BASIC FEATURES OF CLINICAL ASSESSMENT Answers to the second question—about how best

can we find out what we need to know—come into

Assessment is the collection and synthesis of play after the referral question and the clinician’s
information to reach a judgment. role have been clarified. With a clear goal in mind,
the clinician can now begin planning
Clinical psychologists collect and process assessment methods to collect data.
information that is more formal and systematic than
that available to nonprofessionals. • There are four main sources of assessment data:
interviews, behavioral observations, psychological
tests & case history data.
Assessment Process • Other factors also affect the selection process:
psychometric properties, characteristics of clients.
Clinical assessment has been described in various
ways (Tallent, 1992), but all of them portray it as a
process of gathering information to solve a problem. Information Used in a Case Study Guide
All of them recognize that to be most effective,
assessment activities should be organized in a
1. Identifying data, 10. Recreation,
sequence of systematic, logically related steps driven
including name, sex, interests, and
by a goal.
occupation, income pleasures, including
(ofself volunteer work,
orfamily),maritalstatus,a reading, respondent’s
1. Receive and Clarify the referral question
ddress, date and place of view of adequacy of
birth, religion, education, self-expression and
What do we want to know, and how best can we find
cultural identity. pleasures.
out about it?- Answers to the first question—what do
2. Reason for coming to 11. Sexual
we want to know?—depend on
the agency, expectations development,
who requested the assessment and for what purpose
for service. covering first
3. Present and recent awareness, kinds of
The person or agency requesting the psychological
situation,including sexual activities, and a
assessment is called the referral source, and the
dwelling place, principal view of adequacy
question or issue to be addressed in the assessment
settings, daily round of of current sexual
is called the referral question.
activities, number and expressions.
kind of life changes over 12. Marital and family
The referral question is very important because it
several data, covering major
shapes the clinician’s choice of assessment
months,impending events and what
instruments and the interpretation and
changes. led to them, and
communication of results.
4. Family constellation comparison of
(family of origin), present family with
Clinicians must therefore understand the context of
including descriptions of family of origin, ethnic
the referral and often must help referral sources
parents, siblings, other or cultural factors.
clarify the purpose of the assessment (Harwood,
significant family figures, 13. Social supports,
Beutler, & Groth-Marnat, 2011). In doing so,
and respondent’s role Communication
clinicians may need to educate others about what a
growing up. network, and social
psychological assessment can and cannot reveal.
5. Early recollections, interests, including
They may also need to educate them about the
descriptions of earliest people talked with
practical and ethical constraints involved in
clear happenings and the most frequently,
conducting assessments.
situation surrounding people available for
them. various kinds of help,
The referral question is the first step in shaping the
6. Birth and amount and quality of
ultimate goal of assessment, and, generally, the
development, interactions, sense of
clearer the goal, the clearer the question.
including age of walking contribution to others,
and talking, problems and interest in
2. Plan Data Collection Procedures
 they seldom rely on a single assessment source to
compared with other community.
create a working image of a client. Instead, they use
children, view of effects 14. Self-description,
multiple assessment channels to cross validate
of including strengths,
information about a wide variety of topics.
early experiences. weaknesses, ability to
7. Health and physical use imagery,
• Multiple assessment sources appears valuable
condition, including creativity, values, and
when the clinical evaluates the effects of treatment
childhood and later ideas.
diseases and injuries; 15. Choices and
4. Process Data and Form Conclusions
current prescribed turning points in
medications; current use life, a review of the
• What those data mean?
of unprescribed drugs, respondent’s most
After assessment data have been collected, the
cigarettes, or alcohol; important decisions
clinician must determine what those data mean. If
comparison of own body and
the information is to be useful in reaching the
with others; habits of changes, including the
clinician’s assessment goals, it must be transformed
eating and exercising. single most important
from raw form into interpretations and conclusions
8. Education and happening.
that address a referral question. The processing task
training, 16. Personal goals and
is [Link] it requires a mental leap from
including subjects of view of the future,
known data to what is assumed to be true on the
special interest and including what the
basis of those data. In general, as the leap from data
achievement,out-of subject would like to
to assumption gets longer, inference becomes more
school learning, areas of see happen next year
vulnerable to error.
difficulty and in 5 or 10 years
and pride, any cultural and what is necessary
5. Communicate Assessment Results
problems. for these events to
9. Work record, including happen, realism in
The final stage in the assessment process is the
reasons for changing time
creation of an organized presentation of results
jobs, attitudes toward orientation, ability to
called an assessment report. To be of greatest value,
work. set priorities.
assessment reports must be clearly written and
17. Any further
clearly related to the goal that prompted the
material the
assessment in the first place
respondent may see
as omitted
The Goals of Clinical Assessment
from the history.
1. Diagnosis

Once clinical psychologists began working with adult

*Clinicians must consider, too, the characteristics of clients during and after World War I, they were often
clients when deciding on assessments, selecting asked to perform clinical assessments for the
instruments that are appropriate for each client in purpose of diagnosing mental disorders in psychiatric
terms of reading level, length, and the like. Similarly, patients. This process is variously called diagnostic
clinicians must explain to clients the procedures and classification, psychodiagnosis, differential diagnosis,
purposes of the assessment using language that or diagnostic labeling. Today, diagnostic classification
clients can understand. remains a significant part of clinical research and
practice.
3. Collect Assessment Data
Accurate psychodiagnosis is important for several
*Why clinical psychologist seldom rely on a single reasons:
source of assessment data? First, proper treatment decisions often depend on
knowing what, exactly, is wrong with a client
Clinical psychologists collect assessment data from (Harwood, Beutler, & Groth-Marnat, 2011; Hays,
four main sources: interviews, observations, tests, 2013). ( Proper treatment planning )
and historical records (case history data). However,
Second, research into the causes of psychological treatment has worked. Indeed, clinicians
disorders requires reliable and valid identification of working in today’s accountability driven
disorders and accurate differentiation of one climate are increasingly asked to provide
disorder from another. evidence of their effectiveness. Generating
Finally, classification allows clinicians to efficiently that evidence requires assessment.
communicate with one another about disorders in a ❖ There are many ways to assess the results of
professional “shorthand” (Sartorius et al., 1996). treatment. Questionnaires, client
(efficient communication) self-reports, tests, and a variety of other
measures can be used to evaluate
2. Description treatment progress. For most clinicians, the
goal is to record outcomes quickly,
Classification should be reliable and valid and serve efficiently and accurately, and to
as an efficient shorthand for communication among periodically review the data to assess their
clinicians and researchers. But for many clinicians, treatment’s strengths and weaknesses
diagnostic labels are not enough. They want to know
more, and consequently, alternative diagnostic 4. Prediction
proposals often shade over into descriptive
assessment, which these clinicians see as more A final goal of clinical assessment is to make
important than diagnostic classification. predictions about human behavior. Such predictions
might include forecasts about how the symptoms of
Multiaxial assessment provide descriptive a client’s disorder might change with or without
information about clients diagnosis, but even that treatment (prognosis), about future performance
cannot do the whole job. (descriptions of how someone will perform in a given
• Descriptive assessment job orsituation), or about dangerousness
•Diagnostic classification and descriptive (descriptions of the likelihood of someones behaving
assessment go hand in hand violently toward the self or others). In any of these
Description-oriented assessment makes it easier for predictions,clinicians must have valid information
clinicians to pay attention to clients’ assets and about how the characteristics revealed by
adaptive functions, not just to their weaknesses and assessment relate to the behavior being predicted.
problems. Accordingly, descriptive assessment data Without that link, prediction would be little more
are used to provide pretreatment measures of than guesswork.
clients’ behavior, to guide treatment planning, and to
evaluate changes in behavior after treatment. Prognosis
Descriptive assessment can also improve Most often, prognosis refers to a prediction about
measurement in clinical research. the outcome of treatment, but it can also refer more
generally to predictions about changes in symptoms
without treatment or under certain circumstances
3. Treatment Planning and Treatment Assessment (e.g., a head injury might change the prognosis for
treatment of an anxiety disorder)
❖ Diagnostic and descriptive assessment can
be used to plan treatments. Predicting Future Performance
Clinicians are sometimes asked by businesses,
❖ Treatment planning assessment goes government agencies, police and fire departments,
beyond the basic medical-model question: and the military to help them select people who are
Which treatments work best for which most likely to perform well in certain jobs. In such
disorders? Instead, it addresses the more cases, the clinician must first collect and/or examine
detailed question, famously stated by descriptive assessment results to provide data on
Gordon Paul (1967): “What treatment, by which to base predictions and selections. This step is
whom, is most effective for this individual critical and often underappreciated by those who
with that specific problem, and under which believe psychologists should be able to make
set of circumstances? predictions in any domain simply on the basis of
❖ Treatment-related assessment can also general psychological training. In order to know how
focus on the question of how well someone will perform in a given job or situation,
psychologists must have empirical evidence about limited time and resources, the more extensively
which characteristics reliably predict which they explore a client’s behavior, the less intensive
performances. each aspect of that exploration becomes (and vice
versa). The breadth of an assessment device is thus
referred to as its bandwidth and the depth or
Predicting Dangerousness exhaustiveness of the device as its fidelity (Cronbach
Predictions of dangerousness, long a part of clinical & Glesser, 1964).
practice and research, are often called forensic Other factors affecting assessment choice:
evaluations. For instance, a clinician might be asked Clinicians’ Experience and Theoretical Orientation
to evaluate whether an eighth grader who brought a Clinical psychologists may tend to use, or avoid,
handgun to school represents a continuing homicide particular assessment methods because those
risk and should be educated in a secure facility methods were either emphasized or criticized by
instead of in a regular school (Vincent, 2006). faculty in their graduate training programs. Similarly,
those who find certain measurement
Clinical Judgment and Decision Making tactics tedious or unrewarding tend to seek answers
Clinicians make judgments by combining information to assessment questions through other procedures
from different sources. In doing so, they can rely on with which they are more comfortable.
empirically based methods of decision making, on The Assessment Context
clinical experience and intuition, or on a combination The assessment choices that clinicians make are
of the two. While clinical intuition is essential in dictated not only by their goals, the quality of their
many situations (e.g., spontaneous events that occur instruments, and the time and resources available,
during the course of therapy), research shows that but also by the contexts, or settings, in which
clinical psychologists have no special capacity for assessments are conducted. Common settings
intuition: they are prone to the same kinds of error include general medical and psychiatric facilities,
as are other human beings when relying on private or community psychological clinics, jails,
impressionistic thinking. So wise clinicians prisons, forensic (legal) situations, schools and other
incorporate empirically based, actuarial models into educational institutions, and the like. Each type of
their judgments in situations when such models are setting influences the nature of the referral
available (e.g., prediction of dangerousness). questions asked, the kinds of assessment
instruments expected or preferred, and the style of
Psychometric Properties of Assessment Instruments reporting that is most appropriate or most often
Reliability requested (Groth-Marnat, 2009).
Reliability refers to consistency in measurement or to Cultural Factors
agreement among different judges or raters. Multicultural competence is increasingly necessary
Validity for mental health professionals (Rosenberg, Almeida,
The validity of an assessment method reflects the & Mcdonald, 2012). With ever more diversity in the
degree to which it measures what it is supposed to U.S. population, there is a much greater chance that
measure. clinicians will encounter clients whose cultural
*the validity of an instrument must always be viewed backgrounds and world views are significantly
in relation to the purposes for which the assessment different from their own. In such cases, the initial
instrument is to be used. challenge is quite basic: establish lines of
Standardization communication and trust.
When we say that a test or other assessment
instrument is standardized, we mean that the A good deal of multicultural assessment research is
designers of the test have given it to a large, devoted to exploring whether assessment
representative sample of persons and analyzed the instruments (questionnaires, tests, structured
scores interviews, etc.) are equally valid for different
Bandwidth–Fidelity Issues populations.
Clinicians’ assessment choices are further guided by
their attempts to resolve the bandwidth–fidelity Core Competencies in Clinical Psychology
dilemma (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). Just as greater Assessment
bandwidth is associated with lower fidelity in -understand the theoretical, empirical, and
broadcasting, clinicians have found that, given contextual bases of assessment.
-evaluate the psychometric properties of assessment Clinical psychologists more and more use an
instruments. evidenced based approach to clinical assessment.
-successfully administer and interpret instruments Evidence based assessment (EBA; Hunsley & Mash,
designed to assess cognitive functioning, behavioral 2007) uses theory and knowledge about
functioning, and personality. psychological problems to help in the selection of
-conduct and interpret clinical interviews and assessment methods and measures, as well as to
behavioral observations. guide the actual process of assessment itself. Such an
-formulate appropriate DSM diagnoses. approach overcomes many of the weaknesses of
-recognize the limitations and appropriate uses of past assessment practices, including a
assessment instruments for special populations “one-test-fits-all” test selection approach, the use of
(cultural and linguistic groups, physically challenged, poorly validated measures, unreliable test
etc.). interpretation, and the use of tests with limited
-integrate data from multiple assessment sources evidence for treatment utility (Hunsley & Mash,
into empirically grounded conclusions. 2007).
-effectively communicate the results of assessments
to others in written and spoken reports. In other words, clinical psychologists must be
-understand and follow APA Ethics Code guidelines properly trained to know about the assessment
for assessment. process itself, about the conditions to be evaluated,
and about the psychometric properties of
Communicating Assessment Results assessment methods and measures that are
available to address the specific assessment situation
Report Clarity at hand
The first criterion for an assessment report is clarity.
Without this basic attribute, relevance and
usefulness cannot be evaluated. Lack of clarity in Definition and Purpose
psychological reports is troublesome because
misinterpretation of a report can lead to misguided Psychological assessment can be formally defined in
decisions. many ways. Clinical assessment involves an
evaluation of an individual’s or family’s strengths and
Relevance to Goals weaknesses, a conceptualization of the problem at
Although far less common today than in the past, hand (as well as possible etiological factors), and
clinicians may still be asked for “psychologicals” some prescription for alleviating the problem; all of
(usually a standard test battery and interview) these lead us to a better understanding of the client.
without being told why assessment is being done. Assessment is not something that is done once and
Under such circumstances, the chances of writing a then is forever finished. In many cases, it is an
relevant report are minimal. Unfortunately, there are ongoing process—even an everyday process, as in
other cases in which a report’s lack of relevance is psychotherapy. Whether the clinician is making
due mainly to the clinician’s failure to keep decisions or solving problems, clinical
established assessment objectives in mind. assessment is the means to the end.

Usefulness of Reports The Referral

Finally, one must ask if an assessment report is The assessment process begins with a referral.
useful. Does the information it contains add anything
important to what we already know about the What Influences How the Clinician Addresses the
client? Reports that present clear, relevant Referral Question?
information that is already available through other -The kinds of information sought are often heavily
sources may appear useful but have little real value. influenced by the clinician’s theoretical
commitments.

ASSESSMENT INTERVIEW - In other cases, the information obtained may be

similar, but clinicians will make different inferences
ASSESSMENT IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY from it.
- The purpose of assessment is not to discover the or when to be indirect or subtle test the skill of the
“true psychic essence” of the client, but to describe interviewer.
that client in a way that is useful to the referral
source—a way that will lead to the solution of a Interviewing Essentials and Techniques
problem.
The Physical Arrangements. An interview can be
conducted anywhere that two people can meet and
THE INTERVIEW interact. On some occasions, this happens by
chance—an encounter with a patient on the street,
The assessment interview is at once the most basic for example. Usually, the clinician does not choose
and the most serviceable technique used by the such a setting. But the needs of the patient, the
clinical psychologist. In the hands of a skilled degree of urgency in the situation, or even, in some
clinician, its wide range of application and instances, sheer coincidence may make an interview
adaptability make it a major instrument for clinical of sorts inevitable.
decision making, understanding, and prediction.
Obviously, certain physical arrangements are
It can provide insight into the problem and inform especially desirable for an interview. Two of the most
clinical decision making. important considerations are privacy and protection
from interruptions.
General Characteristics of Interviews
Note-Taking and Recording. All contacts with clients
An Interaction. An interview is an interaction ultimately need to be documented. However, there
between at least two persons. Each participant is some debate over whether notes should be taken
contributes to the process, and each influences the during an interview. Although there are few
responses of the other. But this characterization falls absolutes, in general, it would seem desirable to take
short of defining the process. Ordinary conversation occasional notes during an interview.
is interactional, but surely, interviewing goes beyond
that. Interviewing, like conversation, involves face Rapport
to-face verbal encounters or exchanges. However, a
clinical interview is initiated with a goal or set of Definition and Functions. Rapport is the word often
goals in mind. used to characterize the relationship between
patient and clinician.
Interviews Versus Tests. In a sense, interviews
occupy a position somewhere between ordinary Rapport involves a comfortable atmosphere and a
conversation and tests. Interviews are more mutual understanding of the purpose of the
purposeful and organized than conversation but interview. Good rapport can be a primary instrument
sometimes less formalized or standardized than by which the clinician achieves the purposes of the
psychological tests. interview

A unique characteristic of the interview method is Characteristics. Good rapport can be achieved in
the wider opportunity it provides for an many ways—perhaps as many ways as there are
individualized approach that will be effective in Clinicians.
eliciting data from a particular person or patient.
Special Considerations. Rapport can be especially
Cons of interview: distinct potential for challenging to achieve in cases that involve more
unreliability and error. than one individual or a unique referral source.

Art of Interviewing. Interviewing has often been Communication

regarded as an art. Except in the most structured,
formal interviews, there is a degree of freedom to Beginning a Session. It is often useful to begin an
exercise one’s skill and resourcefulness that is assessment session with a casual conversation.
generally absent from other assessment procedures.
*Decisions such as when to probe, when to be silent,
Language. Of extreme importance is the use of another, however, clinicians must resist the
language that the patient can understand. Some temptation to shift the focus to themselves
initial estimate of the patient’s background,
educational level, or general sophistication should be The Impact of the Clinician. The same behavior in
made. The kind of language employed should different clinicians is unlikely to provoke the same
then reflect that judgment. response from a patient. The tall, well-muscled,
athletic therapist may somewhat intimidate certain
The Use of Questions. Maloney and Ward (1976) kinds of patients.
observed that the clinician’s questions may become
progressively more structured as the interview Therefore, it is important for all clinicians to cultivate
proceeds. They distinguish among several forms of a degree of self insight or at least a mental set to
questions, including open-ended, facilitative, consider the possible effects of their own impact
clarifying, confronting, and direct questions. Each is before attaching meaning to the behavior of their
designed in its own way to promote communication patients.

Silence. Perhaps nothing is more disturbing to a The Clinician’s Values and Background. Nearly
beginning interviewer than silence. However, everyone accepts the notion that one’s own values,
silences can mean many things. The important point background, and biases will affect one’s perceptions.
is to assess the meaning and function of silence in Unfortunately, we are usually more skilled at
the context of the specific interview. The clinician’s validating this notion in others than in ourselves.
response to silence should be reasoned and Therefore, clinicians must examine their own
responsive to the goals of the interview rather than experiences and seek the bases for their own
to personal needs or insecurities. assumptions before making clinical judgments of
Others.
Listening. If we are to communicate effectively in the
clinician’s role, our communication must reflect THE PATIENT’S FRAME OF REFERENCE
understanding and acceptance. We cannot hope to If the clinician is going to be effective in achieving
do this if we have not been listening, for it is by goals of the interview, it is essential that he or she
listening that we come to appreciate the information have an idea of how the patient views the first
and emotions that the patient is conveying. If we are meeting.
concerned about impressing the client, if we are ⎯ Clinicians must be sensitive to the patient’s initial
insecure in our role, if we are guided by motivations perceptions and
other than the need to understand and accept, then expectations.
we are not likely to be effective listeners. ⎯ Other client display a kind of bravado
⎯ Others view the clinicians as a kind of savior

⎯ Clinicians must be prepared

⎯ Purpose of the interview
⎯ Must be focused
⎯ Depending on the purpose of the interview, the
clinician should also be prepared to provide some
closure for the client at the conclusion of the
interview.
⎯ The clinician should be prepared to make a
referral, set up another appointment, and/or provide
Gratification of Self. The clinical interview is not the some feedback to the client.
time or the place for clinicians to work out their own
problems. Sometimes a clinician is professionally VARIETIES OF INTERVIEWS
insecure or inexperienced. Sometimes the patient’s Intake-Admission Interview
problems, experiences, or conversation reminds ⎯ General purposes: 1)to determine why the patient
clinicians of their own problems or threatens their has come to the clinic or hospital, 2) to judge
own values, attitudes, or adjustment. In one way or whether the agency’s facilities, policies, and services
will meet the needs and expectations of the patient.
⎯ To inform the patient of such matters as the clinic’s a.)Content Validity – the degree to which interview
functions, fees, policies, procedures and personnel. items adequately measure the various aspects of the
⎯ Patients are consumers and have every right to variable or construct.
information regarding services and charges. b) Predictive Validity – the degree to which scores
Case-History Interview can predict (correlate with) behavior or test scores
- An interview conducted for the purpose of gaining that are observed or obtained at some point in the
a thorough understanding of the patient’s future.
background and the historical/developmental c) Concurrent Validity – the extreme to which
context in which a problem emerged. interview scores are correlated with a related, but
- A parent, spouse, teacher, etc. can be rich sources independent, set of test/interview scores or
of data. behaviors.
d) Construct Validity – the extent to which interview
Mental Status Examination Interview scores are correlated with other measures or
⎯ An interview conducted to evaluate the patient for behaviors in a logical and theoretically consistent
the presence of cognitive, emotional or behavioural way. This will involve a demonstration of both
problems. convergent and discriminant validity.
⎯ The clinician assesses the patient in a number of Suggestions for Improving Reliability and Validity
areas, including general presentation, quality of 1. Use a structured interview
speech, thought content, memory and 2. If a structured interview does not exist for your
judgment. purpose, consider developing one.
⎯ Cons: unreliability 3. Whether you are using a structured interview or
not, certain interviewing skills are essential.
Crisis Interview 4. Be aware of the patient’s motives and
- An interview conducted for the purpose of 1) expectancies with regard to the interview.
defusing or problem solving through the crisis at 5. Be aware of your own expectations, biases, and
hand and 2) encouraging the individual to enter into cultural values.
a therapeutic relationship at the agency or
elsewhere so that longer-term solution can be
worked out. BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT

Diagnostic Interview •In the traditional view, personality is a system of

- An interview conducted for the purpose of arriving construct that greatly influences behavior.
at a DSM-V diagnostic formulation. •Behavior therapists and assessors see personality
- Structured diagnostic interview – the questions more in terms of behavioral tendencies in specific
may be keyed to the diagnostic criteria for a number situations (Yoman, 2008)
of disorders. •Behavioral assessment is especially relevant for
Common types of reliability that are assessed to work with children and adolescents.
evaluate the interviews
a) Interrater or interjudge reliability – index of the BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
degree of the agreement between two or more •An assessment approach that focuses on the
raters or judges as to the level of a trait that is interactions between situations and behaviors for
present or the presence/absence of a feature or the purpose of effecting behavioral change.
diagnosis.
- Kappa coefficient Sample
a) Test-retest reliability – index of the consistency of • When test responses are viewed as a sample, one
interview scores some period of time. assumes that they parallel the way in which a person
- Pearson’s r or intraclass correlation is likely to behave in a non-test situation.
Validity - It is concerns how well the interview
measures what intends to measure. Sign

Common types of validity that are assessed to When test responses are viewed as signs, an
evaluate interviews inference is made that the performance is an indirect
or symbolic manifestation of some other ❑ Three to six 10-minute observation for at least
characteristic. two days.
•Hospital observation
Functional Analysis- identifying the cause of behavior ❑Time Sample Behavior Checklist (TSBC)
Process: •Gordon Paul and his associates
a. Identify the stimulus conditions that precipitate it •It is a time-sample behavioral checklist that can
b. Determine the reinforcements that follow. be used with chronic psychiatric patients.
B. Controlled Observation
Stimulus-behavior-consequence •Sometimes referred as analogue behavioral
observation
Behavioral Assessment is an Ongoing Process •the important feature is that the environment is
•Behavioral assessment is important because it designed such that is likely that the assessor will
informs the initial selection of treatment strategies, observe the targeted behavior or interactions.
provides a means of feedback regarding the efficacy •Parent-adolescent conflict ⎯ Interaction Behavior
of the treatment strategies employed as they are Code (IBC)
enacted in the treatment process, allows evaluation ❑Negative behavior (i.e., yelling, name-calling,
of the overall effectiveness of treatment once mind-reading)
completed, and highlights situational factors that ❑Positive behavior (i.e., making suggestions, asking
may lead to recurrence of the problematic behavior. what the other would like, compromise)

Goals and Benefits of Behavioral Assessment C. Controlled Performance Techniques

1. To collect information that is not available in other • An assessment procedure in which the clinician
ways places individuals in carefully controlled
2. Supplement other data as part of a performance situations and collects data on their
multiple-assessment approach performance/behaviors, their emotional reactions,
and/or various psycho physiological indices.
Advantages of Behavioral Assessment
1. Supplementing self-reports D. Self-monitoring
2. Highlighting situation determinants of behavior. •Individuals observe and record their own behaviors,
3. Enhancing ecological validity. thoughts, and emotions.

Observation Methods Variables Affecting the Reliability of Observation

A. Naturalistic Observation 1. Complexity of target behavior
•Naturalistic observation provides a background ❑ Behavioral assessment typically focuses on
that is realistic and relevant for understanding the less complex, lower level behaviors (Hayes, 1998)
client’s behavior and the factors influencing that 2. Training observers
behavior. Variables Affecting the Validity of Observation
•Home observation 1. Concurrent validity
❑Mealtime Family Interaction Coding System (MICS) 2. Mechanics of rating
⎯involves the use of a videotaped interaction of the 3. Observer error
entire family eating at mealtime, without the 4. Reactivity
presence of a clinician or researcher. 5. Ecological validity
1. Task Accomplishment Suggestions for Improving the Validity and Reliability
2. Affect Management of Observations
3. Interpersonal Involvement 1. Decide on target behaviors that are both relevant
4. Behavior Control and comprehensive.
5. Communication 2. In specifying these behaviors, work as much as
6. Roles possible from an explicit theoretical framework that
•School observation will help define the behaviors of interest.
❑ Achenbach’s revised Direct Observation Form 3. Employ trained observers whose reliability has
(DOF) ⎯ used to assess problem behaviors that may been established and who are familiar with the
be observed in school classrooms or other settings. objective, standardized observation format to be
used.
[Link] sure that the observational format is strictly 4. Internal consistency – preferred index of internal
specified, including the units of analysis, the form in consistency, in which the average of all possible
which observer’s ratings will be made, the exact split-half correlations is computed.
observational procedures, the scoring system, and •Cronbach’s alpha, Kuder-Richardson-20
the observational schedule to be followed. • Kappa statistic
5. Be aware of the potential sources of error in the 4. Interrater/Interjudge – index of the degree of
observations as bias and fluctuations in agreement between two or more raters or judges as
concentration. to the level of a trait that is present of the
6. Consider the possibility of reactivity on the part of presence/absence of a feature or diagnosis.
those being observed and the general influence of • Kappa statistic
awareness that they are being observed.
7. Give careful consideration to issues of how VALIDITY – extent to which an assessment technique
representative the observation really are and how measures what it is supposed to measure.
much one can generalize from them to behavior in Types of Validity
other settings. Content Validity – the degree to which the test items
adequately measure the various aspects of the
Strengths and Weaknesses variable or construct.
•The precision and comprehensiveness of behavioral Predictive Validity – The degree to which test scores
assessment methods. can predict (correlate with) behavior or test scores
that are observed or obtained at some point in the
ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE future.
Concurrent Validity – test scores are correlated with
Historical underpinnings of Intelligence Testing a related, but independent, set of test scores or
behaviors.
•Several important historical developments in the Construct Validity – test scores are correlated with
latter half of the 19th century greatly influenced the other measures or behaviors in a logical and
ultimate introduction of measures of intelligence. theoretically consistent way.
1. Compulsory in the US and other countries resulted • Convergent Validity
in a very diverse student body. • Discriminant Validity
2. Psychological scientists believed that mental
abilities could be Definitions of Intelligence
Alfred Binet – Theodore Simon ▪ Definitions that emphasize adjustment or
Binet-Simon Scale-use to identity individual adaptation to the environment.
differences in mental functioning ▪ Definition that focus on the ability to learn
Binet’s original purpose was to develop an objective ▪ Definition that emphasize abstract thinking
method of identifying those truly lacking in academic
ability. Theories of Intelligence
Factor Analytic Approaches
Brief Review of Reliability and Validity Spearman posited the existence of g factor (general
Intelligence) and s factors (specific intelligence). The
RELIABILITY – consistency with which individuals elements that tests have in common are represented
respond to test stimuli by g, whereas the elements unique to a given test
are s factors.
TYPES OF RELIABILITY
1. Test-retest reliability – index of the consistency of GENERAL INTELLIGENCE
test scores across some period of time. -Quantitative reasoning
•Pearson’s r/Spearman Rho -Working memory
2. Equivalent form – index of the consistency of test -Fluid reasoning
scores across time -Knowledge
•Pearson’s r/Spearman Rho -Visual-spatial processing
3. Split-half – index of the internal consistency of the Cattel’s Theory
test Emphasized the centrality of g. R. B. Cattell offered
•Pearson’s r/Spearman Rho tentative list of 17 primary ability concepts. Two
important components: Fluid ability and crystallized Quantitative reasoning – involves the ability to solve
ability. numerical and word problems as well as to
understand fundamental number of concepts.
Guilford’s Classification. Structure of the Intellect Visual-spatial processing – involves the ability to see
(SOI). Guildord reasoned that the components of relationships among objects, to recognize spatial
intelligence could be categorized into three orientation, and to conduct pattern analysis.
dimensions: Working memory – involves the ability to process
1. Operations - Cognition, memory, divergent and hold both verbal and non-verbal information and
production, convergent production and evaluation then to interpret it.
2. Contents – involves the areas of information in Knowledge – involves the ability to absorb general
which the operations are performed: figural, information that is accumulated over time through
symbolic, semantic, and behavioural. experience at home, school, work, or the
3. Products – when a particular mental operation is environment in general.
applied to specific type of content, there are six
possible products: units, classes, systems, relation, Standardization
transformation and implications Final standardization of the SB-5 included 4,800
participants, ages 2-96 years. In addition, the SB-5
Howard Gardner Theory of Multiple Inteligence was administered to approximately 1,400 individuals
from special populations to ensure the
1. Linguistic Intelligence clinical utility of the scores.
2. Musical Intelligence
3. Logical-mathematical Intelligence Reliability and Validity
4. Spatial Intelligence Psychometric analyses support the reliability and the
5. Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence validity of the SB-5 scores. Internal consistency
6. Naturalistic Intelligence reliabilities ranged from .95 to .98 for IQ scores, and
7. Interpersonal Intelligence from .90 to .92 for the index scores of the five
8. intrapersonal Intelligence factors. Test-retest reliabilities across all age
groups were generally high, in the .80s for factor
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence scores and in the .90s for IQ scores.

1. Componential Intelligence – refers to analytical THE WECHSLER SCALES

thinking; high scores would characterize the person
who is a good test-taker. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - Fourth Edition
2. Experiential Intelligence – refers to creative (WAIS-IV)
thinking and characterizes the person who can take
separate elements of experience and combine them -2008
insightfully. One major change, first introduced in the WAIS-III
3. Contextual Intelligence – “street smart” - one who and continued in the WAIS-IV, is the inclusion of
is practical, knows how to play a game, and can reversal items in several subtests.
successfully manipulate the environment. The purpose of this change was to determine the
examinee’s ability level as efficiently as possible
Clinical Assessment of Intelligence without having to administer items markedly below
The Stanford-Binet Scales that ability level
1905 – Binet-Simon Scale
• Terman’s revision in 1916 15 WAIS-IV Subtests
• 1937, 1960, 1972, 1986, 2003 [Link] (Verbal Comprehension)
• Age 2 to adulthood – multistage testing [Link] (Verbal Comprehension)
[Link] (Working Memory)
5 General Cognitive Factors [Link] Span (Working Memory)
Fluid reasoning - involves the ability to solve new [Link] (Verbal Comprehension)
problems and is measured by the subtests; [Link](VerbalComprehension,supplemen
tal subtest)
[Link]-Number sequencing (Working Memory, 1. Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI) – includes the
supplemental subtest) similarities, vocabulary and comprehension subtest;
[Link] Completion (Perceptual Reasoning, Information and reasoning are the supplementary
supplemental subtest) VCI subtest.
9. Coding (Processing Speed) 2. Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI) – consists of the
10. Block Design (Perceptual reasoning) block design, picture concepts and matrix reasoning
11. Matrix Reasoning (Perceptual reasoning) subtests, whereas the picture completion subtest is
12. Symbol Search (Processing Speed) now a supplemental subtest for the PRI.
13. Visual Puzzles (Perceptual Reasoning) 3. Working Memory Index (WMI) – consists of the
14. Figure weights (Perceptual Reasoning, digit span and letter-number sequencing subtests,
supplemental subtest) and the arithmetic subtest is now used as a
15. Cancelation (Processing Speed, supplemental supplemental subtest for the WMI
subtest) 4. The Processing Speed Index (PSI) consists of the
Coding and Symbol Search subtests, with the new
Obtaining the Full Scale IQ score and Index Score Cancellation subtest serving as a supplemental PSI
subtest. The PSI, which also appeared in the WISC-III,
Raw scores from each subtest are converted to assesses speed of information processing and
scaled scores – standardized scores for a given age involves timed tasks.
group. The Full Scale IQ and Index Scores are then
computed by adding together scaled scores from Standardization
select subtests and converting these sums to IQ
equivalents. Normative data for the WISC-IV were obtained from
a standardization sample of 2,200 cases
Standardization representative of the U.S population of children.
The sample included 200 children (100 girls and 100
The WAIS-IV was standardized on a sample of 2,200 boys) in each of 11 age groups (ages 6 to 16 years).
adults, including equal numbers of men and women
in each of 13 groups ranging from 16-90 years. The Reliability and Validity
sample was stratified according to age, sex,
race/ethnicity, education level, and geographic Wechler reported that the average (across age
regions. groups) split-half reliabilities for the Verbal
Comprehension Index, Perceptual reasoning Index,
Reliability and Validity Working Memory Index, Processing Speed Index and
Full Scale of the WISC-IV were .94, .92, .92, .88 and
The average Full Scale IQ split-half reliability .97, [Link]-IV scores are highly correlated
coefficient across age groups was .98 and the with scores from other measures of intelligence
average split-half reliability coefficient across age
groups for the Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence
Reasoning, Working Memory, and Processing Speed Test 3rd edition (WPPSI-III)
Index scores range from .90 to .96. Test-retest
reliabilities over an average of three weeks range 1967, 1989, 2002
from .74 to .90 across age groups for the various Two sets of subscales are included. One set is
subtests Relevant subtest scores from other tests of designed for youth ages 2 years, 6 months to 3 years,
cognitive ability are significantly correlated with 11 months; a second set of subscales is designed for
targeted subscale scores derived from the new youth ages 4 years to 7 years, 3 months.
WAIS-IV.
Standardization, Reliability and Validity
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Fourth
Edition (WISC-IV) Data used to standardize the WPPSI-III included
1,700 children between the ages of 2 years, 6
-1949, 1974, 1991,2003, 2014 (6-16 years) months and 7 years, 3 months.
Four major indices that comprise the Full Scale IQ Reliabilities for the composite scores exceeded .89
Strong Validity support
Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test

A Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test is a test designed

to measure your non-verbal, abstract and
cognitive functioning.

In the test, a candidate is presented with a matrix of

3x3 geometric designs, with one piece missing.
The candidates' job is to choose the right diagram,
from a set of eight answers, that completes a pattern
in the matrix that you have to figure out. The
questions and answers are all completely non-verbal.

The Clinical Use of Intelligence Tests

1. The estimation of General Intelligence level

2. Prediction of Academic Success
3. The Appraisal of Style

WECHSLER PRE-SCHOOL AND PRIMARY SCALE FOR

INTELLIGENCE, 3RD EDITION (WPPSI III)
Age Range
The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of
Intelligence, Third Edition (WPPSI-III) is one of the Children ages 2 years 6 months (2;6) through 7 years
major instruments for assessing the cognitive ability 3 months (7;3).
of young children that was developed by David
Wechsler. It is a substantial revision of the WPPSI-R Its age range is divided into two age bands (2:6–3:11
(Wechsler, 1989). and 4:0–7:3) each with its own battery of subtests.
- It is a type of intelligence test. NORMS
-It measures cognitive abilities, including verbal The WPPSI-III was normed on a stratified sample of
comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working 1,700 children, divided into nine age groups,
memory, and processing speed. These areas are including 200 children in each 6 month interval from
assessed through a series of tasks and questions that ages 2;6 to 5;11, 200 six year olds, and 100 children,
are age-appropriate and engaging for young children. ages 7;0–7;3. Sample demographics and geographic
The test aims to evaluate a child's intellectual locations were based on the U.S. Bureau of the
potential, identifying their strengths and weaknesses Census for 2000.
in various cognitive domains. PROPER TEST ADMINISTRATION
-The WPPSI–III is based on the Wechsler-Bellevue
theory of intelligence, emphasizing intelligence as a The WPPSI-III is designed to assess individual
global capacity but having Verbal and Performance children; administration time depends upon the age
scales as two methods of assessing this global category the child falls into. According to the
capacity. Administration and Scoring Manual, the core
subtests take approximately 30-35 minutes for most
children aged 2 years and 6 months to 3 years and 11
months, and approximately 40-50 minutes for most
children age 4 years to 7 years 3 months. The
younger group requires 4 core subtests, while the
older group requires 7 core subtests. Several of the
subtests have age-based start/finish points and
reversal rules that allow the examiner to reduce the
amount of time spent testing. social situations
Object Assembly - the child is presented with the
Here are the steps involved in using the WPPSI pieces of a puzzle in a standard arrangement and fits
Record Form: the pieces together to form a meaningful whole
1. Gather the necessary materials. You will need the within 90 seconds.
WPPSI Record Form, the WPPSI-III test materials, and Similarities - the child is read an incomplete sentence
a stopwatch. containing two concepts that share a common
2. Familiarize yourself with the WPPSI Record Form. characteristic. The child is asked to complete the
Read the instructions carefully and ensure you sentence by providing a response that reflects the
understand how to administer and score each shared characteristics.
subtest. Block Design - While viewing a constructed model or
3. Administer the WPPSI-III to the child. Follow the a picture in a stimulus book, the child uses one or
instructions in the WPPSI Record Form carefully. two color blocks to re-create the design within a
4. Score the WPPSI-III. Use the tables and graphs in specified time limit.
the WPPSI Record Form to score each subtest. Picture Completion - the child views a picture and
5. Interpret the results. Use the WPPSI-III scoring then points to or names the important missing part.
manual to interpret the child's scores.
WPPSI III (14 SUBSETS) • Core, Supplemental, & Optional. (3 Types of
Matrix Reasoning - The child looks at an incomplete Subtest)
matrix and selects the missing portion from 4 or 5 • Start Points, Reverse Rules, & Discontinue
response options Rules
Picture Vocabulary - for picture items, the child PROPER TEST SCORING
names pictures that are displayed in a stimulus book.
For verbal items, the child gives definitions for words Verbal IQ (VIQ) is based on Information, Vocabulary,
that the examiner reads aloud. and Word Reasoning.
Symbol Search - the child scans a search group and
indicates whether a target symbol matches any of Processing Speed Quotient (PSQ) or visual-motor,
the symbols in the search group clerical speed, and accuracy, includes Coding &
Picture Concepts - the child is presented with two or Symbol Search.
3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from
each row to form a group with a common Performance IQ (PIQ) is based on Block Design,
characteristic. Matrix Reasoning, and Picture Concepts.
Vocabulary - This subtest is designed to assess a
child’s understanding of spoken words, learning Full-Scale IQ (FSIQ) is based on seven tests: 3 Verbal,
ability, general range of ideas, verbal information 3 Performance (fluid), and 1 Processing Speed test.
acquired from experience and education, and kind
and quality of expressive language General Language Composite(GLC) is based on
Word Reasoning - for picture items, the child expressive and receptive
responds to a question by choosing a picture from 4 language abilities.
response options. For verbal items, the child answers
questions that address a broad range of general
knowledge topics. Each of these IQs are composite score. Both the
Information - The child is asked to identify the Verbal and Performance IQ scores are composites of
common concept being described in a series of five different subtests, each of which measures a
increasingly specific clues. different area of ability. The Full Scale IQ is a
Coding - the child copies symbols that are paired composite of the Verbal and Performance scores,
with simple geometric shapes. Using a key, the child which makes it a composite of fourteen different
draws each symbol in its corresponding shape subtests. All standard scores have a mean of 100 and
Receptive Vocabulary - the child looks at a group of a standard deviation of 15. All subtests yield a scaled
four pictures and points to the one the examiner score with a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of
names aloud. 3.
Comprehension - the child answers questions based
on his or her understanding of general principles and When determining results a professional needs to
check for a GAP between the Verbal IQ and the
Performance IQ. One indicator of a severe learning TYPE OF TEST Projective Test
disability is when the gap is approaching two
standard deviations (approximately 30 points or TEST DESCRIPTION
more); this would be looked at as a severe
discrepancy. Another indication is a severe The Rorschach test was developed by Hermann
discrepancy between the child's intelligence and Rorschach. This test employs a series of ten
educational test scores, or if there is a significant bilaterally symmetrical inkblot cards, of which some
SCATTER between subtests scores. The child may are black or gray, and others could contain
have perceptual or processing disorder. applications of color. The test taker is asked to
STANDARD SCORE RANGES provide their perceptions or perspectives on the
Extremely Low: Below 70 presented ambiguous inkblot images. This test was
Borderline: 70-79 designed to look for patterns of thought disorder in
Low Average: 80-89 schizophrenia and has evolved to include other
Average: 90-109 areas, like personality, emotional disorders, and
High Average: 110-119 intelligence. The Rorschach has been standardized
Superior: 120-129 using the Exner system and is effective in measuring
Very Superior: 130 and above depression, psychosis, and anxiety.
Proper Test Interpretation
- WPPSI-III scores should never be interpreted in BRIEF DISCUSSION ON THE THEORETICAL
isolation. ORIENTATION

- Standard scores enable practitioners to compare Theoretical Orientation of Rorschach Inkblot Test:
scores within the WPPSI-III and between a large
normative sample of children in the same age group
and other related measures.

- Age-corrected standard scores also allow for a

comparison of children’s cognitive functioning across
other children of similar age.

- Other information (percentile ranks, descriptive

classification, test-age equivalents) can also be used
to benefit interpretation. - A test designed to reflect unconscious parts of the
personality that project into the visual stimuli
Profile analyses can be identified from both generated by the inkblots (Filho, 2020).
intraindividual and interindividual perspectives by - The theory encompasses the idea that all people
comparing the child’s score patterns across subtests have unconscious thoughts, memories, emotions,
or to the appropriate normative reference group. and desires and that therapy should be used to
This can aid in identifying meaningful patterns of access the mind's repressed feelings and
strengths and weaknesses. experiences. Only then will the patient experience
cathartic healing of the mind (Hall, Roundy, and
Here are the critical points regarding when it is Cena, 2023)
appropriate to use this assessment: - The psychoanalytic perspective sees the Rorschach
as a projective task that allows the examiner to study
• Early identification of developmental the thought processes that make up the internal
delays world of the individual (Coonerty, 2010).
• Educational planning and intervention
• Giftedness identification AGE RANGE 5 to 70 years old
• Learning difficulties evaluation NORMS
• Research and normative data - The Rorschach Inkblot Test, developed by Hermann
Rorschach doesn't have fixed norms like standardized
RORSCHACH INKBLOT TEST tests. Instead, interpretations are based on a
clinician's assessment within the context of an A. SCORING PROCEDURE
individual's responses, considering factors such as Although Rorschach scoring techniques vary, most
content, location, determinants, and popular employ three major determinants.
responses. However, there are some general Location. It refers to the area of the card to which
guidelines and scoring systems used by psychologists the patient responded (the whole blot, a large detail,
to analyze and interpret the responses. These scoring a small detail, and white space)
systems may vary depending on the version of the Content. Refers to the nature of the object seen (an
test used and the training of the clinician. animal, a person, a rock, fog, clothing, etc.)
- Sources that provide more information on the key Determinants. Determinant coding is one of the
factors considered in the Rorschach Inkblot Test: most complex features of scoring
"The Rorschach: A Comprehensive System" by John Rorschach. This is where the examiner considers the
E. Exner reasons why you see what you see.
- By 1986, Exner had established norms for average
adult Americans; by 1990, Exner's books were filled
with normative tables that included norms for
practically every Rorschach variable.
- This book outlines the Comprehensive System, a
widely used scoring and interpretation method for
the Rorschach Inkblot Test. It includes detailed
information on the factors considered in the
assessment process.

PROPER TEST ADMINISTRATION PROPER TEST INTERPRETATION

A. MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR ADMINISTRATION A. INTERPRETATION PROCEDURE

B. ADMINISTRATION PROCEDURE - Once every card has been shown and the
psychologist correctly codes each response, an
The Rorschach Inkblot Test is a fascinating interpretative report is created based on the
psychological assessment that involves presenting patient’s scores. The report seeks to integrate the
individuals with 10 ambiguous inkblot images and findings from across all reactions from the test.
asking them to describe what they see in each one. - Interpreting a Rorschach report can be a complex
Here are the essential materials and steps for process. It does require a general knowledge of
administering this test: personality dynamics and considerable experience
Inkblot Cards: There are 10 official inkblots, each with the method of the Rorschach test precisely.
printed on separate white cards. These cards are
used during the test administration. The inkblots Rotter Incomplete SentenceBlank
come in different colors and patterns: Projective Psychological Test
- Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank or th eRISB is a
Black and Gray: Five inkblots fall into this category. projective psychological test use to measure
Black, Gray, and Red: Two inkblots combine these maladjustmentoftheclient/s.
colors. - It comes in three (3) form si.e school forms, college
Multicolored without Black: Three inkblots have forms,and adult forms.
various colors but no black. - Sentences usually only consist of 1-2 words.
- The test presents respondents with a series of
Inquiry: The examiner attempts to determine what incomplete sentences,and they're asked to
features of the inkblot played a role in formulating complete each sentence in a way that reflects their
the test taker's perception. own thoughts and feelings.
Testing the limits: This procedure enables the - Used In Clinical Psychology ,counseling,
examiner to restructure the situation by asking and research settings
specific questions that provide additional
information concerning personality functioning. Julian [Link] 1916-2014
An American psychologist who is known for
PROPER TEST SCORING
developing influential theories, including social P3=0 score
learning theory and locus of control. CONFLICT SENTENCES
- He believed that personality traits could be C1=4 score
assessed through the analysis of language patterns C2=5 score
and the completion of sentence stems. C3=6 score
- Rotter aimed to create a tool that could measure an NEUTRAL SENTENCE
individual's locus of control orientation. N=3 score
- He hypothesized that people with a strong internal OMISSION SENTENCES
locus of control tend to attribute outcomes to their O=[Link]/*TotalScores
own actions and decisions, leading to greater Total [Link]- Omission
feelings of autonomy and motivation.
TheoreticalOrientation ADVANTAGES
- The Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB) is
rooted in social learning theory, particularly the - Use to find out wishes, conflicts, desires, and
concept of locus of control, which was developed by attitude of an individual.
Julian Rotter himself. Locus of control refers to the - Test- takers have freedom of response.
extent to which individuals believe they have control - The RISB can be used alongside other personality
over the events that affect their lives. assessment tools to gain a comprehensive
- The theoretical orientation of the RISB emphasizes understanding of an individual's personality.
the importance of environmental influences and
social learning experiences in shaping personality DISADVANTAGES
and behavior. It suggests that individuals’ responses
to ambiguous stimuli can affect their cognitive - When the subject is illiterate, disturbed or
processes, coping mechanisms, and psychological uncooperative, the material obtained might be
functioning. insufficient.
- It cannot be machine scored.

Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R)

BRIEF HISTORY
1970 - Paul Costa Jr. and Robert McCrae
Using the recognized personality traits of
neuroticism (N) and extraversion (E), they discovered
a third personality trait, openness (O).
1978 - published the original version of the test
based on these three personality traits, NEO-PI.
● Costa and McCrae discovered two more
personality traits, agreeableness (A) and
conscientiousness (C).
1985 - published a manual for the test which
included all five traits.
1992 - Costa and McCrae had developed six facets
for each of the five traits.
● published the Revised NEO Personality
Inventory (NEO-PI-R).
2002 - NEO-PI-R was tested on over 1,900 high
school pupils.
Type of Test: Personality test
The NEO PI-R, the standard questionnaire measure
of the Five Factor Model (FFM), provides a
TestScoring systematic assessment of emotional, interpersonal,
POSITIVE SENTENCE experiential, attitudinal, and motivational styles. This
P1=2 score detailed personality description can be a valuable
P2=1 score resource for a variety of professionals. The NEO PI-R
is: A measure of all five dimensions of personality: individually and collectively. Each scale follows a
Agreeableness (A), Conscientiousness (C), normal distribution, with scores indicating degrees of
Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E), and Openness to traits. Big 5 factors provide a general overview, while
Experience (O). A 240-item questionnaire. facets offer detailed insights. Inconsistencies
Age Range between facet scores and overall factors are still
NEO PI-R suitable for clients ages 17 and over. Recent significant. Additionally, pairs of domains can
revisions were made to the NEO PI-R to lower the characterize various personality styles, providing
required reading level and extend the age range further understanding of individuals. Overall,
downward, making the instrument appropriate for interpreting the NEO involves analyzing individual
adolescents as young as 12 years of age and above. scales, facet- domain comparisons, and paired
This most recent revision, the NEO PI-3, retains the domain styles.
reliability and validity of the NEO PI-R but is more
suitable for younger examinees or adults with lower MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY
educational levels. INVENTORY-2
NORMS - The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2
The normative sample on which the NEO PI-R self- (MMPI-2) is a psychological assessment tool
report form is based is a composite of 405 men and designed to measure various aspects of personality
women from the Augmented Baltimore Study of and psychopathology.
Aging (ABLSA), 320 ABLSA participants who
completed the NEO PI-R by computer administration - The MMPI-2 is a self-report inventory with 567
between 1989 and 1991, and 1,539 participants in a true-false questions that assess different aspects of
national study of job performance. Five hundred an individual's psychological functioning, including
men and 500 women were then selected from these thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and behaviors.
groups to match U. S. Census projections for 1995
(Costa & McCrae, 1992). - The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2
(MMPI-2) does not align with a specific theoretical
PROPER TEST ADMINISTRATION orientation in psychology. Instead, its development
A. Materials required for administration was guided by empirical research and psychometric
● NEO-PI-R Test Booklet principles rather than adherence to a particular
● Answer Sheet theoretical framework.
● Manual
● Scoring Software or Scoring Key THEORETICAL ORIENTATION
● Suitable Environment The MMPI-2's theoretical foundation can be seen in
● Time its scales and items, which were selected based on
● Qualified Administrator their ability to discriminate between different
● Profile Form psychological conditions and personality traits.
B. Administration Procedure
● Introduction and Consent APPLICABLE AGE RANGE
● Distribution of Materials
● Instructions: The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2
● Duration: (MMPI-2) is typically administered to individuals who
● Item Presentation are 18 years of age or older. This age requirement is
● Response Format: based on the standardized norms and validation
● Scoring samples used during the development of the test.
● Administration It's important to adhere to the recommended age
● Collection range when administering the MMPI-2 to ensure the
● Interpretation and Feedback: validity and reliability of the results.
● Ethical Considerations NORMS
PROPER TEST INTERPRETATION A norm is a statistic or set of statistics (such as
A. Interpretation Procedure average, standard deviations, and score ranges) that
The NEO Personality Inventory interpretation researchers compare an individual’s score against.
involves analyzing individual T scores for both Big 5 The MMPI-2 normative samples consist of 1,138
domains and facet scores, considering them males and 1,462 females, ages 18-80, from diverse
 geographic regions and communities across the
United States.
PROPER TEST ADMINISTRATION
A. Materials Required for Administration

MMPI-2 Test Booklets: These contain the questions

(items) that the test-taker responds to.
Answer Sheets: Test-taker uses these sheets to
record their responses to the items in the test
booklet.
Pencils or Pens: Test-takers should use pencils or
pens with dark ink to mark their responses on the
answer sheets.
Testing Environment: The testing environment
should be quiet, well-lit, and free from distractions
to ensure that the test-taker can focus on the
assessment without interference.

WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE SCALE-IV

( WAIS-IV )

AGE RANGE
The WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) is
designed for individuals aged 16 to 90 years old. It's
primarily used to assess cognitive abilities in adults.
The WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) is
typically used for adults.
THEORETICAL ORIENTATION
The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) doesn't
adhere strictly to any single theoretical orientation.
Instead, it incorporates elements from various
psychological theories and models of intelligence, Administration Procedure
including aspects of psychometric, cognitive, and 1. The WAIS administrators must receive proper
neuropsychological theories. Its design aims to training and be aware of all the test guidelines.
assess a broad range of cognitive abilities, such as 2. Testing requires approximately 60 to 90 minutes.
verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, Pre-administration Preparation: Familiarize yourself
working memory, and processing speed, without with the test, set up the testing environment, gather
strictly adhering to any one theoretical framework. materials, and review background information.
NORMS 3. Introduction and Instructions: Greet the test-taker,
There are five aspects of intelligence that are explain the purpose of the assessment, obtain
identified: consent if necessary, and provide an overview of the
Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) is considered the most valid testing procedure.
measure of overall cognitive ability. 4. Administration of Subtests: Begin with practice
Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI) is designed to items, read standardized instructions for each
measure verbal reasoning and conceptformation. subtest, ensure understanding, administer subtests
Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI) is designed to according to procedures, and observe the test-taker's
measure fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain responses.
with tasks that assess nonverbal concept formation, 5. Post-administration Procedures: Score responses
visual perception and organization, visual-motor accurately, document observations, provide
coordination, learning, and the ability to separate feedback to the test-taker, and complete necessary
figure and ground in visual stimuli. documentation.
Working Memory Index (WMI) is the ability to Proper Test Scoring
sustain attention, concentrate, and exert mental Scoring: The WAIS-IV is scored on a scale of 45 to
control. 155, with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of
Processing Speed Index (PSI) is the ability to process 15. The test consists of 10 core subtests and five
simple or routine visual material without making supplemental subtests. The core subtests calculate
errors. four composite scores: Verbal Comprehension,
Two broad scores are also generated, which can be Perceptual Reasoning, Working Memory, and
used to summarize general intellectual abilities Processing Speed. The supplemental subtests can
Full-scale IQ (FSIQ), based on the total combined supplement the composite scores or provide
performance of the VCI, PRI, WMI, and PSI additional information about the test taker's
General Ability Index (GAI), based only on the six cognitive abilities.
subtests that comprise the VCI and PRI
15 WAIS-IV Subtests
Proper Test Administration [Link] (Verbal Comprehension)
[Link] (Verbal Comprehension)
Materials Required for Administration: 3. Arithmetic (Working Memory)
1. Test Kit: The test kit includes the administration [Link] Span (Working Memory)
manual, stimulus booklets, response booklets, [Link] (Verbal Comprehension)
scoring materials, and any necessary ancillary [Link](Verbal Comprehension,
materials. supplemental subtest)
2. Standardized Environment: Ensure the testing [Link]-Number sequencing (Working Memory,
environment is quiet, well-lit, and free from supplemental subtest)
distractions to optimize the test-taker's [Link] Completion (Perceptual Reasoning,
concentration and performance. supplemental subtest)
3. Pencils and Erasers: Provide sharpened pencils [Link] (Processing Speed)
with erasers for the test-taker to use for responding [Link] Design (Perceptual reasoning)
to items in the test booklet. [Link] Reasoning (Perceptual reasoning)
[Link] Device: Use a stopwatch or clock with a [Link] Search (Processing Speed)
second hand to accurately time the test sessions. [Link] Puzzles (Perceptual Reasoning)
5. Optional: Depending on the specific version of the [Link] weights (Perceptual Reasoning,
WAIS being administered, additional materials such supplemental subtest)
as blocks, puzzles, or other manipulatives may be [Link] (Processing Speed, supplemental
required for certain subtests. subtest)
Proper TestInterpretation
Level I. Interpret the Full Scale IQ Determine
percentile rankings and IQ classifications
Level II. Interpret index scores and CHC groupings
Interpret personal strengths and weaknesses
(ipsatively) for the examinee if significant
discrepancies occur between clusters of index
scores; normative interpretations can still be made
whether significant differences occur or not
a. Index scores: Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual
Reasoning (Visual Spatial and Fluid Reasoning on the
WISC-V), Working Memory, Processing Speed
b. CHC/other cluster groupings: Fluid Reasoning,
Verbal Fluid Reasoning, Nonverbal Fluid Reasoning,
Quantitative Reasoning, Lexical Knowledge, General
Information, Visual Processing, Cognitive Proficiency,
Visual Motor Speed, Problem Solving without Visual
Motor Speed, Long Term Memory, Auditory Working
Memory/Short Term Memory (note that all core and
supplemental subtests must be given to calculate
CHC groupings)
Level III. Interpret subtest variability
Level IV. Qualitative/process analysis
Level V. Analyze intrasubtest variability