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PHYSICS/ class 10/ Chapter 1/ FORCE

Force and torque are both physical quantities that describe interactions within the realm of physics, particularly
in mechanics. However, they differ in their application and effect:

Force: Force is that cause which changes the state of a body (either the state of rest or the state of motion) or
changes the size or shape of the body.

 A force does not change the mass of the body on which it is applied.
 We cannot see a force. However, we can see or feel the effect of a force.
 A force is expressed by stating both its magnitude and direction.
 Force is a vector quantity; represented by an arrow hen (→).
 It is measured in units of Newton (N) in the International System of Units (SI).
o One Newton is defined as the force which when applied on a moving body of mass 1 kg in the
direction of its motion, increases its speed by 1 m in one second.
 Force can cause linear motion (translation) of an object.
 Examples of forces include pushing, pulling, tension, compression, friction, and gravity.
 A force when applied on a rigid body can cause only change in motion of the body. But a force when
applied on a non-rigid body can cause both change in its size or shape and motion in it.
o Rigid & Non-rigid body: A body, in which the inter-spacing between its constituent particles
does not change when a force is applied on it, is called a rigid body and if it changes, the body
is called a non-rigid body.
Moment of Force: Moment of force i.e. Torque is a measure of force (or rotational force) that can cause an
object to rotate about an axis.
 Torque, also known as moment of force.
 It is a vector quantity as well, with direction determined by the right-hand rule.
o The direction of anticlockwise moment is along the axis of rotation outwards
o The direction of clockwise moment is along the axis of rotation inwards.
 Torque is measured in units of Newton-meters (N·m) or pound-feet (lb·ft).
o The unit N m of moment of force (or torque) is not written joule (J).
Because, the unit N m for work or energy is written joule (J) because
torque is a vector, while work or energy is a sealar quantity.
 Torque causes rotational motion (rotation) of an object around an axis.
 It is the product of force and the perpendicular distance from the axis of
rotation to the line of action of the force.
 Torque is often represented as τ (tau) in equations.
 Mathematically, torque (τ)= Force(F) × Distance (r) × sin(θ)
Simply, (τ)= Force(F) × Perpendicular Distance

In summary:
Force primarily deals with linear motion and the interactions between objects in terms of pushing or pulling,
while torque deals with rotational motion and the twisting or turning effect applied to an object around an
axis.
Moment of force = turning effect of force = torque (all are same)

Factors affecting the turning of a body:

Magnitude of Applied Force: The greater the magnitude of the force applied to the body, the more
significant the turning effect or torque will be.

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Distance from the Axis of Rotation: A force applied at a greater distance from the axis of rotation will
result in a greater turning effect.
Direction of Applied Force: The direction of the applied force relative to the axis of rotation affects the
turning effect. For maximum torque, the force should be applied perpendicular to the lever arm.
Other factors: Distribution of Mass, Shape and Size of the rotating body, Frictional forces, Rotational
inertia, additional torques applied externally, such as gravitational forces or torques from interacting bodies,
stability of the body which depends on center of gravity or a wider base, the material properties of the body,
such as its density and strength, can influence its rotational behavior, especially when subjected to external
forces or torques.

Measurement of moment of force (Torque)

Torque (τ) = Force (F) × Perpendicular Distance (from axis of rotation)
= Force (F) × Distance (r) × sin (θ)
***For maximum torque, the force should be applied perpendicular to the lever arm.

Units of moment of force = Unit of force X Unit of distance

S.I. Unit: Newton-meter (N·m), Kilogram force-meter (kgf.m) (when force in gravitational unit)
C.G.S. Unit: Dyne-centimeter (dyn·cm), Gram force-centimeter ([Link]) (when force in gravitational unit)
F.P.S. Unit: Foot-pound (ft·lb)

1 kgf = 9.8 N
1 gf = 980 dyne

Clockwise and anti clockwise torque or moment of force:

Clockwise and counterclockwise torque, also known as anticlockwise torque, refers to the direction of rotation
induced by a torque applied to an object.

1. Clockwise Torque: When a torque is applied to an object in such a way that it tends to cause the
object to rotate in the clockwise direction, it is referred to as clockwise torque.
Example: The torque applied for turning a wrench to tighten a bolt in a clockwise direction.

2. Counterclockwise or Anticlockwise Torque: Conversely, when a torque is applied to an object in such

a way that it tends to cause the object to rotate in the counterclockwise direction, it is referred to as
counterclockwise or anticlockwise torque.
Example: Turning a wrench to loosen a bolt involves applying torque in a counterclockwise direction.

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Common examples of Moment of Force:

a) To open or shut a door
b) Rotation of upper circular stone of hand flour grinder Read explanation from
c) Turning of steering wheel of car Text Book
d) In bicycle turning of wheel by foot pedal
e) A spanner used to tighten or loosen a nut.

Rest & Motion:

 When the position of a body with respect to its surroundings does not change with time, the body is
said to be at rest.
 When the position of a body with respect to its surroundings changes with time, the body is said to be
in motion.

An object can be at rest relative to one set of objects while in motion relative to some other set of
objects. Thus, rest and motion are relative terms.

Translational Motion: If an object moves in a line in such a way that every point of the object moves through
the same distance in the same time, then the motion of the object is called translatory motion.

 To have translational motion the body must be free to move.

 In translational motion, an object moves such that every point on the
object moves through space by the same amount in the same direction
at the same time.
 Translational motion involves the movement of the entire object from
one place to another without any rotation around its axis.
 Two types of translational motion.
1. Rectilinear or linear motion 2. Curvilinear motion

 Examples: the motion of a car moving along a straight road, a person

walking in a straight line.
 Translational motion can be described using parameters such as
velocity, acceleration, displacement, and momentum.

Rotational Motion: A body is said to be in a rotational motion if it moves about a fixed axis.
 To have rotational motion the body must be pivoted at a point.

 In rotational motion, an object rotates or spins about a fixed axis

 Different points on the object move through space at different distances
and different velocities.
 Rotational motion involves the spinning or rotation of an object around
its axis, resulting in changes in orientation.
 Direction of rotation depends on
o (a) the point of application of the force
o (b) the direction of force.

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 Examples: spinning of a wheel, the rotation of a merry-go-round.
 Rotational motion can be described using parameters such as angular velocity, angular acceleration,
angular displacement, and moment of inertia.

In many cases, objects can exhibit both translational and rotational motion simultaneously.
Example, when a wheel rolls down a hill, it experiences translational motion as it moves forward along the
ground and rotational motion as it spins around its axis.

Couple: A couple is a pair of forces that are equal in magnitude,

opposite in direction, and parallel to each other but do not share the same line
of action.
 A single force applied on a pivoted body alone does not cause
rotation of the body
 The rotation is always produced by a pair of forces
o The force externally applied and the force of reaction
produced at the pivoted point.
o Both are equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction.
o The “moment of the force of reaction” about the pivot is zero because its distance from
the axis of rotation is zero.
 When a couple is applied to an object, it creates a turning effect or torque without producing
any translational motion.
 Essentially, a couple induces rotational motion without causing a change in the object's position.

Moment of a couple: The moment of a couple, also known as the torque of a couple, is the measure of
the rotational effect produced by the couple.
It is calculated as the product of one of the forces in the couple and the perpendicular distance
between the lines of action of the two forces.

Mathematically, the moment of a couple (M) is given by the

formula: M=F × d
Where: M is the moment or torque of the couple,
F is the magnitude of one of the forces in the couple,
d is the perpendicular distance between the lines of
action of the two forces.

Prof of: M=F × d [Moment of couple=Force X Couple arm]

Moment of force F at the end A = F × OA (anticlockwise)
Moment of force F at the end B = F x OB (anticlockwise)
Total moment of couple (i.e., moment of both the forces) = F x OA + F×OB
=F x (OA + OB)
= F x AB
= F x d (anticlockwise)

Moment of couple = Either force x perpendicular distance between the two forces (or couple arm)
The direction of the moment of a couple is determined by the right-hand rule: if you curl the fingers of
your right hand from the direction of the first force vector to the second force vector, then the thumb points in
the direction of the moment vector.

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Couples are commonly encountered in various mechanical systems, such as in machinery, vehicles, and
structures, where they play a crucial role in producing and controlling rotational motion. For example, the
steering mechanism in a car applies a couple to the front wheels to turn the vehicle.

Equilibrium of Bodies: When a number of forces acting on a body produce no change in its state of
rest or of linear or rotational motion, the body is said to be in equilibrium.

*Conditions for equilibrium under number of forces (two or more):

1. The resultant of all the forces acting on the body should be equal to zero.
2. The algebraic sum of moments of all the forces acting on the body about the point of rotation
should be zero.

Kinds of equilibrium
The equilibrium is of two kinds (1) static equilibrium (2) dynamic equilibrium.
(1) Static equilibrium: When a body remains in the state of rest under the influence of several
forces, the body is in static equilibrium.
Examples: << From Text Book >>
(2) Dynamic equilibrium: When a body remains in the same state of motion (translational or
rotational), under the influence of the several forces, the body is said to be in dynamic
equilibrium.
Examples: << From Text Book >>
Principle of Momentum: According to the principle of moments, if the algebraic sum of moments of
all the forces, acting on the body, about the axis of rotation is zero, the body is in equilibrium.

Thus, according to the principle of momentum in equilibrium

Sum of the anticlockwise moments = sum of the clockwise moments

Examples: A physical balance (or beam balance) works on the principle of moments.

*Verification of the principle of moments

Suspend a metre rule horizontally from a fixed
support by means of a strong thread at O as shown
in Fig. 1.16. Let the weight suspended on the right
side of thread from the spring balance A be W₁ at a
distance OA = L₁ , while the weight suspended on
the left side of the thread from the spring balance B
be W₂ at a distance OB = L₂
The weight W₁ tend to turn the metre rule clockwise,
while the weight W₂ tend to turn the metre rule
anticlockwise.

Clockwise moment of weight W₁ about the point O = W₁ × L₁

Anticlockwise moment of weight W₂ about the point O = W₂ × L₂

In equilibrium, when the metre rule is horizontal, it is found that W₁ L₁ = W₂ L₂

i.e., clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
- This verifies the principle of moments.

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 A body can be considered to be made up of a large number of particles of
weight w₁, W₂, W3,,...
 Gravitational force is always attractive, so the earth attracts every particle
towards its centre by the force of gravity on the particle (= weight w).
 As the size of the body is quite small in comparison to the size of the earth,
the force of gravity w acting on these particles can be assumed to be
parallel to each other.
 Parallel forces acting in the same direction (i.e., vertically downwards
towards the centre of earth).
 All these can be replaced by a single resultant force of magnitude equal to
the sum of all these forces i.e., equal to the entire weight W (w₁ + W₂ +
w3+....) of the body.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY: The centre of gravity (C.G) of a body is the point about which the algebraic sum of
moments of weights of all the particles constituting the body is zero. The entire weight of the body can be
considered to act at this point, howsoever the body is placed.

 A body of weight W can be considered as a point particle of weight W at its centre of gravity.
 The position of the centre of gravity of a body of given mass depends on its shape i.e., on the
distribution of mass of particles in it. It changes if the body is deformed.
 It is not necessary that the centre of gravity always be within the material of the body.
o Example: The centre of gravity of a ring or a hollow sphere lies at its centre where there is no
material.
 Center of gravity is crucial for analyzing the stability and balance of objects and systems.
 In general, the lower the center of gravity of an object, the more stable it is.
 A solid body can be balanced by supporting it at its centre of gravity.

Centre of gravity of some regular objects

1. Rod- Mid-point of rod
2. Circular disc- Geometric centre
3. Solid or hollow sphere- Geometric centre of the sphere
4. Solid or hollow cylinder- Mid-point on the axis of cylinder
5. Solid cone- At a height h/4 from the base
6. Hollow cone- on its axis. (h= height of cone).
7. Circular ring- At a height h/3 from the base, on its axis.
(h= height of cone). Centre of ring
8. Triangular lamina or scalene triangle- The point of
intersection of medians
9. Parallelogram, rectangular lamina, square or rhombus-
The point of intersection of the diagonals.

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Determination of centre of gravity of an irregular lamina by the method of balance using a plumb line:

Let A be an irregular lamina in Fig. 1.39, for which the position of centre of gravity is to
be determined. Make three fine holes at a, b and c, near the edge of the lamina. Now
suspend the given lamina along with a plumb line from the hole a, using a pin (or a
nail) clamped horizontally on a retort stand. Check that the lamina is free to oscillate
on the nail about the point of suspension. When lamina has come to rest, draw a
straight line ad along the plumb line. Repeat the procedure by suspending the lamina
through the hole b and then through the hole c for which we get straight lines be and
cf respectively. It is noticed that the lines ad, be and of intersect each other at a
common point G which is the position of centre of gravity of the lamina.