I.

DEFINITION OF ELECTRONICS
A branch of physics that deals with the emission, behavior, and effects of electrons (as
in electron tubes and transistors) and with electronic devices. (Merriam-Webster.
(n.d.). Electronics. In [Link] dictionary. Retrieved February 8, 2024,
from [Link]

Electronics
-A field of science and engineering, which deals with the motion of electrons
under the influence of applied and/or magnetic field.
Study of devices that can control the flow of electricity. Branch of physics and
electrical engineering that deals with the emission, behavior, and effects of electrons
and with electronic devices.
Electronic devices,
are components for controlling the flow of electrical currents for the purpose of
information processing and system control. Prominent examples include transistors
and diodes. Electronic devices are usually small and can be grouped together into
packages called integrated circuit.
(New York University is a private research university in New York City. Chartered in
1831 by the New York State Legislature, NYU was founded in 1832 by a group of New
Yorkers led by Albert Gallatin as a non-denominational all-male institution near City
Hall based on a curriculum focused on a secular education).
II. HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS

As long as the memory goes back we can say that in Greek and Indian
mythology the people having extraordinary power were able to send
message very quickly. So, what was the basis of that technology?
Were they using any kind of wireless devices, whose components are
electronic as today’s wireless devices. Whatever it may be there is no
clear idea of those technologies or no proof that whether they were
using those things. In the 21st century we are enjoying well
developed electronics. In some form or the other day we deal with
the electronic devices several times. So why we are interested to
look at the past? Because it is required. Like the history of a nation
from which its people get inspired (or learn something from their
past faults) the history of any science inspires its future generations.
Even more than that those who spent their whole life for the
inventions/discoveries, they did not do that for themselves rather
they did it for the whole society, the whole world. So, we should
tribute them. This electronic world was not just the effort of some
years or decades, rather it is the result of the hard work of great
minds since ages. So now it is the time to remember them. In the
coming sections the whole scenario of the development of the
electronics in the whole world have been looked at in a chronological
order. Also, their effects on the contemporary society and economy
have been analyzed. Electronics before Twentieth Century Now let us
divide the history of electronics into two broad categories. That can
be done on the basis of development of the electronic technology
and its use in the everyday life. Before the 20th century there was a
little or almost no electronics in the day today life of a common man.
So, the time before 20th century can be taken as the pre-
developmental era in the growth of electronic technology. So, we
should start from the very beginning of electrical engineering, which
is regarded as the parent of electronics. The formal beginning of
electrical engineering goes back to 18th century when Franklin gave
the explanation to the cause of thunder and lighting. It was a big
mystery at that time. But, the lucid explanation of Franklin gave the
first idea of charge flow and its consequence. Though the concept of
charge was there before Coulomb there was no formal mathematical
theory to explain the concept. So Coulomb’s theory was regarded as
the first mathematical expression that defined the electrical charge
in a well defined manner. He also invented the torsion balance and
that helped him to calculate the force of interaction between the
electrical charges, which is today known as Coulomb force after his
name.

There after the next big name was Luigi Galvani who discovered the
bioelectricity from his famous experiment using the frog leg. He
thought that electricity as one of the sources of life. That created
some ideas that electricity is related to life at that time, anyway his
famous frog leg experiment gave some solid basis to the future
researchers to develop the concept of potential difference. The
mystery of the frog-leg experiment was disclosed by Alessandro Volta.
He repeated Galvani’s frog leg experiment using various types of
electrodes. There after he concluded that the spark in the frog-leg
experiment is not due to the frog rather it has a different reason. He
told that when the copper and zinc electrodes are kept in the acid
there arises some potential difference between the electrodes and
the charges flow from one electrode to the there if there is any
physical connection between them through some conducting wire.
That was the first electric cell mad by Volta. After his name the
potential difference is also known as Voltage. The strangest and the
most effective thing in the history of electrical engineering is the
merging of magnetism with the electricity which gives rise to the one
of the most fundamental interactions of nature known as the
electromagnetic interaction. But it happened quite late in 1820 when
Oersted found that the needle of a compass is deflected when kept
near a current carrying conductor. So from that observation he
concluded that the magnetism of a compass is affected by current.
There after magnetism is considered as an aspect of
electromagnetism, not as a different entity. Ampere proved the
relationship using algebra. Gauss also gave the alternative forms of
mathematical equations to explain electricity and magnetism. Those
works of Gauss are known as Gauss theorems. But it was not known
why some energy in the form of potential difference is required to
make the charges flow from one end to the other. The explanation
came from the German scholar George Simon Ohm. He for the first
time introduced the concept of resistance and conductance. In
almost all the conductors there is some resistance that opposes the
flow of current through them. That’s why the charges cannot flow in
the conductors without the presence of any energy source in the
form of potential difference. Then it was proved that potential
difference is very important to keep the charges moving from one
end to the other in a conductor. Potential differences can be created
in various ways. At that time the chemical cells were the main
sources of electricity. In the next phase started the real victory of
the electrical engineering under the leadership Michel Faraday. He
not only gave birth to some interesting theories, but himself invented
some fundamental electrical machines like the transformer and
electric motors. Faraday was a poor child who had always aims to do
something big in the scientific research. He got the opportunity from
the then big name Humphrey Davy. After that Faraday had never
looked back. He gave many fundamental theories which are like the
back bone to the electrical sciences. His concept of lines of forces
was not accepted by the then scientific community, but was later
found to be the fundamental fact of electromagnetism. He first gave
the knowledge of electrical power generation and made the first
transformer of the world. But it was a bit strange that he himself did
not have the idea that his discoveries will someday change the
science of the world. Faraday’s laws of electrolysis were beneficial to
both the chemists and physicists of that time. That also was a
fundamental tool to prove that the electric charges are quantized.
He also gave the concept of inductance, which was also developed by
another great of that time, Joseph Henry. Lenz was there to modify
faraday’s second law of induction. So, the electrical engineering was
unstoppable and running really fast to be the most attractive science
at that time. Faraday’s law was not accepted by many of his
contemporaries because the nature of the lines of forces he
described did not sound satisfactory to many at that time, but there
was another genius to understand and explain it quite lucidly. He
supported Faraday and combined all the mathematical equations
available at that time to systematize the electrical science. Not only
that, he also gave some other stunning theories that changed the
science there after. He was none other than Maxwell. Maxwell’s
equation is today fundamental to all theory of electrical machinery
and communication sciences. It has used in every field more or less.
His theories are one or the best scientific achievements of the world
for ever. He unified the optics as a part of the whole
electromagnetism. After Maxwell it was just the matter of time to
invent the electrical machines and communication devices to deliver
the service to the mankind and to take the civilization in the road of
science and technology. The first achievement after Maxwell’s theory
was the invention of the electric bulbs by another genius Thomas
Edison. The lighted the world by his electric bulbs. He invented
numerous electrical devices and contributed the most to the
consumer electrics. He was mainly using DC and was the greatest
advocate of the use of DC. But one of his contemporaries Nicola Tesla
had something different in his mind. He used his brain to make AC
popular. He invented the induction motor and proved that AC can be
used more efficiently than DC. After some years with the help of
Westinghouse he took the tender of the Niagara Project and started
generating AC. Another big thing had happened at the same time
while Edison was trying to light an electric bulb. That was the
“Edison effect” or the thermoionic effect. Edison found that in a
closed environment even without the physical contact of wires there
exist a small current through them when they are heated to a
sufficiently high temperature. By the same time there was a great
need to reduce the distance of the various parts of the world by
means of some communication technology. Alexandra Graham Bell
opened the account by inventing the telephone. At around the same
time the telegraphic communication using the Morse code was very
popular. That was even used for the transatlantic communications.
But the main breakthrough, which mesmerized the communication
science, came when the German physicist Henry Hertz discovered the
radio waves and also gave the methods to transmit and detect them.
Then started a new chapter in the communication technology area.
Not far than a decade after that the Russian scientist Popov and the
Italian electrical engineer Marconi invented the radio and used
antennas for radio communications. The electronics had its identity
in the world, but without the presence of its principal components.
Electronics of Early 20th Century Electronics in the early 20th century
started thriving at a greater speed unlike the pre-20th century
developments. From the starting itself the electronics got its special
recognition. The radio invented by the Italian genius Marconi and the
work of Henry Hertz opened the road to further discoveries and
inventions. In the first decade the new thing that was welcomed to
the technical world was the vacuum tube. The vacuum tubes at that
time worked as a miraculous component for the radio devices.
Marconi’s radio needs some good detectors for the receiving of the
incoming radio waves. For that reasons a good rectifier was needed
which can convert the AC into DC. There were already many AC
generating stations and AC was getting very popular. So, the
engineers were planning to change the AC into DC instead of
producing the expensive DC. The duo of Tesla and Westinghouse
brought many exciting features to the AC at that time. The invention
of the induction motor by Tesla was a revolution in the use of AC.
Someone brings the breakthrough when all the great minds are in
need. That happened again. The then famous English physicist
Fleming found an alternative to the DC production. He invented the
first vacuum tube using the principle known as “Edison Effect”.
According to the Edison Effect when there is a small separation in
between the two conductors connected to a source of electricity and
are heated then there can be a current in the conductor. That means
the vacuum in between the conductors becomes a good carrier. That
idea was actually in the brain of Sir Ambrose Fleming. So, he tried to
do something which can demonstrate the Edison Effect. But when he
tested his newly invented device he was happy to find that it can
work as a rectifier, means which can change the AC into DC. History
was created. This was the real birth of electronics. Here starts a new
chapter in the history of human being. At that time Marconi’s radio
was badly needing some good detectors. This vacuum tube filled that
need. It has two electrodes and that’s why it was named as diode. It
was the first diode and the main motivation behind the solid state
devices which after some decades take control of the whole world
economics. Just after two years of Fleming’s diode Defrost in the US
invented another similar device which was named as triode, because
it had three electrodes. Besides the anode and cathode there was an
extra electrode known as grid. The grid was controlling the flow of
charges from the anode to the cathode. It was wonderful that triode
had the characteristics of an amplifier. So it helped a lot in the
growth of the communication at that time. Because the amplifier was
an important component in the radio and other communication
devices to strengthen the weak radio signals. A revolution in the
whole science came when Einstein proposed his historic theory of
relativity. But no one was ready to accept his theory at that time. But
the work of J J Thomson and Rutherford opened the secrets of the
atoms and its sub-particles. Max Plank and Niels Bohr provide the
further explanation to the atomic theory. Einstein himself came with
his big version known as the general theory of relativity. He was not
bothered about the critics. He himself saved the corpuscular theory
of light from death and opened the road to the quantum theory. It
was not far to bring the quantum theory into light after Einstein’s
Nobel winning photo-electric effect. Louis De Broglie, Heisenberg,
Schrödinger and Dirac proved the reality of the quantum theory. So
the research in the scientific community got a great speed. The
computers were another main attraction at that time. Due to the
world wars there was a big need of computers for war related tasks
like code breaking. During the first and second world war some
computers were made for this purpose. But they were not that
efficient as many of them were using decimal systems and all the
prime components were made up of vacuum tubes. The invention of
the television was a miraculous thing for the mankind. It was
revolution in both communication technology and also for the world
media. The distances between the continents did not seem to be far
enough. People were able to watch the distant things from there
home. The entertainment industry got new life. The popular artists
through out the world become well known and got a huge
recognition. The credit goes to the British engineer John Logie Baird
who followed the foot prints of Marconi and tried to send the images
in the same way as the speech. After a long experiment he found that
a series of static pictures if sent within a small interval of time in
between them, seem to be moving. This move was successful after a
number of trails. Then came the Second World War and the scientists
were busy in war related research and the attention from the general
research was withdrawn. But the war technology also helped a lot in
the future. Discovery of the transistor effect The diode valves of the
early twentieth century were large enough to be inside the electronic
devices and they had many other problems like high power
consumption, low reliability and the requirement of good cooling
arrangements etc. So the electrical engineers and physicists at that
time tried for the development of some alternatives which can fill up
the place of troublesome vacuum tube in case of both the detectors
and amplifiers. At that time the physics of solids were also on its way
to bloom. Many theories like the Fermi-Dirac equations had opened
the wide scale research on the solids. In Bell labs the scientists were
desperately looking for some alternative to the vacuum diodes and
triodes for the communication technology. After the end of the
horrible WW2 the whole world took some rest. But the scientific
community who were working in the war forcefully or by the
motivation of the country’s top leaders did not rest. Rather they
started their original intended works at their previous work places.
The scenario in the US was also not much different. After the war the
economy was weak. So the industrial research was mainly focused on
the economic development. Bell labs too took some leading in the
development of the communication sciences. The research group in
the Bell Labs found that the existing technology and the devices for
better communication were not available at that time. So their main
concern was to find some alternative for the existing amplifiers. The
valve amplifiers were the main obstacle in the road of progress. So,
they looked for some solid state devices. The findings of Russell Ohl
had confirmed that the pure silicon when doped with some impurities
of tri and penta-valent materials can be used as two layers of a PN
junction diode. They had some foresights that, the junction
phenomenon may be used for the building of a new amplifier. The
group led by William Shockley was investigating these facts. Other
team members were Morgan, Bardeen, Brattain, Gibney, Moore and
Pearson. Fortune favours the brave. The auspicious day came and the
science started growing at an exponential rate there after. Thanks to
the genius of the three young scientists of the Bell labs. They found a
new concept known as “Transistor effect”. It was for the first time
discovered by Bardeen and Brattain. That is known as point contact
transistor. That was mainly contributed by Brattain and Bardeen, who
thought that the effects are mainly due to some surface
phenomenon. But Shockley was not dormant. He too was working
hard on something different, which is today known as n-p-n
transistor. He gave the theory that the transistor effect was due to
some bulk phenomenon. After that he worked hard on the
semiconductor theories and gave a satisfactory explanation to the
transistor effect. His book “Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors” is
a popular book today as well. Despite these two available models of
transistor there were some other problems which were barriers in the
production of transistors in large scale. The Endless Journey after
Transistor The real electronics what it is called today was actually
started after the discovery of the transistor effect. Transistor opened
the road for the electronics and there after electronics got its
independent identity in electrical engineering. More importantly it
opened the road for the computing world. Computers of various types
started hitting the market and the research works got a boost. Some
other problems were also there like the assembling of the electronic
components on a single mother board. It was worsened when the
metallic contacts cross each other and crowded the mother board.
Jack Kilby in Texas Instruments found a very nice solution. He
suggested to throw away all the wires and tried to connect the
resistors, capacitors and transistors on the same piece of wafer
internally. Surprisingly his ideas worked and gave birth to the
Integrated Circuit industries. At around the same time Shockley had
left Bell Labs and started his own company in California, whose name
was Shockley Semiconductor. Some other brilliant young researchers
also joined his company there. Among them who are famous today
are Gordon Moore, Robert Noyce and Jean Hoerni. Robert Noyce also
did many contributions to the IC technology by joining the Fairchild
Company and the Fairchild Semiconductor was born. By the efforts of
both Noyce and Kilby the IC industry became very popular and looked
forward for its next successor, the microprocessor. Another history
was being made in the USSR at the same time. The first artificial
satellite Sputnik was sent to the space. There was a big demand for
the better electronic components for the control and performance of
the satellite and other electrical devices like the big motors and
generators. Huge demand of transistors and ICs revolutionised the
electronics industry at that time. A new type of transistor was
invented in early sixties, which is known as MOSFET. MOSFET is slower
than the junction transistor but it is smaller, chipper and consumes
less power. In 1965 Gordon Moore came out with an awesome paper
called “Cramming more Components onto Integrated Circuits”. In
that paper he described that the number of transistors used on a
singe chip of silicon will grow exponentially. In 1968 Rob Noyce and
Moore left Fairchild to start Intel, both of whom were very popular
already in the field of microelectronics. In 1971 their company
invented the first microprocessor well known as 4004 having 2300
transistors on one silicon chip. The credit mainly goes to the young
engineer Ted Hoff. While working on a Japanese project he found
some problems with integrated circuits and planned to have even
larger integrated circuits which can have the whole computer on a
single chip. That microprocessor led the way to the successors like
the 8080, 8085, 80486, Pentium series and the most modern
processors like the Xeon too. The Effect on Computing One of the
most important and admirable creation of the 20th century scientists
was the invention of computer. That’s why many say that 20th
century is the century of computers. The needs of computers were at
peak during the WWII. In Britain the German-code breaking project
was being done by Colossus, one of the early computers. At the same
time another general purpose programmable computer was being
used in Harvard University which was built with help of IBM. The main
aim was to break the security codes of the enemy. Keeping this in
mind the ENIAC was invented in the University of Pennsylvania at
Philadelphia. It was a huge computer of 30 tonnes, was fairly fast and
having many vacuum diodes and triodes in the operation. It had
covered some rooms and many of its parts were mechanical. The
discovery of the transistor effect gave birth to new ideas for new
computers. They are popularly known as second generation
computers. The efforts of Jack Kilby and Rob Noyce gave birth to the
third generation computers, which used the ICs and the companies
like IBM started the mainframe machines having more storage
capacity and faster speed. After the invention of the first
microprocessor 4004 in 1971 in Intel everyone in the microelectronic
industries thought that microprocessors can help in the rapid growth
of computers. They started many new projects in inventing new
microprocessors and the fourth generation of computers started. The
first personal computer built was the Altair 8800 of MITS which came
around 1975. At the same time Apple computer was started and the
first Apple machines hit the market in 1976. Many companies now got
ready to provide computers at the household level. Among them the
front runners were IBM and Apple. In parallel to the development in
the hardware the software industry was also blooming. There ware
many operating systems and computer languages at the starting of
70s. The most popular languages were FORTRAN, COBOL and PASCAL
etc. But the C language by Dennis Ritchie found to be very helpful in
system programming. Even today C has that dominance. In the early
eighties the most popular OOP technology was started with the birth
of C++. Of course some object oriented features were present in
some other languages like Ada, Smalltalk and FORTRAN. At the end of
the nineties the new technologies like the Java helped a lot in the
development of the web. Then the scenario was stolen by software
companies like the Microsoft and Oracle who made the computing
very popular and the computers no more remained a tool of the
scientific community. At the same time there was a huge demand for
the time limited tasks, which were nearly impossible by the general
computers. So, the faster computers or the supercomputers were in
the mind of many scientists. Among them the front runner was
Seymour Cray, who started the supercomputer industry form his Cray
series. Unlike the general computers the super computers were using
a large number of parallel processors and high speed logics like the
ECL. The Effect on Economy Transistor mesmerized almost
everything, including the economy of the 20th century. The economy
of the world after the WWII was very weak. Even some rich countries
lost a lot in the war. The richest country after the war was Britain
followed by Argentina. The GDP of the countries at that time was
some billions. The GDP of the whole world at that time was also not
that high. Like the Moore’s law there is another basic law, which was
found from the economy of the chip electronics. It is known as 7/10
cost law. According to this law the advances in the microelectronic
designs has led the prices of the similar chips to be reduced at 30%
each year. That means if the price of a chip is 10£ this year it will be
7£ next year, having the same features and functionality. Of course,
this is possible only due to Moore’s law by which the number of
transistors per chip is doubling each year. The economic press had
never listened about trillion dollars in the market and it is in doubt
that had the transistor effect not been discovered the trillion dollars
would have been a dream today too. The electronic industry is worth
around $350 billions as far as the hardware markets are concerned. If
we will add the consumer electronics then it is of $1.2 trillion. But if
we will take all the effects of electronics then everyone will be
astonished because almost all the sectors are dependent on
electronics. From communication to education, from medical to
transportation, from entertainment to adventures and economics
everywhere electronics is the main tool behind the development. So
simply we can say that electronics is just priceless to the human
society today. Effect on Other Sciences The effect of electronics is
not absent in other branches of sciences. In parallel to the
development in electronics they too developed at the same rate. In
biology the invention of electron microscope was a great break
through. Similarly, the electronic version of other measuring devices
gave a better accuracy and precision. The technologies like the
Optical NMR gave a new direction to the bio-research. With the
development of the sophisticated electronic components the control
systems of industries, automobiles and big machines were made very
robust. The aviation industry, entertainment industry and the
manufacturing industries were the front runners and now at their all
time best. More or less the world in every sector was changed by
electronics. The Effect on the Whole World There was a global effect
on the population of the whole world and everything seemed to be
different after the transistor. The first thing which changed the daily
life was communication. With the help of the transistors the distance
between the remote places became less. The growth of radios and
TVs gave ample entertainment to the public worldwide. The
electronic press became very dynamic. The list is endless. Electronics
till Date If we shall consider yesterday as history then there are many
things which can be put in history each day. That is due to the rapid
growth in the IT industry, its concerned global market and the
ultrafast research and development throughout the world. Thus while
considering the history of electronics we should take some time
boundary to consider which is history and which is not. In this case
let us take the things of the early nineties as history. So, in this
section the most famous inventions of the early nineties and late
eighties have been considered. The domain name system and http
were already in use just after their birth, but still the networking of
the computers was not that spread. Only some universities of the US
and Europe were connected to each other and that was mainly for
the research purpose. At that time in CERN many researcher of the
whole world were doing some research on the high energy physics.
They were using their own system for their own research. So, a lot of
varieties of computers were really a problem to share the research
data. One of those researchers thought of the interconnection of the
computers to form a common network. He tried it using the existing
protocols like the http, ftp, and DNS etc. In addition to that he added
a new framework which is now popularly known as WWW or the
World Wide Web. The internet was born. The whole knowledge banks
of the world, the whole information regarding anything are just now
clicks away. It became possible due to that great person Tim Berners-
Lee. history of electronics is really a vast area and it is not possible
to present the whole details of the systematic history in this limited
scope, electronics which started as philosophy then physics then
electrical engineering has now got its own identity and going to be
even more diverse in the future. There is no doubt that the modern
electronics as we see it today started from the birth of the vacuum
diode of Sir Ambrose Fleming. On the centenary year we should
remember that great man and both his predecessors and successors.
The changes of 20th century are mainly due to electronics, there no
doubt about it. All the systems today are almost electronic. So, at
last it can be said that the history of electronics is as rich as the
electronics itself. Through ages the developments in electronics have
started. The future seems to be very bright. The new fields like the
quantum communication and bioinformatics are going to be the
leading areas of studies in the future which can take the human
civilization to a great high. The history of electronics is widespread
and cannot be described in a paper of limited words. The discovery
of the transistor effect has been considered as the development of
the modern electronics. But the trail is mainly to find out what led to
the discovery of the transistor and what its after effects are. (The
Engineering and Technology History Wiki is a MediaWiki-based
website dedicated to the history of technology. It started operating
in 2015).
III. APLLICATIONS OF ELECTRONICS
1. Consumer Electronics- The devices and equipment meant for daily use are
known as customer electronics; this industry is widely applicable to the
common people. Some of its applications included office gadgets like
computers, scanners, calculators, FAX machines, projectors etc. It also
includes home appliances like washing machines, refrigerators, microwaves,
TVs, vacuum cleaners, video games, loudspeakers etc. and some advanced
storage devices such as HDD jukebox, DVDs etc.
2. Industrial Electronics- Electronics engineering has a huge impact on the smooth
functioning of the industries as it is used in various systems, grids and
processing units. For example, smart electric systems collect information from
the communication technology department, and several machines use
automation and motor control systems using electronics; also, it is used in
extracting 3D images from 2D using image processing systems.
3. Medical applications-For data recording and physiological analysis, advanced,
sophisticated instruments are being developed using the latest technologies
and electronics engineering, and these instruments are very useful in
diagnosing diseases and for healing purposes. Electronics play a vital role in the
functioning of medical instruments; for instance, the stethoscope is used to
listen to the inner sounds of the human or animal body, a glucose metre for
checking sugar levels, a pacemaker for dropping and increasing heartbeat
count and so on.
4. Defense and Aerospace-Electronics technology has been used extensively
in the defense and aeronautical systems, which include missile launching
systems, cockpit controllers, military radars, aircraft systems, rocket
launchers for space and many more.
5. Automotive (Automobiles)- Electronics are widely used in the latest
automobile technologies, like anti-collision units, anti-lock braking
systems, traction controls, window regulators and several electronic
control units. (Byju's is an Indian multinational educational technology
company, headquartered in Bangalore. It was founded in 2011 by Byju
Raveendran and Divya Gokulnath. As of January 2024, Byju's was valued
at $200 millions, a sharp fall from its peak of $22 billion in 2022).
IV. COMMON ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

Electronic Component is basic fundamental building block of and electronic

system precisely used to affect electrons and their associated fields. Each
component may have one or more basic properties and it behaves
accordingly.

Two general categories of Electronic Component

1. Active components- these components are those that do not have gain or
directionality. They are also called Electrical elements or electrical

components. Depends on a source of energy it can control the flow of

current and can amplify electrical signal. Needs external source to do
their operation.

• TRANSISTORS
A transistor is a three-terminal electronic device that amplifies or
switches electronic signals.

 DIODE
 A diode is a semiconductor device that essentially acts as a one-way
switch for current. It allows current to flow easily in one direction, but
severely restricts current from flowing in the opposite direction.

 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
Integrated circuits are made up of several components such as R, C, L,
diodes and transistors. They are built on a small single block or chip of a
semiconductor known as an integrated circuit (IC). All of them work
together to perform a particular task.

2. Passive components- electronic component which can only receive energy,

which it can dissipate, absorb or store in an electric field or a magnetic field.
Passive elements do not need any form of electrical power to operate. Passive
elements cannot amplify, oscillate, or generate electrical signal. Example:
resistors, capacitors, diodes, inductors.

 RESISTOR
1. Resistors, as their name indicates resist the flow of electricity, and
this function is key to the operation most circuits. Resistance is the
property of materials to resist the flow of electricity. The resistance
is measured in ohms (Ω).

 TYPES OF RESISTORS
 1. Fixed resistor- fixed value resistors have a defined ohmic resistance
and are not adjustable. Fixed resistors are the most commonly used
resistors and in general one of the most used electronic components.

2. Variable resistor- this type of resistor has the ability to vary its
resistance between two set values (with the lower usually being 0
ohms).
RESISTOR COLOR CODING
 uses colored bands to quickly identify a resistors resistive value and its
percentage of tolerance with the physical size of the resistor indicating
its wattage rating.

 4 BAND RESISTOR

(created by Eric Wilhelm and Saul Griffith and launched in August 2005.
Instructables is dedicated to step-by-step collaboration among members to
build a variety of projects).
V. REFERENCE
TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. DEFINITION OF ELECTRONICS………………………………………….1
II. HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS………………………………………………2
III. APPLICATION OF ELECTRONICS………………………………………11
IV. COMMON ELECTRONIC COMPONENT………………………………12
V. REFERENCE…………………………………………………………………….15