Hydraulics is derived from a Greek Word "Hydraulikos"
which means water.
It is the study of
water and some
engineering
fluids, which a
hydraulic/civil
engineer is called
upon to store,
convey or pump.
Engineering fluid includes wastewater in waste disposal, oils in
hydraulic control gears etc
Why do we study hydraulics?
All organized
societies need
adequate water
supplies, drainages
to dispose of waste
or excess water, as
well as protection
from uncontrolled
water.
Thus an obvious necessity for a study of hydraulics exists.
Applications of hydraulics include:
•Design of a wide
range of hydraulic
structures (dams,
canals, weirs etc.)
and machinery
(pumps, turbines and
fluid couplings)
•Design of a complex
network of pumping
and pipelines for
transporting liquids.
•Power generation
•Flood protection
•Surface and ground
water studies
•Flow metering like
orifice meter
•Pressure
measurement
Chapter – 2
2.0. Fluid Properties
Matter can be distinguished by the physical form of
its existence (phases) as solid, liquid and gases
For example water appears in liquid, solid (Snow
and ice), or gaseous (moisture or water vapor) form
depending on the extent of hydrogen bonding.
Liquid and gaseous phases are usually
combined and given a common name of fluid.
•What is Matter????
Definitions:
Fluids are substances, which deform continuously
under the application of a shear force.
They are characterized by their ability to flow as solid,
liquid and gas .
Fluids: Fluids are substances, which deform continuously under
the application of a shear force, no matter how small the force
might be. They are characterized by their ability to flow.
Shear force = force component tangent to a surface. This
force divided by the area = average shear stress.
Fluid Properties: intensive, extensive, physical and
chemical.
Extensive properties, which depend on the
size of a sample of matter
Examples of extensive property are mass
and volume as the amount of a substance
increases; its mass and volume also increase.
Intensive properties, which are independent
of the sample size.
Examples of Intensive properties include
density, pressure and temperature.
Physical Properties
Understanding the fluid properties play roles both in open
channel and pipe flow
The principal physical properties of fluids are described as
follows.
1. Density
There are three forms of density
a. Mass density or density, denoted by (Greek, rho)
It is defined as the mass per unit volume.
Mass of fluid (m) m
density ,
Volume occupied (V ) V
SI unit Kg/ m3
Dimensionally ML-3
For an incompressible fluid, ‘’ is constant
For water, is 1000 kg/ m3 at 4 0c and standard
pressure (760 –mm Hg) (There is a slight decrease in
density with increasing temperature, but for normal
practical purposes the value is constant)
Generally, the density of liquids is only slightly
dependent on either temperature or pressure and the
variation can be ignored but for gases, it significantly
varies with both temperature and pressure.
b. Specific weight / unit weight / unit gravity force
designated by (gamma)
It is defined as the weight per unit volume.
W mg
g
V V
g
W = weight = mass x gravitational acceleration (g)
SI unit N/m3 (usually KN/ m3
Dimensionally (ML –2 T-2)
At 4 0c ‘’ for water is 9.806 / 9.81 KN /m3/
It changes with location on the earth’s surface depending
upon g.
c. Specific gravity (S) or relative density
It is defined as the ratio of mass of a body to mass of an
equal volume of a substance taken as a standard (for
liquids water at 4 0c)
mass of fluid
Re lative density
mass of equal volumeof water
density of fluid
density of water
It is a pure number (dimensionless parameter)
Typical values of specific gravities:
Relative density of water is 1.00 (S water = 1.00,standard
for measuring relative density of other liquids).
S mercury = 13.6, commonly used secondary fluid in
manometers for pressure measurement.
Oils usually have a relative density less than one and they
float on water.
If relative density of a given oil is 0.8 its density is 0.8*
(1000 kg / m3) = 800 kg/ m3
Note:
It is clear that density, specific weight, and specific gravity
are all interrelated and from knowledge of any one of the
three the others can be calculated.
2. Specific Volume (Vs)
It is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid or simply
the reciprocal of density.
V 1
Vs
m
3. Bulk modulus of elasticity or Compressibility, K (kappa)
If the pressure of a volume of fluid is increased by d, it
will cause a volume decrease dv, then the bulk modulus of
elasticity is defined as
Bulk modulus (K) = stress
change in pressure
Bulk mod ulus ( K )
volumetric strain
() dp
K
dV / V
V = original fluid volume
The negative sign indicates a decrease in volume with the
increase in pressure.
m
V
Mass of a certain volume is constant, differentiating .
m 1 dv m dv dv
d d md m 2
V V V V V V
d dv
V
Substituting:
dp
K
d /
4. Absolute / (Dynamic) Viscosity ( = mu)
The resistance to flow because of internal friction is called
viscous resistance and
The property, which enables the fluid to offer resistance to
relative motion between adjacent layers, is called the viscosity of
liquid.
It is a measure of resistance to tangential or shear stress and arises
from the interaction and cohesion of fluid molecules.
Consider a fluid confined between two plates
which are situated a very short distance y- apart.
The lower plate is stationary whilst the upper
plate is moving at a velocity v. Hence; the fluid in
immediate contact with the moving plate has a
velocity v and with the stationary plate has zero
velocity.
(The experimental observation that the fluid
“sticks” to the solid boundary is very important
one in fluid mechanics and is usually referred to
as the no slip condition. All fluids satisfy this
condition.)
V
F
Y F
A
Fixed plate
If distance y and velocity V are not great, the velocity
variation (gradient) will be a straight line.
Experiments show that, F is directly proportional to A and V
and inversely proportional to thickness Y.
Movable Plate
V
F
A
Y
Fixed Plate
Similarity of triangles
AV dv v dv
F A A = area of upper
Y dy y dy plate
F dv F
(tau) = shear stress
A dy A
dv
dy
If a proportionality constant , called absolute (dynamic)
viscosity, is introduced.
dv
or
dy dv
dy
This expression was first postulated by Newton and is
known as Newton’s equation of viscosity.
Heavy oils have greater viscosity than water and water is
more viscous than air.
All real fluids posses' viscosity, though to varying degrees.
There can be no shear stress in a fluid, which is at rest
The SI unit of is N.s /m2 or Pa.s (kg/ m.s),
gm
Or in cgs system termed as poise
cm .s
One poise = 0.1 kg m-1 s-1 = 0.1 Pa.s
Dimensionally = ML-1 T-1 or FL-2 T
5. Kinematic Viscosity , (nu),
In many problems concerning fluid motion the viscosity
appears in the form of / and it is convenient to employ a
single term (nu), known as kinematic viscosity, and so
called because the units m2/s (L2T-1) is independent of force.
absolute vis cos ity ( )
Kinematic Vis cos ity ( ) i.e v
mass density ( )
SI unit of is m2/s in cgs system cm2/s called stoke.
For water, = 1.14 mm2/s at 150c
For heavy air may be as high as 900mm2/s.
Viscosities (absolute of dynamic) of liquids decrease with
increasing temperature but are not affected appreciably
by pressure changes.
Reading Assignment
Newtonian and Non - Newtonian fluids
Surface tension
Vapor pressure
Examples:
1. The density of a substance is 2.94 g/cm3. What is it’s
a. Specific gravity
b. Specific volume
c. Specific weight
2. Two liquids of specific gravities 1.25 and 0.75 and volumes of 0.01 and
0.006m3 respectively are mixed. If the bulk of the liquid shrinks by 1%
on mixing, calculate the density and specific gravity of the mixture.
3. A reservoir contains a two-component mixture of water and sediment.
The water density is and the density of the sediment particles is
s. Assuming complete mixing find the density of the mixture, m, if
the mass fraction of the sediment is s.
4. For K=2.2GPa (bulk modulus of elasticity of water), what pressure is
required to reduce its volume by 0.5%?
5. Eight kilometers below the surface of the ocean the pressure is 82Mpa.
Determine the density of the seawater at this depth if the density at the
surface is 1025kg/m3 and the average bulk modulus of elasticity is
2.3GPa.
2 2
6. If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by v 3 y y
in which v is the velocity in m/s at a distance y meters above the plate,
determine the shear stress at y=0 and y=0.15m.
Take =1.015x10-3m2/s and S=0.85.
7. A lubricated shaft of 200mm radius rotates inside a concentric sleeve
bearing of 205mm radius. Determine the viscosity of the fluid, which fills
the space between the sleeve and the shaft if a torque of 1.5N.m is
required to maintain an angular velocity of [Link] length of sleeve
as 450mm.