REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

The details of the reproductive A. Metagenesis – also known

process vary tremendously as ‘transformation
from one organism to another, development’, refers to an
and so some generalizations alternation of asexual and
were made about animal sexual generations.
reproductive systems in order
Example: hydrozoan Obelia, a
to understand its variations.
polyp generation gives rise by
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS budding to a generation of
MALE medusas. The motile medusas
1. Male gonad (testis) produce gametes and
- in which sperm are produced reproduce sexually, giving rise
2. Sperm duct to new generation of polyps.
- used for the transport of Thus, there is alternation of
sperm to the exterior of the generations – polyp, medusa,
body polyp, medusa, and so on. Both
3. Penis
generations consist of diploid
- the terminal part of the sperm
duct which opens onto or into a organisms.
copulatory organ
FEMALE
1. Female gonad (ovary)
- in which eggs are produced
2. Oviduct B.
- a tube for the transport of egg
3. Vagina
- the terminal portion of the
oviduct responsible for the
receiving of male copulatory
organ

Some Reproductive Variations

Some animals show unique

and tremendous diversity in
their methods of reproduction. Parthenogenesis – also
Even members of the same known as ‘virgin development’,
class may differ markedly in is a form of reproduction in
their reproductive process. which an unfertilized egg
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
develops into an adult animal.
This occurs for several
generations, after which males
develop, produce sperm, and
mate with females to fertilize
their eggs. In some species,
parthenogenesis is
advantageous in maintaining
social order; in others, it
appears to be an adaptation for
survival in times of stressor
when there is a serious
decrease in population.
Example: Honeybees. The
queen honeybee is inseminated
by a male during the “nuptial
flight”. The sperm she receives
are stored in a little pouch
connected with her genital tract C. Hermaphroditism – means
but closed off by a muscular that a single organism
valve. As the queen lays eggs, produces both eggs and sperm.
she can either open this valve, Although this form of
permitting the sperm to escape reproduction is still classified as
and fertilize the eggs, or keep sexual, (since both eggs and
the valve closed, so that the sperms are involved), it is an
eggs develop without exception to the important
fertilization. Generally, generalization that sexual
fertilization occurs in the fall, reproduction involves two
and the fertilized eggs are different individuals.
quiescent during the winter. The
fertilized eggs become females
(queens and workers);
the unfertilized eggs become
males (drones).
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
Example: Earthworm. Most Ovaries - Produce both the egg
hermaphrodites do not cell and the sex hormones.
Enclosed in a tough protective
capsule and contains many
follicles. Egg cell is expelled
from the follicle in the process
of ovulation.
reproduce by self- fertilization. Oviducts and Uterus – Egg
Rather, as in earthworms, two cell is released into the
animals copulate, and each abdominal activity near the
inseminates the other. opening of the oviduct, or
fallopian tube. The uterus is a
thick, muscular organ that can
HUMAN REPRODUCTION expand during pregnancy to
accommodate a 4-kg fetus. The
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE inner lining of the uterus, the
ANATOMY endometrium, is richly supplied
with blood vessels. The neck of
the uterus is the cervix, which
opens into the vagina.
Vagina and Vulva – a thin-
walled chamber that is the
repository for sperm during
copulation and that serves as
the birth canal through which a
baby is born. Vulva is a
collective term for the external
female genitalia. Vestibule,
labia minora, labia majora,
clitoris, and Bartholin’s glands
are all located in this area
having their special functions.
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
Mammary glands – present in Testes (singular, testis) –
both sexes but normally consist of many highly coiled
function only in women. They tubes (seminiferous tubules –
are not part of the reproductive where sperm form) surrounded
system but are important to by several layers of connective
mammalian reproduction. tissue. The Leydig cells that are
Within the glands, small sacs of scattered between the
epithelial tissue secrete milk seminiferous tubules produce
which drains into a series of testosterone and other
ducts opening at the nipple. androgens. The production of
normal `sperm cannot occur at
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
the normal body temperatures
ANATOMY
of most mammals, and the
testes of humans and many
other mammals are held
outside the abdominal cavity in
the scrotum.
Ducts – from seminiferous
tubules, the sperm pass into
the epididymis. During
ejaculation, the sperm are
propelled from the epididymis
through the muscular vas
deferens. These two ducts (one
from each epididymis) run from
the scrotum around and behind
the urinary bladder, where each
joins a duct from the seminal
vesicle, forming a short
ejaculatory duct. The
ejaculatory ducts open into the
urethra, the tube that drains
both the excretory system and
reproductive system of male.
The urethra runs through the
penis and opens to the outside
at the tip of the penis.
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
Glands – three sets of 2 TYPES OF
accessory glands – the seminal PHYSIOLOGICAL
vesicles, prostate gland, and REACTIONS
bulbourethral glands – add
1. VASOCONGESTION – the
secretions to the semen, the
filling of a tissue with blood
fluid that is ejaculated.
caused by increased blood flow
Semen in the Female through the arteries of that
Reproductive Tract – males tissue.
usually ejaculates 2-5 ml of
2. MYOTONIA – increased
semen, and each milliliter may
muscle tension of both skeletal
contain 50-130 million of
and smooth muscles.
sperm. Prostaglandins in the
semen cause thinning of the 4 PHASES OF HUMAN
mucus at the opening of the SEXUAL RESPONSE
uterus and stimulate
contractions of the uterine 1. EXCITEMENT PHASE –
muscles, which help semen preparation of penis and vagina
move up to the uterus. for coitus (sexual intercourse).
During this phase,
Penis – is composed of three vasocongestion is particularly
cylinders of spongy erectile evident in erection of the penis
tissue derived from modified and clitoris; enlargement of the
veins and capillaries. During testes, labia, and breasts; and
sexual arousal, the erectile vaginal lubrication. Myotonia
tissue fills with blood from the may occur, resulting in nipple
arteries. As this tissue fills, the erection or tension of the arms
increasing pressure seals off and legs.
the veins that drain the penis,
causing it to engorge with 2. PLATEAU PHASE –
blood. The resulting erection is responses in excitement phase
essential to insertion of the continue. In females, the outer
penis into the vagina. third of the vagina becomes
vasocongested, while the inner
two-thirds slightly expands. This
change, coupled with the
HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE
elevation of the uterus, forms a
depression that receives sperm
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
at the back of the vagina. Ovulation- Oral
Breathing increases and heart suppressing contraceptives
rate rises, sometimes to 150 method (pills)
beats per minute – not in Barrier methods Condom,
response to the physical effort Diaphragm,
of sexual activity, but as an Cervical cap
involuntary response to Chemical Spermicidal jelly
and foam
stimulation of the autonomic
Surgical Vasectomy and
nervous system.
methods Tubal ligation
3. ORGASM PHASE – is Implantation- IUD and Morning-
characterized by rhythmic, suppressing after pill
involuntary contractions of the methods
reproductive structures in both Others Abstinence
sexes. Male orgasm has two Note: Abstinence is the only
stages. Emission is the form of contraception that is
contraction of the glands and guaranteed 100% effective.
ducts of the reproductive tract,
which forces semen into the
urethra. Expulsion or
ejaculation, occurs when the
urethra contracts and the
semen is expelled. During
female orgasm, the uterus and
outer vagina contract, but the
inner two-thirds of the vagina
do not. Orgasm is the shortest
response of the sexual
response cycle, usually lasting
only a few seconds.
4. RESOLUTION PHASE –
completes the cycle and
reverses the responses of the
earlier stages.
Contraception and its types

TYPES EXAMPLE