POWER QUALITY

CHAPTER II

Harmonics and Indices

2.1 Introduction to Harmonics

Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are integer multiples of the
frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (termed the fundamental frequency usually
50 or 60 Hz). Presence of Harmonics poses a severe threat to the power system by subjecting to a poor
power quality. Use of Non- Linear loads, renewable sources of energy, electronic devices are some of the
major sources for harmonics. Due to the use of Non- linear loads the current and voltage waveform do not
follow each other leading to a distortion in the resultant which is commonly referred to a Harmonic
waveform. Today power generating and distributing units are very much concerned about the quality of
power delivered and thus the permissible Harmonic limits. Presence of Harmonics have adverse effects
on the operation of motor, telecommunication lines, metering devices, transformers, AC-DC drives,
capacitors etc. There are many mitigation techniques for Harmonic distortion namely use of specific
Harmonic filter, Zigzag Transformers, In-line reactors etc

2.2 Harmonic distortion

Harmonic distortion is caused due to the presence of non-Linear loads, here the current and voltage
waveforms are not proportional to each other hence leads to Harmonic distortion. Fig 2.2.1 below shows
the non-sinusoidal waveform instead of the purely sinusoidal waveform applied to the system. The
presence of any electronic component, non linear resistor leads to the presence of Harmonic distortion.
The Fourier series concept is universally adopted for analyzing the harmonics in the system.

Fig: 2.2.1 Current distortion due to Non- Linear resistor

2.3 Voltage versus Current distortion
Any abnormal operating condition like mal-operation of AC-DC drives, Induction furnaces may be due to
the following reasons namely high presence of Harmonic voltages and currents. Presence of High
harmonic currents, which is difficult to be handled by Transformers and other Machines, which are
designed to operate at the rated power. Fig 2.3.1 below shows the Harmonic voltages as a result of
Harmonic currents flowing through system impedances.

Fig 2.3.1: Harmonic voltages as a result of Harmonic currents flowing trough system impedence.
Voltage distortion is any form of deviation from the nominal sine waveform of the AC line voltage. A
similar concept applies for current distortion, however, current distortion and voltage distortion are not
the same. Each affects power systems and loads differently, and each requires a different solution. Fourier
Analysis allows analyst to break down a distorted waveform into a set of sine waves with particular
characteristics. The first characteristic deals with frequency. The distorted waveform repeats itself with
some basic frequency. The sine wave associated with this frequency, which is usually 50 Hz, is called the
fundamental frequency. Each successive harmonic or sine wave, of this particular set has a frequency that
is an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency. So, the 2nd order harmonic has a frequency of 100
Hz, the 3rd is at 150 Hz, the 4th at 200 Hz, and so on.

2.4 Harmonic and Transients

Harmonics, by definition, occur in the steady state and are integer multiples of the fundamental
frequency. The waveform distortion that produces the harmonics is present continuously or at least for
several seconds. Transients are changes which are usually dissipated within a few cycles. Transients are
associated with changes in the system such as switching of a capacitor bank. Harmonics are associated
with the continuing operation of a load. Transients and Harmonics are different phenomena and are
analyzed separately.

2.5 Harmonic Indices

The two most commonly used terms related to Harmonic indices are THD and TDD, which are Total
Harmonic distortion and Total Demand distortion. Both of these are measures of effective values of
waveforms and are applied to either voltage or current.

2.5.1 Total Harmonic distortion (THD)

Total harmonic distortion, or THD, is the summation of all harmonic components of the voltage or current
waveform compared against the fundamental component of the voltage or current wave.

(𝑉22 + 𝑉32 + 𝑉42 … … … . +𝑉𝑛2 )

𝑇𝐻𝐷 = √ 𝑋 100 %
𝑉1
Where, Vn is the RMS voltage of the nth harmonic and n = 1 is the fundamental frequency.

The THD is a very useful quantity in many applications, but its limitations must be understood. It can
provide a good idea of how much excess heat will be realized when a distorted voltage is applied across a
resistive load. Likewise, it can give an indication of the additional losses caused by the current flowing
through a conductor. However, it is not a good indicator of the voltage stress within a capacitor because
that is related to the peak value of the voltage waveform, not its heating value. The THD index is used to
describe the voltage harmonic distortion.

2.5.2 Total Demand distortion (TDD)

It is defined as follows
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥
√(∑ℎ=2 Ih2 )
𝑇𝐷𝐷 =
𝐼𝐿
Where,

𝐼𝐿 = Peak load current at fundamental frequency component measured at Point of common coupling.

It can also be termed as,

Total demand distortion (TDD) is the per-phase harmonic current distortion against the full load demand
of the electrical system.

2.6 Harmonic sources from commercial loads

Commercial facilities like offices, departmenal stores, hospitals, Internet data centers are dominant in
elevator drives, high-efficiency fluorescent lighting with electronic ballasts, ventilation, and air
conditioning (HVAC) loads, adjustable-speed drives for the heating, and sensitive electronic equipment
supplied by single-phase switch-mode power supplies. Commercial loads are characterized by a large
number of small harmonic-producing loads. Depending on the diversity of the different load types, these
small harmonic currents may add in phase or cancel each other. The voltage distortion levels depend on
both the circuit impedances and the overall harmonic current distortion. Since power factor correction
capacitors are not typically used in commercial facilities, the circuit impedance is dominated by the
service entrance transformers and conductor impedances. Therefore, the voltage distortion can be
estimated simply by multiplying the current by the impedance adjusted for frequency
2.6.1 Single Phase Power supplies

Electronic power converter loads with their capacity for producing harmonic currents now constitute the
most important class of nonlinear loads in the power system. Advances in semiconductor device
technology have fueled a revolution in power electronics over the past decade, and there is every
indication that this trend will continue. Equipment includes adjustable speed motor drives, electronic
power supplies, dc motor drives, battery chargers, electronic ballasts, and many other rectifier and
inverter applications. A major concern in commercial buildings is that power supplies for single-phase
electronic equipment will produce too much harmonic current for the wiring. DC power for modern
electronic and microprocessor- based office equipment is commonly derived from single-phase full-wave
diode bridge rectifiers. The percentage of load that contains electronic power supplies is increasing at a
dramatic pace, with the increased utilization of personal computers in every commercial sector. There are
two common types of single-phase power supplies. Older technologies use ac- side voltage control
methods, such as transformers, to reduce voltages to the level required for the dc bus. The inductance of
the transformer provides a beneficial side effect by smoothing the input current waveform, reducing
harmonic content. Newer-technology switch-mode power supplies use dc-to-dc conversion techniques to
achieve a smooth dc output with small, lightweight components. The input diode bridge is directly
connected to the ac line, eliminating the transformer. This results in a coarsely regulated dc voltage on the
capacitor. This direct current is then converted back to alternating current at a very high frequency by the
switcher and subsequently rectified again. Personal computers, printers, copiers, and most other single-
phase electronic equipment now almost universally employ switch-mode power supplies. The key
advantages are the lightweight, compact size, efficient operation, and lack of need for a transformer.
Switch-mode power supplies can usually tolerate large variations in input voltage.

Fig 2.6.1: Switch mode power supply

Because there is no large ac-side inductance, the input current to the power supply comes in very short
pulses as the capacitor C1 regains its charge on each half cycle. The current waveform and spectrum for
an entire circuit supplying a variety of electronic equipment with switch-mode power supplies. A
distinctive characteristic of switch-mode power supplies is a very high third-harmonic content in the
current. Since third-harmonic current components are additive in the neutral of a three-phase system, the
increasing application of switch-mode power supplies causes concern for overloading of neutral
conductors, especially in older buildings where an undersized neutral may have been installed. There is
also a concern for transformer overheating due to a combination of harmonic content of the current, stray
flux, and high neutral currents.

2.6.2 Fluorescent Lighting

Lighting typically accounts for 40 to 60 percent of a commercial building load. Fluorescent lights are
discharge lamps; thus they require a ballast to provide a high initial voltage to initiate the discharge for
the electric current to flow between two electrodes in the fluorescent tube. Once the discharge is
established, the voltage decreases as the arc current increases.

Fig 2.6.2 (a)

Fig 2.6.2 (b) SMPS Current and Harmonic spectrum

It is essentially a short circuit between the two electrodes, and the ballast has to quickly reduce the current
to a level to maintain the specified lumen output. Thus, a ballast is also a current-limiting device in
lighting applications. There are two types of ballasts, magnetic and electronic. A standard magnetic
ballast is simply made up of an iron-core transformer with a capacitor encased in an insulating material. A
single magnetic ballast can drive one or two fluorescent lamps, and it operates at the line fundamental
frequency, i.e., 50 or 60 Hz. The iron-core magnetic ballast contributes additional heat losses, which
makes it inefficient compared to an electronic ballast. An electronic ballast employs a switch-mode–type
power supply to convert the incoming fundamental frequency voltage to a much higher frequency voltage
typically in the range of 25 to 40 kHz. This high frequency has two advantages. First, a small inductor is
sufficient to limit reduces the 100- or 120-Hz flicker associated with an iron-core magnetic ballast. A
single electronic ballast typically can drive up to four fluorescent lamps. Standard magnetic ballasts are
usually rather benign sources of additional harmonics themselves since the main harmonic distortion
comes from the behavior of the arc. A measured fluorescent lamp current and harmonic spectrum. The
current THD is a moderate 15 percent. As a comparison, electronic ballasts, which employ switch-mode
power supplies, can produce double or triple the standard magnetic ballast harmonic output. A fluorescent
lamp with an electronic ballast that has a current THD of 144. Other electronic ballasts have been
specifically designed to minimize harmonics and may actually produce less harmonic distortion than the
normal magnetic ballast-lamp combination. Electronic ballasts typically produce current THDs in the
range of between 10 and 32 percent. A current THD greater than 32 percent is considered excessive
according to ANSI C82.11-1993, High-Frequency Fluorescent Lamp Ballasts. Most electronic ballasts are
equipped with passive filtering to reduce the input current harmonic distortion to less than 20 percent.
Since fluorescent lamps are a significant source of harmonics in commercial buildings, they are usually
distributed among the phases in a nearly balanced manner. With a deltaconnected supply transformer, this
reduces the amount of triplen harmonic currents flowing onto the power supply system.

2.6.3 Adjustable Speed drives for HVAC and Elevators

Common applications of adjustable-speed drives (ASDs) in commercial loads can be found in elevator
motors and in pumps and fans in HVAC systems. An ASD consists of an electronic power converter that
converts ac voltage and frequency into variable voltage and frequency. The variable voltage and
frequency allows the ASD to control motor speed to match the application requirement such as slowing a
pump or fan. ASDs also find many applications in industrial loads.

2.7 Harmonic sources from Industrial loads

It was observed on transmission systems in the early 1890s and was associated with voltage and current
[Link] equipment became more sophisticated — and with the proliferation of nonlinear loads —
harmonics has become a pronounced problem on many power systems. In fact, according to some
industry experts, nonlinear loads are approaching 75% to 90% of the loading on our nation's electric
utility distribution systems in many areas.
Harmonics can be produced in a plant and/or may enter a plant from the electric utility power system
because of other offending sources on the line feeding the plant. IEEE Standard 519 has tried to address
this by defining responsibility for both the electric utility and the user. The major concern for the electric
utility is the quality of the voltage while the industrial user is responsible for the distortion of the current.
With more electric utilities imposing higher penalties for poor power factor these days, industrials are
applying more capacitors to their systems to correct this situation. Because this increased use of
capacitors can magnify the harmonic currents on the system, the electric utilities can strengthen their
position by applying restriction to the harmonic currents being injected into the system by the industrial
customer.
Harmonic sources:
There are many sources of harmonics in industrial power systems, all of which share a common
characteristic: a nonlinear voltage-current operating relationship. A nonlinear load has a discontinuous
current that does not correspond to the applied voltage waveform. Any device that alters the sinusoidal
waveform of the voltage or current is a harmonic producer. This includes such common components as
transformers. Transformer inrush currents contain significant levels of low-order harmonics, such as the
2nd, 3rd, 4th, etc. In addition, the transformer magnetizing currents will contain increased levels of the
3rd, 5th, and 7th order harmonics, when the applied voltage is higher than the rated voltage.

More significant harmonic sources come from applications of solid-state devices for equipment control.
The term “solid-state” includes:
Diodes (simple rectifiers)
Transistors
SCR or thyristor devices used in various applications for the control or regulation of drives
Rectifier output controls
Frequency conversion (variable-speed drives)
Arc furnaces and arc welding equipment are also significant producers of harmonics.

Capacitors are static or linear components, and they do not generate harmonics. However, they will
interact with the electrical system source inductance and may create a parallel resonance condition at a
troublesome harmonic.
2.8 Locating Harmonic sources

On radial utility distribution feeders and industrial plant power systems, the main tendency is for the
harmonic currents to flow from the harmonic-producing load to the power system source. This is
illustrated in Fig.2.8.1. The impedance of the power system is normally the lowest impedance seen by the
harmonic currents. Thus, the bulk of the current flows into the source. This general tendency of harmonic
current flows can be used to locate sources of harmonics. Using a power quality monitor capable of
reporting the harmonic content of the current, simply measure the harmonic currents in each branch
starting at the beginning of the circuit and trace the harmonics to the source.
Power factor correction capacitors can alter this flow pattern for at least one of the harmonics. For
example, adding a capacitor to the previous circuit as shown in Fig. 2.8.2 may draw a large amount of
harmonic current into that portion of the circuit. In such a situation, following the path of the harmonic
current will lead to a capacitor bank instead of the actual harmonic source. Thus, it is generally necessary
to temporarily disconnect all capacitors to reliably locate the sources of harmonics. It is usually
straightforward to differentiate harmonic currents due to actual sources from harmonic currents that are
strictly due to resonance involving a capacitor bank. A resonance current typically has only one dominant
harmonic riding on top of the fundamental sine wave. They all produce more than one single harmonic
frequency. Waveforms of these harmonic sources have somewhat arbitrary wave shapes depending on the
distorting phenomena, but they contain several harmonics in significant quantities. A single, large,
significant harmonic nearly always signifies resonance.

Fig 2.8.1: General flow of harmonic currents in a radial power system

Fig 2.8.2 Power factor capacitors can alter the direction of flow of one of the harmonic components of the
current.
Another method to locate harmonic sources is by correlating the time variations of the voltage distortion
with specific customer and load characteristics. Patterns from the harmonic distortion measurements can
be compared to particular types of loads, such as arc furnaces, mill drives, and mass transits which appear
intermittently. Correlating the time from the measurements and the actual operation time can identify the
harmonic source.

2.9 System Response Characteristics

In power systems, the response of the system is equally as important as the sources of harmonics. In fact,
power systems are quite tolerant of the currents injected by harmonic producing loads unless there is
some adverse interaction with the impedance of the system. Identifying the sources is only half the job of
harmonic analysis. The response of the power system at each harmonic frequency determines the true
impact of the nonlinear load on harmonic voltage distortion. There are three primary variables affecting
the system response characteristics, i.e., the system impedance, the presence of a capacitor bank, and the
amount of resistive loads in the system.

2.10 Effects of Harmonic distortion

Harmonic currents produced by nonlinear loads are injected back into the supply systems. These currents
can interact adversely with a wide range of power system equipment, most notably capacitors,
transformers, and motors, causing additional losses, overheating, and overloading. These harmonic
currents can also cause interference with telecommunication lines and errors in power metering.

1) Impact on Capacitors
A capacitor bank experiences high voltage distortion during resonance. The current flowing in the
capacitor bank is also significantly large and rich in a monotonic harmonic.

Fig 2.10.1 shows a current waveform of a capacitor bank in resonance with the system at the 11th
harmonic. The harmonic current shows up distinctly, resulting in a waveform that is essentially
the 11th harmonic riding on top of the fundamental frequency. This current waveform typically
indicates that the system is in resonance and a capacitor bank is involved. In such a resonance
condition, the rms current is typically higher than the capacitor rms current rating.

IEEE Standard for Shunt Power Capacitors (IEEE Standard 18- 1992) specifies the following
continuous capacitor ratings:
• 135 percent of nameplate kvar
• 110 percent of rated rms voltage (including harmonics but excluding transients)
• 180 percent of rated rms current (including fundamental and harmonic current)
• 120 percent of peak voltage (including harmonics)
 Fig 2.10.1: Typical capacitor current from a system in 11th-harmonic resonance.

2) Impact on Transformers

Transformers are designed to deliver the required power to the connected loads with minimum
losses at fundamental frequency. Harmonic distortion of the current, in particular, as well as of
the voltage will contribute significantly to additional heating. To design a transformer to
accommodate higher frequencies, designers make different design choices such as using
continuously transposed cable instead of solid conductor and putting in more cooling ducts. As a
general rule, a transformer in which the current distortion exceeds 5 percent is a candidate for
derating for harmonics. There are three effects that result in increased transformer heating when
the load current includes harmonic components:

RMS Current - If the transformer is sized only for the kVA requirements of the load, harmonic
currents may result in the transformer rms current being higher than its capacity. The increased
total rms current results in increased conductor losses.

Eddy Current Losses- These are induced currents in a transformer caused by the magnetic fluxes.
These induced currents flow in the windings, in the core, and in other conducting bodies
subjected to the magnetic field of the transformer and cause additional heating. This component
of the transformer losses increases with the square of the frequency of the current causing the
eddy currents. Therefore, this becomes a very important component of transformer losses for
harmonic heating.

Core losses- The increase in core losses in the presence of harmonics will be dependent on the
effect of the harmonics on the applied voltage and the design of the transformer core. Increasing
the voltage distortion may increase the eddy currents in the core laminations. The net impact that
this will have depends on the thickness of the core laminations and the quality of the core steel.

3) Impact on Motors

Motors can be significantly impacted by the harmonic voltage distortion. Harmonic voltage
distortion at the motor terminals is translated into harmonic fluxes within the motor. Harmonic
fluxes do not contribute significantly to motor torque, but rotate at a frequency different than the
 rotor synchronous frequency, basically inducing high-frequency currents in the rotor. The effect
on motors is similar to that of negative-sequence currents at fundamental frequency: The
additional fluxes do little more than induce additional losses. Decreased efficiency along with
heating, vibration, and high-pitched noises are indicators of harmonic voltage distortion. At
harmonic frequencies, motors can usually be represented by the blocked rotor reactance
connected across the line. The lower-order harmonic voltage components, for which the
magnitudes are larger and the apparent motor impedance lower, are usually the most important
for motors. There is usually no need to derate motors if the voltage distortion remains within
IEEE Standard 519-1992 limits of 5 percent THD and 3 percent for any individual harmonic.
Excessive heating problems begin when the voltage distortion reaches 8 to 10 percent and higher.
Such distortion should be corrected for long motor life. Motors appear to be in parallel with the
power system impedance with respect to the harmonic current flow and generally shift the system
resonance higher by causing the net inductance to decrease.

2.11 Interharmonics- The IEEE defines interharmonics as: “A frequency component of a periodic
quantity that is not an integer multiple of the frequency at which the supply system is operating
(e.g., 50 Hz or 60 Hz).”

The IEC defines interharmonics as: “Between the harmonics of the power frequency voltage and
current, further frequencies can be observed which are not an integer of the fundamental. They
can appear as discrete frequencies or as a wide-band spectrum.”

Some of the sources of Interharmonics include arcing loads, Induction motors, electronic
frequency converters, variable load drives, voltage source converters, power line communication
units.

Some effects of presence of Interharmonics include Light Flicker, impact on lighting system,
impact on power line communication units.

2.11 Comparison between Passive and Active harmonic filters

Passive Harmonic Filter Active Harmonic Filter

These type of Filters are actually harmonic These filters only inject opposite nature of distorted
type filters in the real manner. current in the line.
They stop harmonic current circulation in They do not stop harmonic current circulation.
network.
These types of filters clean the entire system They fail to possess such find of behavior.
both down and up the line.
They are rugged and maintenance free Maintenance is a problem due to use of multiple
electronic devices.
They are more economical They bear high cost comparatively
Running losses are low Running losses are higher
There is a possibility of getting overloaded They do not possess the tendency of getting
overloaded
They target single harmonic order They target from 2nd to the 50th order of harmonic
They are available in low and medium voltage They are available in low voltage applications.
applications
There is possibility of series and parallel Absence of any series and parallel resonance.
resonance
Delay in response to load changes Quick response with respect to load changes.