PRINCIPLES OF SOIL SCIENCE

(Soils 1)

CHAPTER I. SOIL AS A NATURAL BODY

A. SOIL
▪ Living, dynamic system which forms at the interface between the atmosphere and lithosphere
in response to forces exerted by climate and living organisms acting on parent material as
conditioned by topography/relief over a period of time
▪ Soil is a three-dimensional (length, breadth, depth) body composed of unique horizontal layers,
which supports plant establishment and growth, and it is a natural and dynamic medium.
▪ Loose and crumby part of the outer earth crust.
▪ It is a natural dynamic body of mineral and organic constituents, differentiated into horizons,
which differs among themselves as well as from the underlying parent material in morphology,
physical make-up, chemical composition, and biological characteristics. It is made up of small
particles of different sizes.
▪ Soils are the weathering products of rocks and minerals
▪ For a farmer, soil refers to the cultivated top layer (surface soil) only, that is, up to 15–18 cm of
the plough depth. Soils widely vary in their characteristics and properties.

B. Two concepts of soil

1. Pedology
▪Study about the origin of the soil, its classification and its description are involved in
pedology.
▪Pedologist considers soil as a natural body and does not focus primarily on the soil’s
immediate practical utilization
▪Pedologist studies, examines, and classifies soil as they occur in their natural
environment.

2. Edaphology
▪It is the study of soils from the standpoint of higher plants.
▪It considers various properties of soil as they relate to plant production.
▪The edaphologist is practical, having the production of food and fiber as an ultimate
goal.
▪Simultaneously, the edaphologist must be a scientist to determine the reasons for
variations in the soil productivity, and to find means of conserving and improving soil
productivity.

C. History of Soil Science

▪Originally a branch of geology that developed into an independent natural science
▪Starting in the 19th century, soil science was already considered as a natural science that
deals with a natural body-the soil
▪Major applications were initially toward addressing agricultural concerns and has greatly
contributed to the increased food production worldwide
▪Worsening environmental problems and the increased realization that the soil can treat
contaminants has dramatically changed the focus of soil science

1 Soils 2 Supplemental Lecture Notes | Reuben James C. Rollon, 2020

Three periods in the development of soil science

1. Ancient
▪ 4,000 years ago-Chinese attempted to classify the soil
▪ 2,000 years ago- Greeks and romans started simple soil studies
o Theophrastus (371-286 BC)- gave the soil the name “edaphos” and described
soil properties that affect growth
o Cato (234-149 BC)- developed a classification system of arable soils and
emphasized the suitability of soils for farming.
2. Pre-Soil Science Period
▪ Von Liebig (1803-1873)-established agricultural chemistry and formulated the mineral
theory of plant nutrition-the law of minimum
▪ Henri Darcy (1803-1929)- developed the key law in soil physics (Darcy’s law) that
describes water flow in soils
▪ Joseph Henry Gilbert (1817-1901)- established first systematic long term field
fertilizer experiment in the world-famous Rothamsted Experimental Station

3. Early Soil Science Period

▪ F. A. Fallou (1794-1877)- in his book “Pedology or general and special soil science”
(1862), he argued for the recognition of Soil Science as an independent natural science
o Founder of Soil Science
▪ V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903)-in his book “Russian Chernozem” (1883), he discussed
the factors of soil formation and he introduced the ABC horizon nomenclature system
o Father of modern soil science
▪ E. W. Hilgard (1833-1893)- one of the first to apply soil science to solve problems in
agriculture and is considered the “Father of American Soil Science”
▪ H. Jenny (1899-1992)- in 1941 published ‘Factors of Soil Formation’ o s= f (cl, o, r, p,
t)

The International Union of Soil Science (IUSS)

▪ The global scientific organization of soil scientists and soil science practioners
▪ a full member of the international council for sciences (the governing body for the
sciences composed of 25 international science unions)

D. Division of Soil Science

Soil Science has six well defined and developed disciplines. Scope of soil Science is reflected through
these disciplines.

Soil Science: The science dealing with soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth, including
Pedology (soil genesis, classification, and mapping) and the physical, chemical, and biological and
fertility properties of soil and these properties in relation to their management for crop production.

1. Soil fertility: Nutrient supplying properties of soil

2. Soil chemistry: Chemical constituents, chemical properties, and the chemical reactions
3. Soil physics: Involves the study of physical properties
4. Soil microbiology: deals with microorganisms, its population, classification, its role in
transformations
5. Soil conservation: Dealing with protection of soil against physical loss by erosion or against
chemical deterioration i.e., excessive loss of nutrients either natural or artificial means. 6.
Pedology: Dealing with the genesis, survey, and classification

2 Soils 2 Supplemental Lecture Notes | Reuben James C. Rollon, 2020

E. Composition of soil (by volume)
1. Mineral matter- 45 %
2. Organic matter- 5 %
3. Water – 25 %
4. Air- 25 %

Soil is composed of 50 % solid and 50 %

pores. The solids are represented by mineral and organic matter. The remaining half is the
pores where water and air occupy.

E.1. Organic matter

▪ plant and animal residues at various stages of decomposition
▪ e.g., plant material, decomposing microorganisms, worms, peat moss, etc.
E.2. Pores
▪ empty space in between soil particles where water and air occupy
▪ Void spaces

E.2.1. Soil air o Refers to the air in the pores o It has lower oxygen content and has higher
carbon dioxide content than atmosphere o Soil has a large population of microorganisms
and the oxidative respiration of these microorganisms contributes to the depletion of
oxygen and accumulation of carbon dioxide in soil air

E.2.2. Soil water o Refers to

the water in pores
o It is usually having a higher solute concentration than water in surface water bodies
(rivers and lakes) o For water to enter the pores, the air in
them must be excluded.

E.3. Mineral fraction of soil

E.3.1. Sand
▪ Particles range in size from very fine (0.05 mm) to very
coarse (2.0 mm) in average diameter.
▪ Lowest surface area per gram of soil
▪ Low water holding capacity due to large pore spaces
between the individual particles
▪ These particles feel coarse or abrasive when rubbed
between the fingers. Most particles can be seen without a magnifying glass
▪ Dominated by quartz and spherical in shape
▪ Soils dominated by sand are characterized by good drainage and aeration but are
prone to drought and erosion
▪ Usually composed of primary minerals that are resistant to weathering such as quartz

E.3.2. Silt
▪ Particles range in size from 0.05 mm to 0.002 mm
▪ Much smaller than sand particles and cannot usually be
seen by the unaided eye
▪ Like sands, contribute little to soil fertility

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 ▪ Feels smooth like powder when moistened but is not sticky ▪ Neither sand nor silt
is sticky when wet. ▪ When dry, it is smooth and floury
▪ Usually composed of primary minerals

E.3.3. Clay
▪ About 1/1000th of an average sand grain in size
▪ Particles are finer than 0.002 mm
▪ Can be seen only with the aid of an electron microscope
▪ Feels extremely smooth or powdery when dry, and becomes
plastic and sticky when wet.
▪ Contain and hold an appreciable amount of plant nutrients
▪ Have a large surface area per gram of soil
▪ Characterized by being hard to work due to its stickiness
▪ Clay soils have slow drainage and can easily become excessively wet
▪ They tend to be plate-shaped, rather than spherical
▪ Adsorbs large amount of water and nutrients than sand and silt
▪ Plastic when wet
▪ Has a net negative charge that can adsorbs nutrient cations including Ca, Mg and K
▪ Usually composed of secondary minerals

Table 1. Some characteristics of soil separate

Separate Diameter (mm)a Diameter Number of Surface area in 1
(mm)b particles per gram gram cm2
Very coarse sand 2.00-1.00 90 11
Coarse sand 1.00-0.50 2.00-0.20 720 23
Medium sand 0.50-0.25 5,700 45
Fine sand 0.25-0.10 0.20-0.02 46,000 91
Very fine sand 0.10-0.05 722,000 227
Silt 0.05-0.002 0.02-0.002 5,776,000 454
Clay Below 0.002 Below 0.002 90,260,853,000 8,000,000
a
United States Department of Agriculture System bInternational
Soil Science Society System

F. Functions of soil
1. It provides place and anchorage for plant growth and development.
2. It serves as a medium for air and water circulation.
3. It acts as a reservoir for water and nutrients.
4. It provides space for beneficial microorganisms
5. Ecological regulator
6. Engineering function
7. Cultural heritage function

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 PRINCIPLES OF SOIL SCIENCE
(Soils 1)

CHAPTER 2. SOIL FORMATION AND ITS FACTORS

A. Soil formation
▪ Formation of the soil with special reference to the processes or soil forming factors
responsible for the development of the true soil from unconsolidated parent material
Soil = f (parent material [p], climate [cl], relief/topography [r], living organisms [l], time [t])

Soil= f (clorpt)

“Therefore, soil is a product of climate, living organisms and topography acting on parent
material over a period of time”

▪ Soil formation includes two broad processes: (1) formation of a parent material from which
the soil evolves; (2) the evolution of soil layers
▪ Soils have different feature because of the differences or changes in these five factors. These
differences show up as different soil horizons and soil profiles
B. Soil development
▪ The changes in the soil profile brought about by the natural processes of leaching,
translocation of colloids, accumulation of organic matter and continued rock and mineral
weathering Soil profile- vertical exposure of soil consisting of the horizons

Soil horizon
▪ Different layers of soil within the soil profile that runs parallel to the land surface
▪ Horizonation is the process of soil horizon formation
▪ Horizons are formed from the different soil-forming processes such as gains, losses,
transformations and translocations that occur over time within the various parts of a vertical
section of the parent material.

C. Soil-forming processes

C.1. Gains/additions
▪ Addition of organic matter from plant growth, mainly to the topsoil ▪
This also includes:
o Water as precipitation, condensation, run-off o O2
and CO2 from the atmosphere
o N, Cl and S from the atmosphere and precipitation o
Material from sediments
o Energy from the sun

C.2. Losses
▪ Loss of soluble components by water moving downward through soil carrying out
soluble salts ▪ This includes:

5 Soils 2 Supplemental Lecture Notes | Reuben James C. Rollon, 2020

 o Water by evaporation o N by
denitrification
o C as CO2 from oxidation of organic matter
o Soil by erosion o Energy by radiation
o Water and mineral in solution or
suspension

C.3. Transformations
▪ Weathering of rocks and minerals and the decomposition of organic
matter
▪ This includes o Reduced particle size by weathering o Mineral
transformation (primary to secondary) o Clay and organic matter reactions

C.4. Translocation
▪ Movement of mineral and organic particles form the topsoil to the subsoil.
▪ This includes:
o Clay, organic matter, iron oxide and chemicals by water o Nutrients
circulated by plants o Soluble salts in water
o Soils by animals

D. Factors affecting soil formation

D.1. Parent material

▪ Are unconsolidated (fragmented) debris produced from the weathering of bedrock
▪ Rocks and minerals that weathered in place or weathered and transported and become
unconsolidated material on the surface of the earth is called regolith. The upper part
of the regolith is soil
▪ This unconsolidated material is acted on by the soil forming factors and soil is
formed. For this reason, the upper part of the regolith is called parent materials.
▪ Rates of parent material formation from the direct weathering of bedrock are highly
variable. Weakly cemented sandstone in a humid environment might disintegrate at
the rate of 1 centimeter in 10 years while quartzite (metamorphosed sandstone)
weather so slowly that any weathered material might be removed by water or wind
erosion. For limestone, it takes 100,000 years to form a foot of residue in a humid
region.
▪ Parent material determines the mineralogy and the nutrition status of the soil
o Ex. SiO2 (quartz)- does not contribute to the fertility status of the soil o
KAl (Mg, Fe)3Si3O10(OH)2(Biotite) –contributes K, Mg and Fe

D.2. Climate
▪ Temperature and precipitation affect the rates of soil formation
▪ If parent materials are permanently frozen or dry, soils do not develop.
▪ Warm, humid climate promotes soil formation, whereas dry and/or cold climates
inhibit it.
▪ Temperature and precipitation are the most important climatic parameters o
temperature changes can cause enough expansion and contraction to crack hard rock
o organic matter production increases as temperature increases, provided there
is rainfall for good plant growth

6 Soils 2 Supplemental Lecture Notes | Reuben James C. Rollon, 2020

 o rainfall affects weathering and the amount of organic matter production and
decomposition
o when rainfall increases, organic matter production increases provided the
temperature is high enough for good plant growth

D.3. Relief/topography
▪ Refers to the general nature of the land surface
▪ On slopes, the loss of water by run-off and the removal of soil by erosion retard soil
formation
▪ Areas that receive runoff water may have greater plant growth and organic matter
content, and more water may percolate through the soil.

D.4. Biotic factor or living organisms (vegetation and animals)

▪ Climate and living organisms are considered the ‘active factors” of soil formation and
greatly determine the degree and rate of soil formation
▪ Plant roots and microbes produces organic acids that enhances the rates of weathering
and soil formation
▪ Soil animals (earthworms) creates burrows (holes) that increases water infiltration and
aeration and thus promotes soil formation

D.5. Time

Young vs. old soil

1. Embryonic or initial stage of soil formation contains unweathered fresh parent material-C
horizon
2. Young soil when it has an A horizon on top of C horizon and clay formation is just starting
3. Old soil when most of the resistant minerals such as quartz are left; clay content is relatively
high; dominance of 1:1 over 2:1 clay; sequioxides (Al and Fe oxides) abound.
4. Very old soil when soil-forming processes have slowed down to almost a stop; colloidal clay
fraction (<0.002 mm in diameter) dominates; almost all 1:1 clay with a trace of 2:1 E. General
categories of parent materials:

E.1. Residual/sedentary
▪ Rocks and minerals that are original to a location that gave rise to a soil (via physical
and chemical processes)

E.2. Transported
▪ Alluvial- transported by rivers
▪ Colluvial-transported by gravitational action (gravel and rocks)
▪ Eolian-wind deposits material such as clay, sand, and silt
▪ Lacustrine-lakes deposits
▪ Marine-sea or ocean bottom deposits
▪ Glacial deposits- transported by ice

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 PRINCIPLES OF SOIL SCIENCE
(Soils 1)

CHAPTER 3. SOIL PROFILE DESCRIPTION

A. Soil profile
▪Vertical section from the surface down to the bedrock below the soil surface.
▪It is composed of horizons (layers) which are identified by their morphological, physical,
chemical, mineralogical, and biological properties. Morphological and physical properties include
depth and type of layers, texture, structure, pores, color, bulk density, hydraulic conductivity,
consistency, etch. Chemical properties include organic matter, pH, clay mineralogy, cation
exchange capacity, % base saturation and electrical conductivity. Biological includes the kind of
plant material and the proportions of living and dead organic matter. B. Horizons maybe divided
into major categories corresponding to the:

1. surface soils- (A and E horizons)

2. subsoils- (B horizon) 3. substratum- (C horizon).

The process mainly responsible for differentiation among A, E, B and C horizons are addition,
losses, translocation, and transformations.

C. General characteristics of the master horizons

1. O horizon
▪ Horizon composed of organic soil materials (decomposed leaves and woods)
▪ This horizon is formed in areas with shallow waters of lakes and ponds causing the
organic materials to accumulate
▪ Extreme wetness and acidity at the surface produce condition unfavorable for
decomposition of organic matter resulting in the formation of O horizon ▪ Can be further
classified into:
a. Oi (slightly decomposed-fibric),
b. Oe (moderately decomposed-hemic)
c. Oa (well-decomposed or highly decomposed-sapric)

2. A horizon
▪ Horizons composed of mineral soil particles but strongly darkened by humus (the resistant
organic matter the gives a black or dark-brown color to the soil) or organic matter
intimately mixed with the mineral fraction
▪ Horizon characterized by the accumulation of organic matter
▪ This horizon is created due to the addition/accumulation of organic matter mainly from the
plants
▪ Grass vegetation contributes to soils with thick A horizons because of the profuse growth
of fine roots in the upper 30 to 40 centimeters of soil.
▪ Common A horizons are Ap (plowed or other disturbance of the surface layer by
cultivation, pasturing or similar uses) and Ah (humus from natural soils)

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3. E horizon
▪ Horizons from which clay, iron, aluminum, or some combination of these have been
eluviated (leached/washed-out) leaving a light-colored horizon (bleached horizon)
▪ Not common in the Philippines
▪ Formed between the A and the B horizons.
▪ This horizon is formed after the colloids have moved downward from the A horizon. This
horizon is concentrated with sand and silt-sized particles of quartz and other resistant
minerals and has low organic matter content.
▪ This horizon is commonly white to grayish in color and occurs more readily in forest soils
than in grassland soils.

4. B horizon
▪ Horizon formed by illuviation (accumulation of soil material) or illuvial accumulation of
clay, organic matter and oxides of aluminum and iron. Alternating periods of wetting and
drying is necessary for clay translocation.
▪ Horizon that formed below an A, E or O horizon and characterized by:
a. Zone of colloid (clay, iron, aluminum, silica) accumulation. These colloids have
been translocated downward from the A and E horizon by percolating water (see
Figure
1).
b. evidence of removal of carbonates
c. Coating of sesqui-oxides that make horizon lower in value, higher in chroma, or
redder in hue than overlying and underlying horizons.
d. Blocky structure
e. Presence of clay skins (thin layers or films of clay) which can be observed along
cracks and in pores spaces indicates clay translocation/movement.
.

Figure 1. Sequential evolution of some soil horizons in a sediment

Parent material

▪ Common depth for B horizon is about 60 to 75 centimeters.

▪ The most common B horizons in the country are Bt (illuvial clay accumulation) and Bw
(structure formation, weakly developed B horizon)
▪ Studies have shown that thousands of years are needed to produce a significant increase in
the content of clay in B horizons (Figure 5).

9 Soils 2 Supplemental Lecture Notes | Reuben James C. Rollon, 2020

Figure 2. Clay distribution as a function of time in soils developed from granitic parent materials in
the Central Valley of California. The Hanford soil, only 1,000 years old, does not have a Bt horizon.
The other three soils have Bt horizons. The Bt horizon of the San Joaquin is a claypan that inhibits
roofs and the downward percolation of water. (After Arkley, 1964.)

5. C horizon
▪Horizon relatively unaffected by soil-forming processes (zone of minimal weathering)
and lacks the properties of O, A, E and B horizons
▪Weathered rock beneath the B horizon

6. R horizon
▪Solid bedrock, not practically diggable by spade.
▪Consolidated material (solid and massive rocks)
D. Transition horizon

a. AB- transition from A to B, but more like A than the B

b. EB- transition from E to B, but more like the E than the B
c. BE-transition from E to B, but more like the B than the E
d. BC- transition from B to C but more like the B than the C
e. CB-transition from B to C nut more like the C than the B
E. Subordinates horizons

1. a- highly decomposed organic matter. Has <17 % by volume, rubbed fiber. Used only
with master horizon O.
2. b- buried genetic horizon. Exhibits past soil-forming development
3. c-presence of cemented concretions or nodules
4. d-physically restrictive layer due to high bulk density. May have natural or human-
induced compaction. Examples include dense basal till and plow pans
5. e-moderately decomposed organic matter. Has 17 to <40 %, by volume, rubbed fiber.
Used only with master horizon O
6. f-permanently frozen layer that contains ice (permafrost)

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7. ff-dry permafrost. Permanently frozen layer, not cemented by ice
8. i-slightly decomposed organic matter. Has >40 %, by volume, rubbed fiber, used only
with master horizon O.
9. jj-evidence of cryoturbation in the active layer above permafrost. Examples include
broken or irregular horizon boundaries, organic bodies within mineral horizons and
sorted rock fragments
10. m-root-restrictive, pedogenically cemented horizon. More than 90 % of layer is cemented
by agents such as calcium carbonate, iron, silica, gypsum, or other salts
11. p-disturbance of the surface layer, commonly by plowing, cattle trampling, vehicle
traffic, or other mechanical means. Used with master horizon A.
12. r-weathered or soft bedrock. Although cemented, it can be dug with hand tools, such as
spade or pick. Used with master horizon C.
13. ss-presence of slickensides formed by shear movement in clayey soils as a result of
shrinking and swelling.
14. t-illuvial accumulation of clay as evidenced by the presence of clay films, clay bridges or
lamellae
15. u-presence of human-manufactures material (artifacts) such as bricks, metal, coal ash,
fabric, rubber, plastic, glass and garbage
16. w-weakly expressed color or structural development or minimal accumulation of
pedogenic constituents. Used with master horizon B, but nor with transitional horizons
17. x-genetically developed horizon that is firm, brittle and physically root restrictive at least
in part.
18. g-strong gleying (iron reduction and loss due to saturation and anaerobic conditions.
Chroma is 2 or less.
19. h-illuvial accumulation of amorphous, dispersible, organic matter and
aluminumdominated sesquioxide coating sand and silt particles and sometimes filling
pores. Used with master horizon B.
20. j-accumulation of jarosite (iron hydroxy sulphate mineral with yellow hue produced in
acid-sulfate soils)
21. k-accumulation of visible pedogenic calcium carbonate (>50 %, by volume). Forms
include filaments, soft masses, nodules, pendants and finely disseminated carbonates
22. n-accumulation of exchangeable sodium
23. o-residual accumulation of sesquioxides (iron-and aluminum oxides)
24. q-accumulation of secondary silica as concretions, durinodes, opal
25. s-illuvial accumulation of amorphous, dispersible sesquioxides (iron-and
aluminumoxides) and organic matter. Used with master horizon B.
26. v-presence of plinthite (firm, iron-rich, humus-poor, red concentration in association with
clay, quartz and other minerals). Irreversibly hardens with repeated wet/dry cycles.
27. y-accumulation of gypsum (or rarely, anhydrite). Because amount is sufficiently low
(<50 % by volume) the gypsum does not disrupt or obscure other feature of the horizon.
28. z- accumulation of salts more soluble than gypsum, such as sodium chloride. F. Sample
usage of subordinate horizon:

a. Bt- subsoil horizon of maximum development, usually by illuviation of clay; a Bt horizon

with a high clay content and very low water permeability is called a claypan which are
well suited for flooded rice production.
b. Bs-horizon accumulation of iron and aluminum oxides (sesquioxide)
c. Bh- illuvial accumulation of organic matter
d. Bk-horizon of calcium carbonate accumulation
e. Bhs- illuvial accumulation of humus and oxides of aluminum and or iron in the B horizon

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 PRINCIPLES OF SOIL SCIENCE
(Soils 1)

CHAPTER 4. MINERALS AND MINERAL PROPERTIES

A. MINERALS
• A naturally occurring substance which has fairly definite chemical composition and physical
properties
• Physical properties are used in the identification of minerals. These properties are luster,
cleavage or fracture, hardness, color, and streak. Because of their structural characteristics,
minerals will either cleave or fracture
• Minerals compose the rocks. As rocks weather and produce soil, some of the original
(primary) minerals persist chemically unchanged from the parent material and are found in
the resultant soil mass. Others decompose and new secondary minerals are formed. This is
usually accompanied by large losses of such constituents as calcium, magnesium,
potassium, and sodium.
B. Mineral Properties

B.1. Cleavage- is the property of breaking along one or smooth parallel planes. Thus, individual
pieces of the mineral will possess similar patterns. This is an evidence of minerals ordered
internal arrangement.

B.2. Fracture- irregular patterns as minerals break in directions other than those along cleavage
planes. Minerals that fracture weather more slowly than those that cleave.

B.3. Hardness-is the resistance which a mineral offers to scratching or abrasion. Harder minerals
will weather more slowly than softer minerals. The scale of hardness is as follows.

Table 2. Moh’s scale of hardness of minerals (Developed by Friedrich Mohs, 1818)

No. Mineral Chemical composition Character
1 Talc H2Mg3Si4O12 Scratched by fingernails
2 Gypsum CaSO4.H2O Scratched slightly by thumbnail
3 Calcite CaCO3 Scratched by copper coin
4 Fluorite CaF2 Scratched by soft iron
5 Apatite Ca5F (PO4)3 Scratched by knife blade
6 Orthoclase KAlSi3O8 Not easily scratched by knife
7 Quartz SiO2 Scratched glass, steel
8 Topaz Al2SiOF2 Scratched quartz
9 Corundum Al2O3 Scratched topaz
10 Diamond C Scratched corundum

B.4. Color-the dominant visible wavelength reflected by the minerals when struck by light. Color
is not a good means of distinguishing minerals because it is extremely variable. However,
the streak of a given mineral is relatively constant.

B.5. Streak- the color of the finely powdered mineral. This is determined by rubbing the mineral
on a piece of unglazed porcelain (streak plate).

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 B.6. Luster- relative amount of light reflected by the mineral sample.

C. Type of minerals

C.1. Primary minerals

▪ Formed from cooling and recrystallization of molten volcanic materials.

C.1.1. Quartz (SiO2)

▪ Most common primary minerals in soils (30-40 %)
▪ Very hard and resistant to weathering
▪ Makes up about 13 % of the earth’s crust
▪ Contributes no nutrients but dominates the sand fraction

C.1.2. Feldspar (alumino-silicate with bases such as K, Na and Ca)

▪ Account for 60 % of the earth’s crust
▪ Kinds of feldspar o Orthoclase (KAlSi3O8)
o Plagioclase (albite-NaAlSiO8) and Anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8)

C.1.3. Amphibole (hornblende) and pyroxenes (silicates of Ca, Mg and Fe with some
Al)
▪ Constitute 16 % of the earth’s crust
▪ Weather more rapidly than feldspar
▪ Dark in color

C.1.4. Micas (alumino-silicate with K, Mg and Fe as basic component)

▪ Weather easily
▪ Kinds of micas o Muscovite (white mica)
o Biotite (black mica)

C.1.4. Carbonate (CO3)

▪ Major component of limestone and other calcareous rocks
▪ Calcite (CaCO3) is an example and is easily soluble

C.1.5. Apatite (Ca5(PO4)3)

▪ Original source of practically all soil phosphorus
▪ It exists in minute grains in many rocks
▪ Soluble in acids

C.2. Secondary minerals

▪ Originate from the chemical weathering of primary minerals
▪ Minerals that crystallize during the weathering of primary minerals are called
secondary minerals

C.2.1. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)

▪ Forms from evaporating calcium-sulfate bearing water
▪ Very soft mineral and weathers fairly rapidly

13 Soils 2 Supplemental Lecture Notes | Reuben James C. Rollon, 2020

 ▪ Accumulates in large quantities in semi-arid regions
▪ Maybe a primary as well as secondary mineral

C.2.2. Iron and aluminum oxides

▪ The most important iron oxides are hematite and goethite while aluminum oxide is
the gibbsite
▪ Hematite (Fe2O3) is responsible for the red coloration of soils and sediments.
▪ Goethite (FeOOH) imparts yellow color
▪ Gibbsite –Al (OH)3

C.2.3. Clay minerals

▪ Such as kaolinite (H4Al2Si2O9) are highly colloidal
▪ They are formed primarily from chemical weathering of primary minerals
▪ Clay minerals do not furnish any nutrient directly (except when weathered)
but have the ability to adsorb or hold nutrient ions on their surfaces.
▪ Clay minerals are very important since they determine most chemical and
physical properties of soil.

C.2.4. Carbonates ▪
CaCO3- calcite
▪ CaMg (CO3)2- dolomite

Table 3. Elemental composition of minerals

Resistance

1
primary minerals are found in igneous or metamorphosed igneous rocks
2
secondary minerals are commonly found in sedimentary rocks
Table 4. The 15 most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust (Bland and Rolls, 1998)

Rank Element Symbol Percent by weight

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 1 Oxygen O 46.67
2 Silicon Si 27.72
3 Aluminum Al 8.13
4 Iron Fe 5.00
5 Calcium Ca 3.60
6 Sodium Na 2.83
7 Potassium K 2.59
8 Magnesium Mg 2.09
9 Titanium Ti 0.44
10 Hydrogen H 0.14
11 Phosphorus P 0.12
12 Manganese Mn 0.10
13 Fluorine F 0.08
14 Sulfur S 0.05
15 Chlorine Cl 0.05

PRINCIPLES OF SOIL SCIENCE

(Soils 1)

15 Soils 2 Supplemental Lecture Notes | Reuben James C. Rollon, 2020

CHAPTER 5. ROCKS AND ITS FORMATION

A. ROCKS
▪ Solid natural deposits composed of one or more minerals
▪ Parent materials of mineral soils
▪ Classified in to two; primary rocks (igneous); secondary rocks (metamorphic and
sedimentary)
Three types of rock

1. Igneous rock
▪ Formed from the cooling and solidification of molten materials.
▪ Considered as mother of all rocks
▪ Classified on the basis of their chemical composition and mode of occurrence
▪ They are the most abundant group of rocks in the earth’s crust

Table 5. Average elemental composition in Oxide forms of igneous rocks

Oxide Formula Percent in clay

(by wt.)
Silicon oxide SiO2 59.1
Aluminum oxide Al2O3 15.3
Ferric oxide Fe2O3 0.2
Ferrous oxide FeO 3.8
Magnesium oxide MgO 3.5
Calcium oxide CaO 6.1
Sodium oxide Na2O 5.8
Potassium oxide K2O 3.1
Hydrogen oxide H2O 1.1
Titanium oxide TiO 1.0
Phosphorus oxide (or phosphorus P2O5 0.3
pentoxide)
Manganese oxide MnO 0.1
Other elements - 0.5

Classification of igneous rocks

1.1. Base on chemical composition

1.1.1. Acidic igneous rocks or Felsic

▪ Contain more than 65 % SiO2 as silicate or silica (quartz). They are usually
light colored.
▪ Also contains feldspar

1.1.2. Basic rock or Mafic

▪ Igneous rocks which have less than 50 % SiO 2. These rocks are usually dark
in color
▪ Rich in bases and ferromagnesian minerals

16 Soils 2 Supplemental Lecture Notes | Reuben James C. Rollon, 2020

 1.1.3. Intermediate igneous rocks ▪ Have
between 50 % and 65 % SiO2.
1.1.4. Ultra-basic rock of ultramafic rocks
▪ Little or no feldspar

1.2. Base on mode of occurrence

▪ Mode of occurrence refers to the location of igneous rocks at the time of
formation.

1.2.1. Plutonic/Intrusive rocks

▪ Rocks formed deep within the earth’s crust by a relatively slow cooling
process.
▪ They have coarse texture

1.2.2. Volcanic/extrusive rocks

▪ Rocks that formed at or near earth’s surface
▪ Rocks that were developed by rapid or very rapid cooling processes ▪
They have a fine grained or glassy texture

1.3. Base on texture

1.3.1. Phaneretic- coarse textured igneous rock; this texture forms by slow cooling of
magma deep underground in the plutonic environment

1.3.2. Aphanitic-fine textured igneous rock; this texture results from rapid cooling in
volcanic or shallow subsurface environments.

Description of common igneous rocks

a. Granite
▪ Principally composed of quartz and orthoclase feldspar
▪ Contain 71 % SiO2 (acidic)
▪ Intrusive, coarse grained and light colored

b. Diorite
▪ Intrusive, coarse-grained igneous rock with similar composition to andesite.
▪ Composed of sodium-rich plagioclase with lesser amount of hornblende and
Biotite

c. Gabbro
▪ Principally composed of plagioclase feldspar, olivine, pyroxene, and
hornblende
▪ Contains 48 % SiO2 (basic), dark colored, coarse grained (intrusive)
b. Rhyolite
▪ Similar in composition to granite but fine grained (extrusive) ▪
Contains 71 % SiO2 (acidic)

17 Soils 2 Supplemental Lecture Notes | Reuben James C. Rollon, 2020

 c. Andesite
▪ Contain high amount of pyroxene, hornblende and
plagioclase feldspar
▪ Contain 54 % SiO2 (intermediate) ▪ Extrusive
e. Basalt
▪ Similar in composition to gabbro but fine textured (extrusive) g. Obsidian
▪ A volcanic glass (minerals cannot be distinguished)
▪ Dark colored and extrusive

2. Sedimentary rocks
▪ Rocks that originate from sediments of weathered rock
▪ Formation involves the process of transportation, sedimentation/deposition, and conversion of
soil particles and/or rocks segments.
▪ They are the most abundant rocks on the earth’s surface.
▪ Sedimentary rocks are classified as clastics or precipitates

2.1. Clastics (fragmental)

▪ Sedimentary rocks which have formed through physical and mechanical means.
▪ Sediments of fragments of weathered igneous rocks are consolidated by the exertion of
pressure and infiltration of cementing materials. The principal sediments of clastics vary
greatly in size and the cementing agents may be clay, iron oxide, silica, or calcium
carbonate
2.2. Precipitate
▪ Sedimentary rocks that have been produced by the chemical or biochemical precipitation
of ions from solution
▪ The biochemical precipitates usually involve marine animals and may be fossiliferous.
Description of common sedimentary rocks

a. Conglomerate
▪ Formed from rounded pebbles and boulders (>2mm in diameter)
▪ Cemented by clay, silica, calcium carbonate
▪ If the components are angular in shape it is called breccia b. Sandstone
▪ Consists of sand (0.05 to 2 mm in diameter) principally quartz cemented together by
silica, CaCO3
▪ Developed into sandy or coarse soils

c. Shale
▪ Composed of fine particles (>0.005 mm) particularly clay
▪ Generally deposited in slowly moving water ▪ Develops into
clayey or fine soils

d. Limestone
▪ Composed of more than 50 % CaCO3 and/or dolomite (CaMg (CO3)2
▪ Upon weathering, the carbonate mineral is dissolved and leached away. The
remaining impurities determine the nature of the developed soil

e. Siltstone-composed of silt fractions and mostly of quartz minerals.

f. Mudstone or shale- consists of clay-size fractions and generally fine quartz
g. Marl- made up of 50 % CaCO3 and 50 % clay

18 Soils 2 Supplemental Lecture Notes | Reuben James C. Rollon, 2020

3. Metamorphic rocks
▪ Rocks formed when pre-existing rocks are modified by heat and pressure.
▪ They are classified according to their structure and parent rock

3.1. Banded (foliated)

▪ Metamorphic rocks have more or less parallel of different minerals. In some
cases, the color is uniform, in others there are alternate light and dark
colored layers. ▪ E.g., gneiss, schist, slate
3.2. Nonbanded- metamorphic rocks have a random pattern of mineral crystals

▪ e.g. marble, quartzite, serpentine,

Description of common metamorphic rocks

a. Gneiss
▪ Banded metamorphic rock derived primarily from acidic igneous rocks ▪ Has
alternate light and dark-colored bands and has abundant feldspar b. Schists
▪ Banded metamorphic rocks formed from shale, gneiss, or other basic igneous
rocks ▪ Generally uniform in color

c. Slate
▪ Banded metamorphic rock derived from shale
▪ More dense and compact than shale and cleaves into sheets
d. Quartzite

▪ Nonbanded metamorphic rock derived from sandstone ▪

Very hard and weathers extremely slowly
e. Marble
▪ Metamorphic rock derived from limestone
▪ More compact than limestone

19 Soils 2 Supplemental Lecture Notes | Reuben James C. Rollon, 2020