Chapter-3: ECOSYSTEM

3.1 BIOACCUMULATION

Bioaccumulation describes the accumulation and enrichment of contaminants in organisms, relative to that in
the environment. Bioaccumulation is the net result of all uptake and loss processes, such as respiratory and
dietary uptake, and loss by egestion, passive diffusion, metabolism, transfer to offspring and growth (Figure
1).Bioaccumulation thereby comprises the more specific processes of bioconcentration and biomagnification.
Bioconcentration is the process of direct partitioning of chemicals between the water and the organism,
leading to elevated concentrations in the latter. Biomagnification is the result of contaminant uptake from the
diet leading to higher concentrations in the feeder than in the diet. Subsequently, biomagnification leads to
increased chemical concentration with higher trophic position in the food web.

Bioaccumulation occurs when toxins build up - or accumulate - in a food chain. The animals at the top of the food
chain are affected most severely. This is what happens: Small amounts of toxic substances - often pesticides or
pollution from human activity - are absorbed by plants.

For an Eg. bioaccumulation is used to describe the build up of chemicals in fish. Through the food chain, chemicals
like PCBs, DDT, dioxins, and mercury build up in the bodies of the fish. People are at the top of this food chain. When
you eat a lot of fish that have chemicals in them, those chemicals can build up in your body, too. While the chemicals
in fish won’t make you sick right away, they could cause health problems someday.

Figure 1 Bioaccumulation-an overview

3.1.1 Effect of Bioaccumulation:

Bioaccumulation of these chemicals can cause birth defects in offspring or a complete failure to reproduce. These
chemicals affect not only individual organisms but also entire ecosystems when keystone species are affected
3.2 BIOMAGNIFICATION
Biomagnification is the process by which toxic chemicals build up within predators. This typically occurs across an
entire food chain and affects all of the organisms but animals higher up in the chain are more impacted. When
predatory animals consume their prey they also consume all of the toxic chemicals within said prey. When these toxins
aren't easily excreted they build up in the animal's system through bioaccumulation. Therefore, when the food chain
progresses, concentrations increase or magnify. Biomagnification can be considered the result of bioaccumulation.

Example : At the bottom of the food chain, plankton are infected

with mercury (often through diffusion with the surrounding water) and eaten by
some small fish (to greatly simplify things assume that each plankton has a
concentration of 1 ppm of mercury in it). Each small fish consumes ten times their
weight in plankton over a period of time. The fish would now have 10 ppm of
mercury in their system. Now those small fish are eaten by a school of larger fish
who consume ten times their weight each, the larger fish would now have 100 ppm
of mercury in their system. This process continues all the way up the food chain to
animals like humans and eagles (animals that are not usually eaten by other
animals) where concentrations of the toxin reach their highest and the health
dangers are the greatest.

One difference is that bioaccumulation refers to the build-up of the chemical in

the body of one organism while biomagnification refers to the build-up in multiple
organisms. Biomagnification also requires movement up a food chain in order to
occur, while bioaccumulation does not require that the animal be eaten.

Examples of bioaccumulation and biomagnification include:

• Car emission chemicals building up in birds and other animals.
• Mercury building up in fish.
• Pesticides building up in small animals.

Figure 2 Biomagnification, each level of

the food chain has a greater
concentration of contaminant.

3.3. Ecosystem values:

Option value attributed to preserving the option to utilize ecosystem services in the future. Existence value attributed to
the pure existence of an ecosystem. Altruistic value based on the welfare the ecosystem may give other people.
Bequest value based on the welfare the ecosystem may give future generations.

We define ecological value generally as the level of benefits that the space. water, minerals, biota, and all other factors
that make up natural ecosystems provide to support native life forms. Ecological values can accrue to both humans and
nonhumans alike.

Though the idea of environmental services was introduced in the 1970s, it really didn’t get widespread international
attention until the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, published in 2005. Today a concerted international effort to
understand ecosystem services and incorporate that understanding into decision-making (the IPBES-Intergovernmental
Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services) is underway.
Co system valuation attempts to capture the range of benefits and costs contained within a complicated natural web
with a range of economic methodologies.
Ecological systems provide four general categories of services: provisioning (e.g. fish to eat, timber to
sell), regulatory, supporting, and cultural (e.g. ecosystems supporting indigenous gathering techniques, or supplies for
traditional clothing). See Figure 3. for a mangrove-specific example of this complex subject.
These four types of services can then provide two basic categories of value: the use and non-use categories.
Environmental economists have further separated categorizes for which individuals are willing to pay:
• Direct-use value.
The simplest form of ecosystem valuation for orthodox environmental economists, this translates the direct ecological
yield as it would be on commodity markets: e.g. the value of water, timber, fish, or other commodities if immediately
developed and sold at market [Link], an exchange value or 'price' is associated with the objects of value, regarded
as natural capital, associated with ecosystems and this may be based on the ability of a system to produce yields each
year that are exchangeable in operating markets and have existing exchange prices.
• Indirect use value
This attributed to indirect utilization of ecosystem services, through the positive externalities that ecosystems provide.
The World Bank explains that these values are "derived from ecosystem services that provide benefits outside the
ecosystem itself. Examples include natural water filtration which often benefits people far downstream, the storm
protection function of mangrove forests which benefits coastal properties and infrastructure, and carbon sequestration
which benefits the entire global community by abating climate change.
• Option value attributed to preserving the option to utilize ecosystem services in the future.
• Existence value attributed to the pure existence of an ecosystem.
• Altruistic value based on the welfare the ecosystem may give other people.
• Bequest value based on the welfare the ecosystem may give future generations.
Given these types of potential ecological values, economists utilize a variety of methods to calculate those market
values and measure non-market values. Standard environmental economic methods are used to place a monetary value
on ecosystem services where there are no market prices. These include "stated preference" methods and "revealed
preference" methods. Stated preference methods, such as the contingent valuation method ask people for
their willingness to pay for a certain ecosystem (service). Revealed preference methods, such as hedonic pricing and
the travel cost method, use a relation with a market good or service to estimate the willingness-to-pay for the service.
Applying such preference based approaches has been criticized as a means of deriving the value of ecosystems and
biodiversity and for avoiding deliberation, justification and judgment in making choices. The monetary value society
attaches to ecosystem services depends on the income distribution.

Figure 3 Example of ecosystem services range for mangrove habitat

3.3. Degradation of Ecosystem:

The degradation of ecosystems is an environmental problem that diminishes the capacity of species to survive. This
degradation occurs in different ways and is manifested in a reduction in the richness of the ecosystems as well as their
biological diversity, and in the goods and services they can offer, thereby affecting indigenous and/or migratory
species. The degradation of ecosystems due to overexploitation of their resources, though serving a short-term
economic goal, has had direct negative effects on social welfare in the medium and long terms. As long as the
ecosystem is not degraded, it represents a source of wealth for society, hence the importance of keeping it in good
condition.

One of the main causes that contributes to the degradation of ecosystems is the deforestation due to the advance of the
agriculture frontier and inappropriate forest exploitation. More lands are deforested for commercial agriculture and
live-stock rearing, and due to overexploitation of forest for wood and energy. In Nicaragua deforestation rates reach
over 150,000 hectares per year and in Costa Rica over 18,500 hectares per year.

At a lower scale, another problem is the uncontrolled fires used to prepare land for agricultural activities or to remove
forest for the development of stock rearing areas. This practice eliminates the organic covering of the land, making it
more susceptible to erosion by both wind and water. In addition, the fires cause health problems and detract from the
aesthetic value of the landscape.

Accidental or natural fires are another case in point. They affect areas of natural forest. In the Upala and Los Chiles
cantons, in Costa Rica, some 10,000 hectares were burned between 1998 and 1999. This problem is even more serious
in the Nicaraguan territory of the basin.

Equipment is lacking and communities need to be organized to control these fires as one of the main barriers to the
burning of large areas.

The construction of roads without proper drainage measures or in territories subject to penetration and settlement are
high-stress factors for ecosystems, especially those which are highly fragile as a result of their weather conditions and
the nature of their soil and water.

Mining and the extraction of construction materials without taking measures to cushion the impact cause drastic
changes in the natural landscape while degrading its valuable ecosystems.

Wetlands are very fragile ecosystems that are being severely affected, causing a reduction in the number and diversity
of the species of terrestrial flora, birds, reptiles, mammals, fish, and crustaceans. This problem results from excessive
exploitation of wildlife species either to feed the population, to trade their furs, or to trade live species, and from
sedimentation, which causes changes in water quality, thereby significantly affecting the reproduction of aquatic
species that live and/or reproduce in the wetlands.

The SJRB wetlands are very valuable ecosystems, which regulate the hydrological cycle and provide food and shelter
for hundreds of species, including large quantities of migratory birds. One major cause of the deterioration of this
ecosystem is the draining of wide areas of wetlands to give access to agricultural zones or human settlements. Aerial
photographs of the Caño Negro sector show how the pools of water have diminished over time, due in part to the
drainage of wetlands for agricultural purposes and to the sedimentation occurring in recent years in the basin. Owing to
the deterioration of these areas and the pressure of the neighboring communities on the use of the natural resources of
the wetlands, it is necessary to draw up management plans to outline the socioeconomic characteristics of users and
guidelines for usage, since people are highly dependent on these resources for their survival. A large portion of the
ecological problems of the wetlands is due to ignorance of their benefits.

The use of inappropriate fishing techniques endangers the existence of certain species, altering the food chain of
aquatic fauna and consequently deteriorating the aquatic ecosystems. This is the case of the bull shark that is now hard
to find in Lake Nicaragua or in the San Juan River. In some cases, the introduction of exotic species endangers the
existence of indigenous species with a high cultural value. Such is the case of the guapote, whose numbers are being
reduced by the introduction of tilapias. The deterioration of ecosystems is exacerbated by the lack of an institutional
presence in the territory, be it for technical or economic reasons, or a combination of both. As a result, laws on the
regulation and control of natural resource use are not enforced. The participation of civil society in controlling the use
and exploitation of natural resources is limited and, in many cases, very timid or markedly apathetic.
One aspect that has not been evaluated in the degradation of the ecosystems is the incidence of different phenomena on
these systems. The geographic location of the SJRB and the various geographic accidents encountered there render it
susceptible to the impact of various events of this kind. In the SJRB there are a number of active volcanoes, which
spew gas and ash causing damage to the plant life, the soil, polluting water bodies, and causing severe damage to entire
populations. These volcanoes include the Masaya, the Maderas, and the Irazú. Another natural phenomenon in the
SJRB is landslides which, though located in specific areas, cause damage to the ecosystems, the soil, pollute water
bodies, damage infrastructure and entire settlements. The Maderas volcano on the island Ometepe is a case in point.

Similarly, during the last century, the SJRB has suffered the destructive effects of at least three hurricanes which, with
their heavy rainfall, cause flooding damaging ecosystems, eroding soil, diverting river courses, causing severe damage
to infrastructure and entire populations, resulting in the loss of human lives. Other natural phenomena that have caused
damage to the ecosystems of the SJRB are the droughts that have occurred as a result of the El Niño and seismic
activity, which have changed river courses, particularly in the case of the Tipitapa River that provided a permanent
connection between the Managua and Nicaragua lakes. As a result of an earthquake during the last century, the
riverbed rose in a certain sector cutting off the existing connection between the two lakes.

The degradation of the ecosystems makes the economic and social infrastructure of the SJRB more vulnerable and
increases the potential impact on the population. This vulnerability is reflected in shorter periods between the
occurrence of floods or droughts and the soil becomes more unstable. Possible solutions to the problem of deterioration
of the ecosystems include developing formal and informal environmental education programs to make farmers more
aware of their actions; increasing enforcement of the existing legislation; promoting proper natural resource
management; and promoting the organization of grassroots groups to control burning from the outset. To prevent or
mitigate the damage caused by extreme conditions, such as flooding and droughts and other effects of natural
phenomena, it is necessary to set up and early warning system about possible swelling of water bodies and to monitor
hydrometeorological behavior. It is also necessary to set up a seismographic network to monitor the behavior of
volcanoes and tectonic faults. Similarly, social organization is necessary to design and test emergency plans for natural
phenomena, to reduce the damage they cause.

Figure 4 The cycle of ecosystem degradation

 QUESTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM

One Mark questions:

1. Bioaccumulation chemicals cause _________ defects in offspring or a complete failure to reproduce.

2. Biomagnification is the process by which ________ chemicals built up within predators.
3. Fish uses ______ ppm mercury in their system.
4. The ideal environmental services introduced __________ year
5. The degradation of ecosystem due to ___________.
6. Full form of SJRF _________.
2- Mark Questions:

1. What is Bioaccumulation?
2. What is Biomagnification.?
3. Example of Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
4. Define ecosystem value.
[Link] of ecosystem value
6. Difference between direct and indirect value.
7. Define degradation of ecosystem.
5 -mark Questions:

1. Difference between Biomagnification and Bioaccumulation.

2. Describe effect of Bioaccumulation.
3. What is Biomagnification? Describe its objectives.
4. Define ecosystem value and its types.
5. Write down benefits of global community.
6. Describe Degradation of ecosystem with diagrams.

10-mark Questions:

1. Describe Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification with diagrams. And write down future effects of both of them.
2. What is Degradation of ecosystem? Write down causes, effect and prevention of degradation of ecosystem