Module 8: Metabolism and Nutrition of calories needed by one person is dependent on their

Nutrition and Diet body mass, age, height, gender, activity level, and the
The carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins in the foods you amount of exercise per day. If exercise is regular part of
eat are used for energy to power molecular, cellular, and one’s day, more calories are required. As a rule, people
organ system activities. Importantly, the energy is stored underestimate the number of calories ingested and
primarily as fats. The quantity and quality of food that is overestimate the amount they burn through exercise. This
ingested, digested, and absorbed affects the amount of fat can lead to ingestion of too many calories per day. The
that is stored as excess calories. Diet—both what you eat accumulation of an extra 3500 calories adds one pound
and how much you eat—has a dramatic impact on your of weight. If an excess of 200 calories per day is
health. Eating too much or too little food can lead to ingested, one extra pound of body weight will be gained
serious medical issues, including cardiovascular disease, every 18 days. At that rate, an extra 20 pounds can be
cancer, anorexia, and diabetes, among others. Combine gained over the course of a year. Of course, this increase
an unhealthy diet with unhealthy environmental in calories could be offset by increased exercise. Running
conditions, such as smoking, and the potential medical or jogging one mile burns almost 100 calories.
complications increase significantly. The type of food ingested also affects the body’s
Food and Metabolism metabolic rate. Processing of carbohydrates requires less
The amount of energy that is needed or ingested per day energy than processing of proteins. In fact, the
is measured in calories. The nutritional Calorie (C) is the breakdown of carbohydrates requires the least amount of
amount of heat it takes to raise 1 kg (1000 g) of water by energy, whereas the processing of proteins demands the
1 °C. This is different from the calorie (c) used in the most energy. In general, the amount of calories ingested
physical sciences, which is the amount of heat it takes to and the amount of calories burned determines the overall
raise 1 g of water by 1 °C. When we refer to “calorie,” weight. To lose weight, the number of calories burned
we are referring to the nutritional Calorie. per day must exceed the number ingested. Calories are in
On average, a person needs 1500 to 2000 calories per day almost everything you ingest, so when considering
to sustain (or carry out) daily activities. The total number calorie intake, beverages must also be considered.

Figure 1. The U.S. Department of Agriculture developed food guidelines called MyPlate to help demonstrate how to
maintain a healthy lifestyle.
To help provide guidelines regarding the types and quantities of food that should be eaten every day, the USDA has updated
their food guidelines from MyPyramid to MyPlate. They have put the recommended elements of a healthy meal into the
context of a place setting of food. MyPlate categorizes food into the standard six food groups: fruits, vegetables, grains,
protein foods, dairy, and oils. The accompanying website gives clear recommendations regarding quantity and type of each
food that you should consume each day, as well as identifying which foods belong in each category. The accompanying
graphic gives a clear visual with general recommendations for a healthy and balanced meal. The guidelines recommend to
“Make half your plate fruits and vegetables.” The other half is grains and protein, with a slightly higher quantity of grains
than protein. Dairy products are represented by a drink, but the quantity can be applied to other dairy products as well.
[Link] provides extensive online resources for planning a healthy diet and lifestyle, including offering weight
management tips and recommendations for physical activity. It also includes the SuperTracker, a web-based application to
help you analyze your own diet and physical activity.
EVERYDAY CONNECTIONS: METABOLISM AND OBESITY
Obesity in the United States is epidemic. The rate of obesity has been steadily rising since the 1980s. In the 1990s, most
states reported that less than 10 percent of their populations was obese, and the state with the highest rate reported that only
15 percent of their population was considered obese. By 2010, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported
that nearly 36 percent of adults over 20 years old were obese and an additional 33 percent were overweight, leaving only
about 30 percent of the population at a healthy weight. These studies find the highest levels of obesity are concentrated in the
southern states. They also find the level of childhood obesity is rising.
Obesity is defined by the body mass index (BMI), which is a measure of an individual’s weight-to-height ratio. The normal,
or healthy, BMI range is between 18 and 24.9 kg/m2. Overweight is defined as a BMI of 25 to 29.9 kg/m2, and obesity is
considered to be a BMI greater than 30 kg/m2. Obesity can arise from a number of factors, including overeating, poor diet,
sedentary lifestyle, limited sleep, genetic factors, and even diseases or drugs. Severe obesity (morbid obesity) or long-term
obesity can result in serious medical conditions, including coronary heart disease; type 2 diabetes; endometrial, breast, or
colon cancer; hypertension (high blood pressure); dyslipidemia (high cholesterol or elevated triglycerides); stroke; liver
 disease; gall bladder disease; sleep apnea or respiratory diseases; osteoarthritis; and infertility. Research has shown that
losing weight can help reduce or reverse the complications associated with these conditions.
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds found in foods and are a necessary part of the biochemical reactions in the body. They are
involved in a number of processes, including mineral and bone metabolism, and cell and tissue growth, and they act as
cofactors for energy metabolism. The B vitamins play the largest role of any vitamins in metabolism (Table 1 and Table 2).
You get most of your vitamins through your diet, although some can be formed from the precursors absorbed during
digestion. For example, the body synthesizes vitamin A from the β-carotene in orange vegetables like carrots and sweet
potatoes. Vitamins are either fat-soluble or water-soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K, are absorbed through the
intestinal tract with lipids in chylomicrons. Vitamin D is also synthesized in the skin through exposure to sunlight. Because
they are carried in lipids, fat-soluble vitamins can accumulate in the lipids stored in the body. If excess vitamins are retained
in the lipid stores in the body, hypervitaminosis can result.
Water-soluble vitamins, including the eight B vitamins and vitamin C, are absorbed with water in the gastrointestinal tract.
These vitamins move easily through bodily fluids, which are water based, so they are not stored in the body. Excess water-
soluble vitamins are excreted in the urine. Therefore, hypervitaminosis of water-soluble vitamins rarely occurs, except with
an excess of vitamin supplements.

Table 1. Fat-soluble Vitamins

Vitamin and Recommended

Sources Function Problems associated with deficiency
alternative name daily allowance

Yellow and orange fruits

Eye and bone
A: retinal or β- and vegetables, dark green Night blindness, epithelial changes,
700–900 µg development,
carotene leafy vegetables, eggs, immune system deficiency
immune function
milk, liver

Dairy products, egg yolks; Aids in calcium Rickets, bone pain, muscle weaknes
also synthesized in the absorption, increased risk of death from
D: cholecalciferol 5–15 µg
skin from exposure to promoting bone cardiovascular disease, cognitive
sunlight growth impairment, asthma in children, can

Seeds, nuts, vegetable oils,

E: tocopherols 15 mg Antioxidant Anemia
avocados, wheat germ

K: phylloquinone Dark green leafy 90–120 µg Blood clotting, bone Hemorrhagic disease of newborn in
vegetables, broccoli, health infants; uncommon in adults
Brussels sprouts, cabbage

Table 3. Major Minerals

Recommended
Mineral Sources Function Problems associated with deficiency
daily allowance

Meats, some fish, fruits, Nerve and muscle Hypokalemia: weakness, fatigue,
Potassium vegetables, legumes, dairy 4700 mg function; acts as an muscle cramping, gastrointestinal
products electrolyte problems, cardiac problems

Blood pressure, blood

Table salt, milk, beets,
Sodium 2300 mg volume, muscle and nerve Rare
celery, processed foods
function

Dairy products, dark green Bone structure and health;

leafy vegetables, blackstrap nerve and muscle
Calcium 1000 mg Slow growth, weak and brittle bones
molasses, nuts, brewer’s functions, especially
yeast, some fish cardiac function

Bone formation,
Phosphorous Meat, milk 700 mg metabolism, ATP Rare
production
Table 3. Major Minerals

Recommended
Mineral Sources Function Problems associated with deficiency
daily allowance

Enzyme activation, Agitation, anxiety, sleep problems,

Whole grains, nuts, leafy production of energy, nausea and vomiting, abnormal heart
Magnesium 310–420 mg
green vegetables regulation of other rhythms, low blood pressure,
nutrients muscular problems

Most foods, salt, vegetables,

especially seaweed, Balance of body fluids,
Chloride 2300 mg Loss of appetite, muscle cramps
tomatoes, lettuce, celery, digestion
olives
Minerals
Minerals in food are inorganic compounds that work with other nutrients to ensure the body functions properly. Minerals
cannot be made in the body; they come from the diet. The amount of minerals in the body is small—only 4 percent of the
total body mass—and most of that consists of the minerals that the body requires in moderate quantities: potassium, sodium,
calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and chloride.
The most common minerals in the body are calcium and phosphorous, both of which are stored in the skeleton and necessary
for the hardening of bones. Most minerals are ionized, and their ionic forms are used in physiological processes throughout
the body. Sodium and chloride ions are electrolytes in the blood and extracellular tissues, and iron ions are critical to the
formation of hemoglobin. There are additional trace minerals that are still important to the body’s functions, but their
required quantities are much lower.
Like vitamins, minerals can be consumed in toxic quantities (although it is rare). A healthy diet includes most of the
minerals your body requires, so supplements and processed foods can add potentially toxic levels of minerals. Table 3 and
Table 4 provides a summary of minerals and their function in the body.

Table 4. Trace Minerals

Recommended
Mineral Sources Function P
daily allowance

Meat, poultry, fish, shellfish, legumes,

Transport of oxygen in blood, production of
Iron nuts, seeds, whole grains, dark leafy 8–18 mg A
ATP
green vegetables

L
Immunity, reproduction, growth, blood clotting,
Zinc Meat, fish, poultry, cheese, shellfish 8–11 mg p
insulin and thyroid function
o

Seafood, organ meats, nuts, legumes, Red blood cell production, nerve and immune A
Copper chocolate, enriched breads and cereals, 900 µg system function, collagen formation, acts as an l
some fruits and vegetables antioxidant h

Fish, shellfish, garlic, lima beans,

H
Iodine sesame seeds, soybeans, dark leafy 150 µg Thyroid function
t
green vegetables

Sulfur Eggs, meat, poultry, fish, legumes None Component of amino acids P

Fluoride Fluoridated water 3–4 mg Maintenance of bone and tooth structure I

Formation of connective tissue and bones,

I
Manganese Nuts, seeds, whole grains, legumes 1.8–2.3 mg blood clotting, sex hormone development,
s
metabolism, brain and nerve function

Fish, nuts, leafy green vegetables, whole

Cobalt None Component of B12 N
grains

Brewer’s yeast, wheat germ, liver, Antioxidant, thyroid function, immune system
Selenium 55 µg M
butter, fish, shellfish, whole grains function

Whole grains, lean meats, cheese, black H

Chromium 25–35 µg Insulin function
pepper, thyme, brewer’s yeast l

Molybdenum Legumes, whole grains, nuts 45 µg Cofactor for enzymes R

Chapter Review
Nutrition and diet affect your metabolism. More energy is required to break down fats and proteins than carbohydrates;
however, all excess calories that are ingested will be stored as fat in the body. On average, a person requires 1500 to 2000
calories for normal daily activity, although routine exercise will increase that amount. If you ingest more than that, the
remainder is stored for later use. Conversely, if you ingest less than that, the energy stores in your body will be depleted.
Both the quantity and quality of the food you eat affect your metabolism and can affect your overall health. Eating too much
or too little can result in serious medical conditions, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes.
Vitamins and minerals are essential parts of the diet. They are needed for the proper function of metabolic pathways in the
body. Vitamins are not stored in the body, so they must be obtained from the diet or synthesized from precursors available in
the diet. Minerals are also obtained from the diet, but they are also stored, primarily in skeletal tissues.
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS
Weight loss and weight gain are complex processes. What are some of the main factors that influence weight gain in people?
Some low-fat or non-fat foods contain a large amount of sugar to replace the fat content of the food. Discuss how this leads
to increased fat in the body (and weight gain) even though the item is non-fat.
Show Answers
Glossary
body mass index (BMI): relative amount of body weight compared to the overall height; a BMI ranging from 18–24.9 is
considered normal weight, 25–29.9 is considered overweight, and greater than 30 is considered obese
calorie: amount of heat it takes to raise 1 kg (1000 g) of water by 1 °C
minerals: inorganic compounds required by the body to ensure proper function of the body
vitamins: organic compounds required by the body to perform biochemical reactions like metabolism and bone, cell, and
tissue growth