrier’s
lines are usually leased from a carrier and thus network that is shared is often referred to as a
are often called leased lines. For a point-to- cloud.
point line, the Some examples of packet-switching networks
carrier allocates pairs of wire and facility include Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM),
hardware to your line only. These circuits are Frame
generally priced Relay, Switched Multimegabit Data Services
based on bandwidth required and distance (SMDS), and X.25. Figure
between the two connected points. Point-to- 3-4 shows an example packet-switched circuit.
point links are WAN Virtual Circuits
generally more expensive than shared services A virtual circuit is a logical circuit created within
such as Frame Relay. Figure 3-2 illustrates a a shared network between two network
typical devices. Two
point-to-point link through a WAN. types of virtual circuits exist: switched virtual
Circuit Switching circuits (SVCs) and permanent virtual circuits
Switched circuits allow data connections that (PVCs).
can be initiated when needed and terminated SVCs are virtual circuits that are dynamically
when established on demand and terminated when
communication is complete. This works much transmission
like a normal telephone line works for voice is complete. Communication over an SVC
communication. Integrated Services Digital consists of three phases: circuit establishment,
Network (ISDN) is a good example of circuit data transfer,
switching. and circuit termination. The establishment
When a router has data for a remote site, the phase involves creating the virtual circuit
switched circuit is initiated with the circuit between the source
number of the and destination devices. Data transfer involves
remote network. In the case of ISDN circuits, transmitting data between the devices over the
the device actually places a call to the virtual
telephone number circuit, and the circuit termination phase
of the remote ISDN circuit. When the involves tearing down the virtual circuit
two networks are connected and authenticated, between the source and
they can transfer data. When the data destination devices. SVCs are used in
transmission is situations in which data transmission between
complete, the call can be terminated. Figure 3- devices is sporadic,
3 illustrates an example of this type of circuit. largely because SVCs increase bandwidth
Packet Switching used due to the circuit establishment and
Packet switching is a WAN technology in which termination phases,
users share common carrier resources. but they decrease the cost associated with
Because this constant virtual circuit availability.
allows the carrier to make more efficient use of PVC is a permanently established virtual circuit
its infrastructure, the cost to the customer is that consists of one mode: data transfer. PVCs
generally are used
much better than with point-to-point lines. In a in situations in which data transfer between
packet switching setup, networks have devices is constant. PVCs decrease the
connections into bandwidth use
associated with the establishment and A WAN switch is a multiport internetworking
termination of virtual circuits, but they increase device used in carrier networks. These devices
costs due to typically
constant virtual circuit availability. PVCs are switch such traffic as Frame Relay, X.25, and
generally configured by the service provider SMDS, and operate at the data link layer of the
when an order OSI
is placed for service. reference model. Figure 3-5 illustrates two
WAN Dialup Services routers at remote ends of a WAN that are
Dialup services offer cost-effective methods for connected by WAN
connectivity across WANs. Two popular dialup switches.
implementations are dial-on-demand routing Access Server
(DDR) and dial backup. An access server acts as a concentration point
DDR is a technique whereby a router can for dial-in and dial-out connections. Figure 3–6
dynamically initiate a call on a switched circuit illustrates
when it needs an access server concentrating dial-out
to send data. In a DDR setup, the router is connections into a WAN.
configured to initiate the call when certain Modem
criteria are met, A modem is a device that interprets digital and
such as a particular type of network traffic analog signals, enabling data to be transmitted
needing to be transmitted. When the over
connection is made, voice-grade telephone lines. At the source,
traffic passes over the line. The router digital signals are converted to a form suitable
configuration specifies an idle timer that tells for
the router to drop transmission over analog communication
the connection when the circuit has remained facilities. At the destination, these analog
idle for a certain period. signals are returned
Dial backup is another way of configuring DDR. to their digital form. Figure 3-7 illustrates a
However, in dial backup, the switched circuit is simple modem-to-modem connection through a
used WAN.
to provide backup service for another type of CSU/DSU
circuit, such as point-to-point or packet A channel service unit/digital service unit
switching. The (CSU/DSU) is a digital-interface device used to
router is configured so that when a failure is connect a
detected on the primary circuit, the dial backup router to a digital circuit like a T1. The
line is CSU/DSU also provides signal timing for
initiated. The dial backup line then supports the communication
WAN connection until the primary circuit is between these devices. Figure 3–8 illustrates
restored. the placement of the CSU/DSU in a WAN
When this occurs, the dial backup connection implementation.
is terminated. ISDN Terminal Adapter
WAN Devices An ISDN terminal adapter is a device used to
WANs use numerous types of devices that are connect ISDN Basic Rate Interface (BRI)
specific to WAN environments. WAN switches, connections to
access other interfaces, such as EIA/TIA-232 on a
servers, modems, CSU/DSUs, and ISDN router. A terminal adapter is essentially an
terminal adapters are discussed in the ISDN modem,
following sections. Other although it is called a terminal adapter because
devices found in WAN environments that are it does not actually convert analog to digital
used in WAN implementations include routers, signals.
ATM Figure 3-9 illustrates the placement of the
switches, and multiplexers. terminal adapter in an ISDN environment.
WAN Switch
CHAPTER 2 o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly
deals with the application related issues,
OSI Model and they are implemented only in the
OSI stands for Open System software. The application layer is closest
Interconnection is a reference model that to the end user. Both the end user and
describes how information from the application layer interact with the
a software application in one computer moves software applications. An upper layer
through a physical medium to the software refers to the layer just above another
application in another computer. layer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each o The lower layer of the OSI model deals
layer performs a particular network with the data transport issues. The data
function. link layer and the physical layer are
implemented in hardware and software.
OSI model was developed by the
The physical layer is the lowest layer of
International Organization for
the OSI model and is closest to the
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now
physical medium. The physical layer is
considered as an architectural model for the
mainly responsible for placing the
inter-computer communications.
information on the physical medium.
o OSI model divides the whole task into
seven smaller and manageable tasks. 7 Layers of OSI Model
Each layer is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has
different functions. A list of seven layers are
assigned to each layer can be performed
given below:
independently.
1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

o The OSI model is divided into two layers:

upper layers and lower layers.
1) Physical layer 2) Data-Link Layer

o This layer is responsible for the error-

o The main functionality of the physical layer
free transfer of data frames.
is to transmit the individual bits from one
node to another node. o It defines the format of the data on the
network.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It provides a reliable and efficient
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the
communication between two or more
physical connection.
devices.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and
o It is mainly responsible for the unique
procedural network interface specifications.
identification of each device that resides
Functions of a Physical layer: on a local network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
o Line Configuration: It defines the way how
o Logical Link Control Layer
two or more devices can be connected
o It is responsible for
physically.
transferring the packets to
o Data Transmission: It defines the
the Network layer of the
transmission mode whether it is simplex,
receiver that is receiving.
half-duplex or full-duplex mode between
o It identifies the address of
the two devices on the network.
the network layer protocol
o Topology: It defines the way how network
from the header.
devices are arranged.
o It also provides flow
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal
control.
used for transmitting the information.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control
layer is a link between the
Logical Link Control layer
 and the network's physical occurr, then the receiver sends the
layer. acknowledgment for the retransmission
o It is used for transferring of the corrupted frames.
the packets over the o Access Control: When two or more
network. devices are connected to the same
communication channel, then the data
Functions of the Data-link layer
link layer protocols are used to
determine which device has control over
o Framing: The data link layer translates
the link at a given time.
the physical's raw bit stream into
packets known as Frames. The Data link
layer adds the header and trailer to the
3) Network Layer
frame. The header which is added to the
frame contains the hardware destination
and source address.

o Physical Addressing: The Data link

layer adds a header to the frame that o It is a layer 3 that manages device
contains a destination address. The addressing, tracks the location of devices on
frame is transmitted to the destination the network.
address mentioned in the header. o It determines the best path to move data
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main from source to the destination based on the
functionality of the Data-link layer. It is network conditions, the priority of service,
the technique through which the and other factors.
constant data rate is maintained on both o The Data link layer is responsible for routing
the sides so that no data get corrupted. and forwarding the packets.
It ensures that the transmitting station
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are
such as a server with higher processing
specified in this layer and used to provide
speed does not exceed the receiving
the routing services within an internetwork.
station, with lower processing speed.
o The protocols used to route the network
o Error Control: Error control is achieved
traffic are known as Network layer
by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the
Ipv6.
Data link layer's trailer which is added to
the message frame before it is sent to Functions of Network Layer:
the physical layer. If any error seems to
 o Internetworking: An internetworking is the connection between source and
main responsibility of the network layer. It destination to deliver the data reliably.
provides a logical connection between
The two protocols used in this layer are:
different devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the o Transmission Control Protocol
source and destination address to the
o It is a standard protocol that
header of the frame. Addressing is used to
allows the systems to
identify the device on the internet.
communicate over the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component
o It establishes and maintains a
of the network layer, and it determines the
connection between hosts.
best optimal path out of the multiple paths
o When data is sent over the TCP
from source to the destination.
connection, then the TCP
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the
protocol divides the data into
packets from the upper layer and converts
smaller units known as segments.
them into packets. This process is known as
Each segment travels over the
Packetizing. It is achieved by internet
internet using multiple routes,
protocol (IP).
and they arrive in different orders
at the destination. The
4) Transport Layer transmission control protocol
reorders the packets in the
correct order at the receiving end.
o User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a
transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport
o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures protocol as in this case receiver
that messages are transmitted in the does not send any
order in which they are sent and there is acknowledgment when the
no duplication of data. packet is received, the sender
does not wait for any
o The main responsibility of the transport
acknowledgment. Therefore, this
layer is to transfer the data completely.
makes a protocol unreliable.
o It receives the data from the upper layer
and converts them into smaller units Functions of Transport Layer:
known as segments.
o This layer can be termed as an end-to- o Service-point addressing: Computers

end layer as it provides a point-to-point run several programs simultaneously

 due to this reason, the transmission of o Flow control: The transport layer also
data from source to the destination not responsible for flow control but it is
only from one computer to another performed end-to-end rather than
computer but also from one process to across a single link.
another process. The transport layer o Error control: The transport layer is also
adds the header that contains the responsible for Error control. Error
address known as a service-point control is performed end-to-end rather
address or port address. The than across the single link. The sender
responsibility of the network layer is to transport layer ensures that message
transmit the data from one computer to reach at the destination without any
another computer and the responsibility error.
of the transport layer is to transmit the
message to the correct process. 5) Session Layer
o Segmentation and reassembly: When
the transport layer receives the message
from the upper layer, it divides the
message into multiple segments, and
each segment is assigned with a
sequence number that uniquely
identifies each segment. When the
o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.
message has arrived at the destination,
o The Session layer is used to establish,
then the transport layer reassembles the
maintain and synchronizes the
message based on their sequence
interaction between communicating
numbers.
devices.
o Connection control: Transport layer
provides two services Connection- Functions of Session layer:
oriented service and connectionless
service. A connectionless service treats o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a
each segment as an individual packet, dialog controller that creates a dialog
and they all travel in different routes to between two processes or we can say
reach the destination. A connection- that it allows the communication
oriented service makes a connection between two processes which can be
with the transport layer at the either half-duplex or full-duplex.
destination machine before delivering o Synchronization: Session layer adds
the packets. In connection-oriented some checkpoints when transmitting the
service, all the packets travel in the data in a sequence. If some error occurs
single route. in the middle of the transmission of
data, then the transmission will take
 place again from the checkpoint. This common format into receiver-
process is known as Synchronization and dependent format at the receiving end.
recovery. o Encryption: Encryption is needed to
maintain privacy. Encryption is a process
6) Presentation Layer of converting the sender-transmitted
information into another form and sends
the resulting message over the network.
o Compression: Data compression is a
process of compressing the data, i.e., it
reduces the number of bits to be
transmitted. Data compression is very
important in multimedia such as text,
audio, video.
o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned
with the syntax and semantics of the 7) Application Layer
information exchanged between the two
systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating
system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as
the syntax layer. o An application layer serves as a window
for users and application processes to
Functions of Presentation layer:
access network service.
o Translation: The processes in two o It handles issues such as network
systems exchange the information in the transparency, resource allocation, etc.
form of character strings, numbers and o An application layer is not an
so on. Different computers use different application, but it performs the
encoding methods, the presentation application layer functions.
layer handles the interoperability o This layer provides the network services
between the different encoding to the end-users.
methods. It converts the data from
sender-dependent format into a Functions of Application layer:
common format and changes the
o File transfer, access, and management
(FTAM): An application layer allows a
 user to access the files in a remote OSI was introduced in 1983 by
computer, to retrieve the files from a representatives of the major
computer and telecom companies,
computer and to manage the files in a
and was adopted by ISO as an
remote computer.
international standard in 1984.
o Mail services: An application layer
provides the facility for email forwarding
and storage.
OSI Model Explained:
o Directory services: An application
The OSI 7 Layers
provides the distributed database
1. Physical Layer
sources and is used to provide that
global information about various
The physical layer is responsible for
objects.
the physical cable or wireless
connection between network nodes.
CHAPTER 2 It defines the connector, the
electrical cable or wireless
OSI vs TCP/IP technology connecting the devices,
and is responsible for transmission
of the raw data, which is simply a
What Is the OSI Model series of 0s and 1s, while taking
care of bit rate control.
The Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model describes seven layers
2. Data Link Layer
that computer systems use to
communicate over a network. It was
the first standard model for network The data link layer establishes and
communications, adopted by all terminates a connection between
major computer and two physically-connected nodes on a
telecommunication companies in the network. It breaks up packets into
early 1980s frames and sends them from source
to destination. This layer is
composed of two parts—Logical Link
The modern Internet is not based on
Control (LLC), which identifies
OSI, but on the simpler TCP/IP
network protocols, performs error
model. However, the OSI 7-layer
checking and synchronizes frames,
model is still widely used, as it helps
and Media Access Control (MAC)
visualize and communicate how
which uses MAC addresses to
networks operate, and helps isolate
connect devices and define
and troubleshoot networking
permissions to transmit and receive
problems.
data.

3. Network Layer
The network layer has two main data transfer from the last
functions. One is breaking up checkpoint.
segments into network packets, and
reassembling the packets on the 6. Presentation Layer
receiving end. The other is routing
packets by discovering the best path
across a physical network. The The presentation layer prepares
network layer uses network data for the application layer. It
addresses (typically Internet defines how two devices should
Protocol addresses) to route packets encode, encrypt, and compress data
to a destination node. so it is received correctly on the
other end. The presentation layer
takes any data transmitted by the
4. Transport Layer application layer and prepares it for
transmission over the session layer.
The transport layer takes data
transferred in the session layer and 7. Application Layer
breaks it into “segments” on the
transmitting end. It is responsible
for reassembling the segments on The application layer is used by end-
the receiving end, turning it back user software such as web browsers
into data that can be used by the and email clients. It provides
session layer. The transport layer protocols that allow software to send
carries out flow control, sending and receive information and present
data at a rate that matches the meaningful data to users. A few
connection speed of the receiving examples of application layer
device, and error control, checking if protocols are the Hypertext Transfer
data was received incorrectly and if Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer
not, requesting it again. Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol
(POP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP), and Domain Name System
5. Session Layer (DNS).

The session layer creates Advantages of OSI Model

communication channels, called
sessions, between devices. It is The OSI model helps users and
responsible for opening sessions, operators of computer networks:
ensuring they remain open and
functional while data is being
transferred, and closing them when  Determine the required hardware
communication ends. The session and software to build their network.
layer can also set checkpoints during  Understand and communicate the
a data transfer—if the session is process followed by components
interrupted, devices can resume communicating across a network.
 Perform troubleshooting, by Other important differences:
identifying which network layer is
causing an issue and focusing efforts  TCP/IP is a functional model
on that layer. designed to solve specific
communication problems, and which
The OSI model helps network
is based on specific, standard
device manufacturers and
protocols. OSI is a generic, protocol-
networking software vendors:
independent model intended to
describe all forms of network
Create devices and software that can communication.
communicate with products from any  In TCP/IP, most applications use all
other vendor, allowing open the layers, while in OSI simple
interoperability applications do not use all seven
layers. Only layers 1, 2 and 3 are
 Define which parts of the network mandatory to enable any data
their products should work with. communication.
 Communicate to users at which
network layers their product
Imperva Application
operates – for example, only at the
application layer, or across the Security
stack.
Imperva security
OSI vs. TCP/IP Model solutions secure your applications
across multiple layers of the OSI
model, from the network layer,
protected by Imperva DDoS
The Transfer Control
mitigation, to Imperva’s web
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
application firewall (WAF), bot
is older than the OSI model and was
management and API security
created by the US Department of
technology that safeguards the
Defense (DoD). A key difference
application layer.
between the models is that TCP/IP is
simpler, collapsing several OSI
layers into one: To secure applications and networks
across the OSI stack, Imperva
provides multi-layered protection to
 OSI layers 5, 6, 7 are combined into
make sure websites and applications
one Application Layer in TCP/IP
are available, easily accessible and
 OSI layers 1, 2 are combined into
safe. The Imperva application
one Network Access Layer in TCP/IP
security solution includes:
– however TCP/IP does not take
responsibility for sequencing and
acknowledgement functions, leaving  DDoS Protection—maintain uptime
these to the underlying transport in all situations. Prevent any type of
layer. DDoS attack, of any size, from
 preventing access to your website
and network infrastructure.
 CDN—enhance website performance CHAPTER 3
and reduce bandwidth costs with a
CDN designed for developers. Cache NETWORK PROTOCOL
static resources at the edge while
accelerating APIs and dynamic What is a Network Protocol :
websites. Types & Its Working
 WAF—cloud-based solution permits
legitimate traffic and prevents bad A protocol can be defined as a set of rules in a
traffic, safeguarding applications at computer network used to process and format the
the edge. Gateway WAF keeps data. For computers, these protocols work like a
common language which may use very different
applications and APIs inside your hardware as well as software to allow them to
network safe. converse with each other.
 Bot protection—analyzes your bot The communication between two computers can be
traffic to pinpoint anomalies, done only if they use IP (Internet Protocol).
identifies bad bot behavior and
But if any one of the computers uses internet
validates it via challenge
protocol then they will be incapable to converse.
mechanisms that do not impact user There are different types of protocols available on
traffic. the internet which are used for different purposes.
 API security—protects APIs by This article discusses an overview of Network
ensuring only desired traffic can Protocol and its working.
access your API endpoint, as well as
detecting and blocking exploits of What is a Network Protocol?
vulnerabilities.
 Account takeover protection— Network protocols are nothing but a set of
rules, data structures & conventions which are
uses an intent-based detection used to determine how devices exchange data
process to identify and defends in the same network. These protocols allow
against attempts to take over users’ two different devices to converse with each
accounts for malicious purposes. other apart from any dissimilarities in their
 RASP—keep your applications safe inside processes, design, or structure.
from within against known and In present digital communications, network
zero-day attacks. Fast and accurate protocols play a key role, and also these are
protection with no signature or the main reason that we can converse easily
learning mode. with people in the world. Communication
 Attack analytics—mitigate and between two devices can be possible with
these protocols because of the inbuilt
respond to real cyber
preprogrammed rules into the hardware and
security threats efficiently and software of devices.
accurately with actionable
intelligence across all your layers of Network Protocol Working
defense.
Before understanding the concept of network
protocols, we have to know the OSI (Open
Systems Interconnection) model first. The
model of Open Systems Interconnection splits Layer 1: (Physical Layer Network Protocols)
the process of communication among
two network devices into seven layers. In the 7 This layer sends a raw bitstream on the
layers in an OSI model, a task can be assigned physical medium
to each layer where seven layers are
independent, so each task can be The functions of networking are possible
independently executed. through protocols. For instance, the (IP) is
responsible for routing the data by representing
In an OSI model, seven network layers are data packets source and destination. Internet
separated into two groups namely upper layers protocol will make communication possible in
like 7, 6 & 5 whereas lower layers like 4, 3, 2, & network-to-network. So, this protocol is
1. Here, the upper layers mainly deal with the considered a layer 3 or network layer protocol.
issues of application whereas the lower layers
mainly deal with the issues of data transport. TCP or Transmission Control Protocol ensures
that the moving of data packets across
In every layer of the OSI model, the functioning networks transmits effortlessly. So, TCP is
of network protocols is discussed below. considered as a layer 4 or transport
layer protocol. A packet is a tiny part of data
Layer 7 (Application Layer Network Protocols) where all data that can be transmitted on a
network can be separated into packets.
This is the human and computer interaction
layer where the network services can be Network Protocols List
accessed by the applications.
There are several network protocols that
Layer 6 (Presentation Layer Network Protocols) perform the following three main actions. Each
type is essential to utilize network devices
This layer ensures that the format of data is quickly and securely.
usable or not and where encryption of data
occurs  Communication
 Network management
Layer 5 (Session Layer Network Protocols)  Security

This layer handles connections and it controls Communication

sessions as well as ports
These protocols are responsible to allow a
Layer 4 (Transport Layer Network Protocols) variety of network devices to interact with each
other. The applications of communication
This layer sends the data through transmission protocols mainly include both analog & digital
protocols like UDP & TCP communications for different purposes like
transferring files among different devices for
Layer 3 (Network Layer Protocols) internet access. Communication protocols are
classified into different types like
This layer will decide to take the physical lane
by the data  Automation
 Internet Protocol
Layer 2 (Data Link Layer Network Protocols)  Instant messaging
 File Transfer
This layer will define the data format over the  Routing
network  Bluetooth
Network Management This type of protocol was formed to transmit &
receive text messages on cellular networks.
Network management protocols define the This kind of protocol refers completely to
different methods required to operate a messages based on text. For videos and
computer network effectively. These types of pictures, we need MMS (Multimedia
protocols will affect several devices over a Messaging Service).
single network like servers, routers &
computers to make sure each one executes Types of Network Protocol
optimally. The main functions of these
protocols mainly include
Network protocols used by different network
 Connection
layers are discussed below.
 Aggregation of Link
 Troubleshooting Network Protocols in Application Layer

Security The network protocols used in the application

layer mainly include DHCP, DNS, FTP, IMAP,
Security protocols or cryptographic protocols HTTP, POP, SMTP, Telnet & SNMP.
mainly work to make sure that the computer
network & the data transmitted over it are DHCP
secured from illegal users. The main functions
of security network protocols are; The communication protocol like DHCP stands
for “Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol”
 Encryption which allows the network administrators to
 Entity Authentication computerize the task of internet protocol
 Transportation addresses within a network
In an internet protocol network, each device
Network Protocol Example connecting to the internet needs an exclusive
IP.
Network protocols can be identified while using
some electronic devices. The most commonly A protocol like DHCP allows the admins of the
used network protocol examples are listed network to distribute addresses of IP from a
below. middle point & routinely send the latest IP
address once a device is connected from
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) different locations within the network. This kind
of protocol functions on a client-server model.
HTTP is an Internet Protocol that defines how
data can be transmitted on the internet & DNS
decides how browsers, as well as web servers,
must react to commands. This kind of protocol The DNS or Domain Name System Protocol is
comes into view at the opening of URLs. used to assist in mapping or changing
hostnames toward IP addresses. This kind of
SSH (Secure Socket Shell) protocol mainly works on a client-server model
and uses a distributed database over a
This SSH protocol gives safe access to a PC, hierarchy of name servers.
even it is using an unsafe network. This
protocol is used mainly by network Hosts are identified based on their IP
administrators who require handling various addresses, but memorizing an IP address is
systems distantly. difficult due to its complexity. IPs are also
dynamic, making it all the more necessary to
SMS (Short Message Service) map domain names to IP addresses. DNS
helps in resolving this issue by converting the
domain names of websites into numerical IP consistently as well as efficiently. This kind of
addresses. protocol is used to send the e-mail, while other
protocols like IMAP & POP are used for
FTP retrieving e-mails on the side of the end-user.

The File Transfer Protocol or FTP allows file This protocol plays a major role in transmitting
sharing among remote & local hosts which and notifying incoming e-mails in between
works on top of transmission control protocol. systems. By using this protocol, a client can
This kind of protocol mainly creates two TCP send an e-mail to a new client on a similar
connections namely data and control. The data network through a relay otherwise gateway
connection is used for transferring the real file entrée that is accessible to both networks.
whereas the control connection transfers
control information such as instructions, secret Telnet
codes, etc. While transferring the entire file,
these connections will work parallel. An application layer protocol like Telnet or
Terminal emulation allows a user to converse
IMAP – Version4 with an isolated device. The installation of a
Telnet client can be done on the user’s
IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) is an machine. It allows the interface of a command
e-mail protocol that allows end-users to access line of one more remote machine to run a
& control messages which are stored on a Telnet server program.
server.
Telnet protocol is typically used through
IMAP protocol tracks a client-server model to network administrators for accessing &
allow access messages of different clients on a managing remote devices. A remote device
general mail server concurrently. This type of can be accessed by entering the IP address
protocol comprises different operations for otherwise remote device’s hostname by a
deleting, renaming mailboxes & creating; network admin.
verifying for latest messages; deleting
messages permanently; flag setting and SNMP
removing, etc. The present IMAP version is 4
revisions 1. SNMP or Simple Network Management
Protocol is an application layer protocol. The
POP – Version3 main function of this protocol is to handle
different nodes such as workstations, routers,
The POP or Post Office Protocol is also one servers, switches on an internet protocol
kind of email protocol. This protocol is used to network. This kind of protocol enables the
download emails by the end-user from the e- administrators of the network to observe the
mail server to their own email client. When the performance of a network, recognize network
e-mails are downloaded then they can be faults & troubleshoot them. This protocol
examined without an internet connection. In includes three components namely an SNMP
addition, when the e-mails are moved nearby, agent, a managed device & an SNMP
then they can be removed from the server. manager.
This protocol is not designed to execute wide
manipulations through the messages on the The agent of SNMP can be located on the
server, not like IMAP4. The new version of this managed device. Here, the agent is nothing
POP is 3. but a software module that includes the
information of management & decodes that
SMTP information into other forms that are well-suited
through the manager of SNMP. This manager
SMTP or Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is presents the obtained information from the
mainly designed for transmitting e-mail
agent of SNMP, administrators of helping the TCP
network to handle nodes efficiently.
TCP or Transmission Control Protocol is used
At present, different SNMP versions are in a transport layer to provide a consistent flow
available like SNMP v1, v2 & v3. The first two delivery as well as fundamental connection
versions include some common features, service to different applications by using
except version 2 gives extra protocol sequenced acknowledgment. This protocol is
operations. This version 3 provides safety & connection based but before transmitting data,
remote configuration capacities to the earlier it needs a connection in-between applications.
versions.
This protocol provides wide error checking
Presentation Layer Network Protocol through flow controlling & acknowledgment of
data. In this protocol, the packets of data can
The network protocol used in the presentation arrive in sequence at the end of the receiver.
layer in the OSI model is LPP or Lightweight By using this protocol, retransmission of data
Presentation Protocol. This type of protocol packets that are lost can also be possible.
provides support for OSI application services
within networks. LPP is mainly designed for a UDP
specific class of OSI applications which
includes simply an ACSE (Association Control UDP or User Datagram Protocol is a
Service Element) & a ROSE (Remote connectionless protocol in the transport layer
Operations Service Element). that offers a simple message service. As
compared to TCP, this protocol includes flow
This protocol is not applicable to an individual control, no reliability otherwise functions of
whose application context is wider that is, it error recovery.
includes a Reliable Transfer Service Element.
This is suitable in conditions where the
Session Layer Network Protocol reliability mechanisms of transmission control
protocol are not required. So, there is not a
The network protocol used in the session layer possibility for lost data packets retransmission.
in the OSI model is RPC or Remote Procedure
Call Protocol. This kind of protocol requests a Network Layer Protocols
service from a program within a remote
computer using a network that is used without The protocols used in the network layer are IP,
understanding the basic network technologies. IPv6 & ICMP

RPC protocol employs UDP or TCP for holding IP

the messages among communicating
programs. This kind of protocol also performs The Internet Protocol or IP is used in
on the client-server model where the client is the network layer that includes the data of
the requesting program & the server is the control and addressing. This data is very
program for providing service. helpful in packet routing within a network. This
protocol functions in the cycle through TCP to
Transport Layer Network Protocols transmit data packets across the computer
network.
The network protocol used in the transport
layer in the OSI model is TCP & UDP Beneath this protocol, every host is allocated
with a 32-bit address including two main parts
like the host and the network number. Here,
the network number recognizes a network that
is allocated through the internet, whereas the
host number recognizes a host on top of the SLIP
network that is assigned through an admin of
the network. This protocol is accountable for SLIP or Serial Line IP is mainly used for serial
transmitting the data packets & the TCP connections of point-to-point through TCP/IP.
assists in placing them back in the correct This kind of protocol is mainly used for specific
order. serial links as well as dial-up purposes. This
protocol is responsible for enabling routers and
IPv6 mixes of hosts for communicating with others.

IPv6 or Internet Protocol version 6 is the new The common network configurations of SLIP
version of the network layer protocol. The main protocol are host to host, host to router & route
function of this protocol is to possess to router. This is a packet framing protocol and
addressing as well as control data for allowing it defines a series of characters that structure
packets to be routed within the network. This IP data packets over a sequential line. It does
kind of protocol was created to interact with not offer packet type identification, addressing,
IPv4. It enhances the size of the IP addresses correction & detection of an error, etc.
from 32 – 128 bits for supporting high
addressing levels. The selection of the right protocol mainly
depends on the applications. So after
ICMP discussing and verifying all the protocols within
computer networks, the best protocols can be
ICMP stands for Internet Control Message selected based on the requirement like the
Protocol which supports through different following.
network devices for transmitting error
messages as well as operational data.  A communication protocol like TCP/IP is
used for startup businesses.
ICMP messages which are transmitted within  FTP protocol is used for the quick transfer
IP data packets are mainly utilized for out-of- of efficient files.
 HTTPS is used for security purposes and
band messages associated with the operation
that transfers the data over the network.
of the network. This kind of protocol is used to
declare network faults, blocking & helps in
Once SNMP and managing networks are still
troubleshooting.
widely used then it is made more efficient
whenever they working in combination with
Data Link Layer Network Protocols
UDP.
The network protocols used in the data link Network Protocol Standards
layer are ARP & SLIP.
The set of rules used in data communication
ARP
for exchanging the data among different
devices is known as standards of network
The ARP or Address Resolution Protocol is protocols. These standards are created by
used to assist from map the addresses of different standard organizations like ISO, IEEE,
internet protocol to physical machine which are ANSI, and many more. The standards used in
identified within the local network. network protocol are two types which include
the following.
An ARP cache is a table mainly used to handle
a connection among every internet protocol  De Facto Standard
address as well as its equivalent MAC address.  De Jure Standard
This type of protocol provides the laws to make
these connections, & assists in converting In De Facto Standard, the term De Facto is
addresses within both ways. nothing but “By Fact or By Convention”. These
standards have been not accepted by any
Organization, however, they adopted
Standards due to their extensive use.
Occasionally, these are frequently founded by
Manufacturers.

For instance, multinational companies like

Google and Apple have established their own
policies on their products. For the
manufacturing of their products, they use some
network protocol standards.

In De Jure Standard, the meaning of “De Jure”

is “By Regulations or By Law. These standards
are approved by recognized companies like
ISO, ANSI, IEEE, etc. These standards are
essential to follow if it is necessary.

For instance, all the standard protocols in data

communication are essential to follow and use
when requiring like UDP, SMTP, TCP, IP, etc.

Please refer to this link to know more

about Network Interface & Transmission Media
in Computer Networks.

Please refer to this link to know more

about Transmission Media MCQs, Computer
Networks Question & Answers

Thus, this is all about an overview of network

protocol, types & network protocol
uses. These protocols are classified into three
types namely network management, network
communication & network security.
Communication protocols mainly comprise
fundamental data communication tools such as
HTTP and TCP/IP. Security protocols comprise
SFTP, SSL & HTTPS. Management protocols
handle & rule the network by using different
protocols like SNMP & ICMP. Here is a
question for you, what is the network protocol
error?