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BEST PRACTICES NOTEBOOK

Understanding
grease construction
and function

A few key points about grease chemistry, ratings

and the specific properties needed for your
application.
he March Best Practices Notebook introduced
By Mike Johnson, CLS, CMRP
Contributing Editor T readers to important principles about the
nature of lubricants and lubricant raw materi-
als and how machines create an oil film when their

ighlights:
surfaces begin to interact. This month we’ll exam-
r ti c le h
A
an d d r awbacks ine the somewhat specialized area of grease con-
■ Benefit
s grease
struction, performance attributes and issues of
t ed w it h thickener compatibility. These topics are a prelude
associa to lubricant selection, an issue we’ll treat more in-
usage. ss ratings depth in a future article.
s tif f ne
■ How gr
ease
lated.
are formu
Grease composition, function
r y a ff ects key and performance
■ Why ch
emist nce charac- Sliding and rolling surface actions, coupled with
rforma
grease pse. differences in speed, load, component size and
teristic operating environment, all influence the type of oil

s a ss o ci ated with film that is expected to form and the viscometric

■ Problem . and additive properties that must be present with-
ases
mixing gre in the oil to protect machine components.
The oil itself must provide the lift and surface
protection functions in order for the grease lubri-

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cant to be effective. All of the base oil and additive nents, each one gradually releasing oil into the
type choices that were previously examined must work zone. The greater the amount of sheer stress
be revisited when selecting the grease. In addition that the grease experiences (likened to squeezing
to those issues, the lubrication practitioner also the sponge) the faster the grease releases its hold
must select from a variety of thickener systems, of oil. Of course, once the sponge has released the
each with its own set of potential problems. Col- oil, its usefulness is done. The oil and additive
lectively, grease selection seems like a simple task, types contained within the sponge, and eventually
but if the reliability engineer wishes for the grease- released into the working areas of the machine, are
lubricated components to have life cycles resem- selected based on the type of frictional conditions
bling oil-lubricated components, a significant expected.
number of variables must be fully considered. The permanent changes that the grease under-
Greases, as a category, fall into a classification goes are accelerated by rising temperatures,
of materials called non-Newtonian fluids. All fluids increasing shear stress and mixture with other
that experience a change in viscosity with change greases. For these reasons the reliability engineer
in shear stress are considered non-Newtonian. must replenish the grease at an optimum time
Mayonnaise, ketchup and hair gel are examples of cycle, with an optimum volume to arrive at a
common household non-Newtonian fluids. Greas- replacement state that resembles the effectiveness
es that exhibit shear-induced thinning are referred of an oil bath.
to as thixotropic greases, and those that exhibit
shear-induced thickening are referred to as Grease: Pros and cons
rheopectic greases. Previously we stated that machine lubricants have
Both thixotropic and rheopectic responses are to perform six key functions:
time dependent, meaning the thinning or thicken- 1. Separate surfaces
ing effect is more pronounced as the period of 2. Minimize friction
shear stress increases. In other words, thixotropic 3. Cool the machine part
greases tend to liquefy as the elements in the
4. Clean the working area
machine squeeze, push and otherwise stress the
fluid, and rheopectic greases tend to harden under 5. Prevent corrosion
the same types of mechanical force. 6. Provide a means of hydro-mechanical energy
It would be ideal for the grease to “work thin” transfer.
only at the point of immediate shear stress With those being the stated objectives, there
(motion of the lubricated component) and then are benefits and drawbacks associated with using
instantaneously return to its original state the grease:
moment the stress force
stops. If this condition exist-
ed, the grease would liquefy Grease Advantages Grease Disadvantages
and function more like an oil Reduced frequency of relubrication. Loss of component cooling.
at the point of motion and Decreased cost of machine design for lubrication. Loss of component flushing.
then reform and create an Improved startup after a prolonged idle time. Localized heat spikes/hot spots.
isolating seal when the mo- Improved sealing effectiveness (seal assistance). Increased risk of lubricant incompatibility failure.
tion stops. Unfortunately, the Reduced risk of process contamination. Loss of contamination control functions (filtration).
thinning and thickening ef- More effective use of solid film additives. Increased risk of lubricant oxidative failure.
fects tend to be permanent. Improved protection in high load/low speed machines. Machine component speed limits vs. Oil.
Greases perform their lu- Increased risk of new lubricant contamination.
brication function over time Storage stability limitations.
by gradually releasing oil in- Increased risk of product variability/batch variability.
to the working areas of the Risk from relubrication practice: volume control.
contacting machine surfaces. Risk from relubrication practice: frequency control.
This function has been com- Risk from relubrication practice:viscosity selection.
pared to that of a sponge Risk from relubrication practice:application failure.
gradually releasing its liquid
over a period of time. A more
practical image would be of a concentration of mil- While it may be somewhat easier to identify
lions of microscopic sponges held inside the potential drawbacks for the use of grease vs. oil,
machine, close to the working machine compo- CONTINUED ON PAGE 34

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CONTINUED FROM PAGE 33

there clearly are advantages that make the use of minum and calcium) are created if only one—a
grease compelling. long chain—fatty acid is used during the soap for-
mation process. If the supplier wishes to prepare a
Grease construction1 product to deliver better temperature resistance,
The word grease is derived from the Latin word then he will add another—a short chain—fatty acid
crassus, meaning fat. Early examples of systematic in an additional step. Complex soap greases (lithi-
lubrication with animal fats date back to circa 1,400 um complex, aluminum complex, barium complex
BC, with efforts to reduce friction on wheel axels. and calcium sulfonate complex) are known for
From these very early roots, efforts to reduce fric- superior temperature resistance vs. their simple
tion were dependent on relatively abundant animal soap counterparts.
and vegetable-based oils. Colonel William Drake Once the soap has been formed (using only a
and his well-publicized oil well created a new way portion of the required lubricating oil) the balance
to supply an arguably superior oil product, which of the lubricating oil is added, along with the
accelerated the move toward the use of mineral oil remaining additives that are required to fortify the
and hastened the birth of the petroleum age. product for optimum results. The grease is cooled,
Mineral oil, as it turns out, is a pretty good raw milled to assure that the thickener is uniformly dis-
material for lubricating surfaces. Taking the lead tributed through the other raw materials, and a
from the (hand, hair, laundry) type soap manufac- sample is removed for stiffness testing.
turing industry, which has been robust since the The grease stiffness rating is the primary differ-
early days of the period of the enlightenment, lubri- entiating property that people use in selecting a
cant manufacturers adopted a soap manufacturing grease. Grease stiffness is the characteristic that
technique called saponification to produce the enables the grease to either move freely or sit still
basis for building stable, useful petroleum greases. once placed into service. The higher the stiffness
Saponification is the chemical reaction that pro- rating the thicker the grease body. The National
duces soap, which becomes the grease thickener. Lubricating Grease Institute (NLGI) has devised a
High school chemistry teaches that a mixture of nine-point scale that is used in conjunction with
an acid and a base produces a salt and water. If the ASTM D217 to grade grease stiffness. This method
acid happens to be an organic or fatty acid, then provides the user with a stiffness rating ranging
the product called is soap. Saponification occurs between 000 and 6.
following the mixing of a fatty acid with an alkali
component. The early fatty acids were produced by Figure 1. Grease penetration and consistency
cooking animal and vegetable fats with water to
separate glycerin and the inherent fatty acid. The
early alkali component for soap manufacture was
derived from soda ash, which comes from the alka-
li remains of burned vegetable matter.
Owing to the benefit of many early chemical
industry developments, namely large-volume pro-
duction of organic acids (Stearic acid – C17H35COOH
and Benzoic acid – C6H5COOH are both common
organic fatty acids used in grease manufacture)
and metallic hydroxides (lithium, aluminum, calci-
um, sodium and barium hydroxides), grease manu-
facturers learned to create specialized soaps into
which mineral oils and additives were introduced
to deliver highly specialized product functions.
In the manufacturing process the raw materials
for forming the soap, and some portion of the
lubricating oil itself, are combined in a mixing ves-
sel and blended/agitated to initiate the chemical
reaction between the selected metallic thickener
and fatty acid. The types and volumes of the mate-
rials used have a dramatic impact on the charac- (Source: The Lubrication Engineers Manual, Third Edition, (2007), The Association for Iron
and Steel Technology, Warrendale, Pa., p. 92)
teristics of the finished products.
Simple soap greases (primarily lithium, alu-

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In the testing process, the sample of grease is

cooled to 77 F, placed in a cup and smoothed over
and, as shown in Figure 1, a pointed cone is placed
on the surface of the grease. The operator releases
a fastener and allows the cup to sink into the
grease cup. Depending on the stiffness of the fin-
ished product, the cup may settle significantly or
only slightly. Once the cup comes to rest, the oper-
Micrograph (A): Aluminum Complex Greases
ator measures the degree of drop based on the dial
Using STRATCO® Contactor™ Reactor
attached to the top of the rod supporting the cone.
Figure 2 represents the profiles established by
NLGI that dictate the grade or number of the fin-
ished product.

Figure 2. NLGI grease consistency values

Micrograph (B): Calcium Greases Using

STRATCO® Contactor™ Reactor

The thickness number or NLGI grade of the

grease only has implications relative to its require-
ment to either flow or not flow once applied to the
mechanical structure requiring lubrication. With Micrograph (C): Lithium Greases Using
the exception of calcium sulfonate complex thick- STRATCO® Contactor™ Reactor
eners, the thickeners do not provide surface pro-
tection in addition to that provided by the base oil
and additives. Having a grease rated as an NLGI
No. 2 does not make it inherently superior or infe-
rior to an NLGI No. 1 grease.
Each soap type imparts different performance
properties worth noting. Reputable manufacturers
will work vigorously to overcome weaknesses and
enhance strengths of their respective products rel-
ative to the selected application types.
Key differences include: (See micrograph pictures).
■ Aluminum and aluminum complex greases
are known to have strong high-temperature Micrograph (D): Lithium Complex Greases Using
performance characteristics, including high STRATCO® Contactor™ Reactor
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CONTINUED FROM PAGE 35

dropping points and very good oxidation- the product of choice for general purpose
resistance. Aluminum-based greases also grease relubrication in industrial and manu-
tend to perform well in high-wash applica- facturing environments.
tions, resisting the force of process waters There is another category of grease thickeners,
and housekeeping wash hoses. These greas- referred to generically as non-soap thickeners.
es tend to be stringy, and this characteristic These thickeners are made with a variety of prod-
increases with rising sustained application ucts and processes, and deliver a wide array of per-
temperature. These greases have been known formance results. The clay-based (bentonite) prod-
to stiffen with extended use. ucts and polyurea products represent the largest
■ Calcium, calcium complex, calcium sulfonate market volumes of non-metallic thickeners.
complex greases are best known for their There are appreciable differences in the manu-
excellent wash- and water-resistance proper- facturing practices for non-soap greases. Bentonite
ties and can be fortified to also provide products are created by direct addition of the
strong corrosion-resistance properties. The thickener to the base and additive mixture. These
complex and sulfonate complex forms are products require significant milling to assure uni-
respected for high load-carrying capabilities formity. Polyurea thickeners are a type of polymer
and have temperature limits on par with formed by a reaction between amines and iso-
other complex soaps. Calcium (hydrous and cyanates, which occurs during the grease forma-
anhydrous) are best used in low to moderate tion process. Some of the common raw material
temperature applications and have accept- options are considered to be hazardous, requiring
able stability at moderate temperatures. careful environmental and health precautions for
their manufacture.
■ Lithium and lithium complex greases are
Common performance criteria for these non-
very widely used. These have strong proper-
soap greases include:
ties in a variety of categories. These greases
have excellent long-term work stability, ■ Polyurea greases are preferred for use in ball
strong high-temperature characteristics and bearing applications, giving rise to their
have acceptable wash- and corrosion- resist- broad-based acceptance in electric motor
ance capabilities. With additive enhance- applications. Polyurea greases contain little
ment, the wash- and corrosion-resistance to no heavy metals and have favorable high
can be improved. These also have good low temperature performance. Together these
temperature shear performance, making two traits provide very good oxidation-resist-
them suitable for extremely low temperature ance. Polyureas tend to have fair work stabil-
applications. The generally well-rounded per- ity, wash- and corrosion-resistance. Some
formance of these greases has made them polyureas have a low level of compatibility
with other soap and non-soap greases,
including other polyureas. Nonetheless,
there are individual products being manufac-
tured that demonstrate strengths in all of

a n d a luminum these categories, including the important

Aluminum es are
issue of compatibility.

ex gr ea s
compl e strong
■ Bentonite greases were the original non-

to h a v melting grease. Bentonite is a type of clay.

known t ure per-
The base oils tend to evaporate before the
m pe r a
high te
clay material becomes hot enough to melt.
h a r ac teristics, This is both a strength and weakness. When
c
formance dropping
used for extended periods of time at elevated
h ig h temperatures, bentonite grease residues may
including ry good cause a filling of the housing that can make
a n d ve
points stance.
long-term relubrication difficult. Bentonite

i on - r e s i greases are incompatible with most other

oxidat grease types as well.
Figure 3 provides a breakdown of the general mar-
ket distribution of several greases by thickener type.2

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years that provide similar enough results that one

Figure 3. General market distribution of several can take away from the discussion of grease com-
greases by thickener type patibility a simple rule: Do not mix greases! Mixtures
of greases may fail to perform vs. either of the non-
mixed products in a variety of ways, including:

Shear stability Increase or decrease in the firmness of

the grease mixture.
Dropping point Decrease in the mixture’s temperature
stability.
Oxidation-resistance Loss oxidation stability, increase in
oxidation byproducts.
Wear-resistance Loss of AW and EP additive performance.
Rate of oil dissociation Premature loss of oil reservoir leading
In all grease products, the oil and the additives (bleed) to increased hardening.
have the primary roles of lifting, separating and Wash-resistance Loss of ability to withstand passive or
protecting surfaces, and the soap has the primary direct wash action of process solutions.
role of holding the oil in reserve until it is needed
by the machine components. The March Best Prac- Not withstanding the changes that may occur
tices Notebook suggested that lubricating oils can with incompatibilities with base oils and additives,
be constructed with a wide variety of additive com- practitioners could expect obvious and prompt
pounds and base oil types and that some of those change in the greases stiffness (NLGI rating) and
raw materials may well compete with one another. loss of temperature resistance, with the other
It was further suggested, since the lubrication prac- changes occurring more gradually.
titioner was not routinely privy to the ingredients It is possible to know all of the ramifications
of any of the given products in use, that it would be that may occur when two or more greases are
best to avoid mixing lubricant products. That state- mixed, but not without a fair degree of testing and
ment should be strongly reiterated, as it also per- analysis. Unless one is going to expend the finan-
tains to the materials used as metallic thickeners cial resources and effort to effectively study the
to form the grease products.
CONTINUED ON PAGE 38
Many studies have been conducted over the

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CONTINUED FROM PAGE 37

degree of compatibility between different types of soap-thickened or non-soap thickened greases.

greases, one should avoid mixing if at all possible. While the thickener type does clearly have an influ-
Figure 4 provides a useful general reference on ence on the long-term behavior of the grease, the
the issue of thickener compatibility that the practi- majority of the surface protection work is provided
tioner may use.3 by the oil and the additive choices. The NLGI grease
stiffness rating system provides grease
Figure 4. Grease compatibility chart manufacturers with a clear mechanism
for grading grease stiffness character-
istics. TLT

Mike Johnson, CLS, CMRP, MLT, is the

principal consultant for Advanced Machine
Reliability Resources, headquartered in
Franklin, Tenn. You can reach him at
mjohnson@[Link].

References
1. NLGI Lubricating Grease Guide, Fourth
Edition, (1996), National Lubricating
Grease Institute, Kansas City, Mo., pp.
1.09-1.12.
Summary
2. Mang, T., and Dresel, W. (2007), “Lubricants and
Grease manufacturing is a highly complex and
Lubrication, Second, Completely Revised and
detailed process. There are many different types of
Extended Edition,” Wiley-VCH, p. 644.
materials that may be used, each of which has some
impact on the grease final performance characteris- 3. Web reference: [Link]
tics. The two broad categories of greases include _material/grease_compatibility_chart.htm.

38 JUNE 2008 T R I B O LO G Y & LU B R I C AT I O N T E C H N O LO G Y