1 Cells

Focus
In this chapter you will discover the main differences between animal, plant and bacterial cells, as
well as the functions of their parts. Within an organism there are levels of organisation. By the end of
the chapter you will be able to name these and describe examples from animals and plants. Why are
cells different shapes? What jobs do they do? How can we work out their magnification when looking
at them? By studying the chapter carefully and following the practical suggestions you should be
able to answer these questions.

Cell structure and organisation

FOCUS POINTS
★ What are the structures and functions of plant, animal and bacterial cells?
★ How do you identify cell structures in diagrams and images of animal, plant and bacterial cells?
★ What are the differences between a plant and an animal cell?
★ How are new cells produced?
★ What are the specific functions of these specialised cells:
★ ciliated cells
★ root hair cells
★ palisade mesophyll cells
★ neurones
★ red blood cells
★ sperm and egg cells (gametes)?
★ What are the meanings of the terms cell, tissue, organ, organ system and organism?

Cell structure
If a very thin slice of a plant stem is cut and
studied under a microscope, the stem appears to
consist of thousands of tiny, box-like structures.
These structures are called cells. Figure 1.1 is a
thin slice taken from the tip of a plant shoot and
photographed through a microscope. It is 60 times
larger than life, so a cell which appears to be 2 mm
long in the picture is only 0.03 mm long in reality.

Figure 1.1 Longitudinal section through the tip of a plant

▲

shoot (×60). The slice is only one cell thick, so light can
pass through it and allow the cells to be seen clearly

1
 1 Cells

Thin slices like this are called sections. If you cut

along the length of the structure, you are taking a
longitudinal section (Figure 1.2(b)). Figure 1.1 shows
a longitudinal section, which passes through two
small developing leaves near the tip of the shoot,
and two larger leaves below them. The leaves,
buds and stem are all made up of cells. If you cut
across the structure, you make a transverse section
(Figure 1.2(a)).

▲ Figure 1.3 Transverse section through a kidney tubule

(×700). A section through a tube will look like a ring (see
Figure 1.7(b)). In this case, each ‘ring’ consists of about
12 cells

Making sections is not the only way to study cells.

Thin strips of plant tissue, only one cell thick, can
be pulled off stems or leaves (experiment 1, pages
(a) transverse section (b) longitudinal section
7–8). Plant or animal tissue can be squashed or
▲ Figure 1.2 Cutting sections of a plant stem smeared on a microscope slide (experiment 2,
page 8), or treated with chemicals to separate the
You can cut sections through plant structures quite cells before studying them.
easily just by using a razor blade. Cutting sections There is no such thing as a typical plant or
of animal structures is more difficult because they animal cell because cells vary a lot in their size and
are mostly soft and flexible. Pieces of skin, muscle shape depending on their function. However, it is
or liver, for example, first must be soaked in melted possible to make a drawing, like that in Figure 1.4,
wax. When the wax goes solid it is then possible to to show the features that are present in most cells.
cut thin sections. The wax is dissolved away after All cells have a cell membrane, which is a thin
making the section. boundary enclosing the cytoplasm. Most cells have
When sections of animal structures are examined a nucleus.
under the microscope, they too are seen to be nucleus
made up of cells, but they are much smaller than
cell membrane
plant cells and need to be magnified more. The
photomicrograph of kidney tissue in Figure 1.3 has
been magnified 700 times to show the cells clearly. cytoplasm
The sections are often treated with dyes, called
stains, in order to make the structures inside the
cells show up more clearly.

mitochondria granules
▲ Figure 1.4 A group of liver cells. These cells have all the
characteristics of animal cells

9781398310582_CH01.indd 2 16/09/21 12:39 PM

 Cell structure and organisation

Cytoplasm the cell. In general, oxygen, food and water are

Under the ordinary microscope (light microscope), allowed to enter; waste products are allowed to
cytoplasm looks like a thick liquid with particles in leave; and harmful substances are kept out. In this
it. In plant cells it may be seen to be flowing about. way the cell membrane maintains the structure and
The particles may be food reserves like oil droplets chemical reactions of the cytoplasm.
or granules (small particles) of starch. Other Nucleus (plural: nuclei)
particles are structures known as organelles, which Most cells contain one nucleus, which is usually seen
have special functions in the cytoplasm. In the as a rounded structure covered by a membrane and
cytoplasm, large numbers of chemical reactions are fixed in the cytoplasm. In drawings of cells, the
taking place, which keep the cell alive by providing nucleus may be shown darker than the cytoplasm
energy and making substances that the cell needs. because, in prepared sections, it takes up certain
The liquid part of cytoplasm is about 90% stains more strongly than the cytoplasm. The
water, with molecules of salts and sugars dissolved function of the nucleus is to control the type and
in it. Suspended in this solution there are larger quantity of enzymes produced by the cytoplasm. In
molecules of lipids (fats and oils) and proteins (see this way it regulates the chemical changes that take
Chapter 4). Lipids and proteins may be used to build place in the cell. As a result, the nucleus controls
up the cell structures, like the membranes. Some of what the cell will be, for example, a blood cell, a
the proteins are enzymes (see Chapter 5). Enzymes liver cell, a muscle cell or a nerve cell.
control the rate and type of chemical reactions that When existing cells divide, new cells are
take place in the cells. Some enzymes are attached produced. The nucleus controls cell division, as
to the membrane systems of the cell, while others shown in Figure 1.5. A cell without a nucleus
float freely in the liquid part of the cytoplasm. cannot reproduce. Inside the nucleus are thread-like
Cell membrane structures called chromosomes, which can be seen
This is a thin layer of cytoplasm around the outside most easily at the time when the cell is dividing
of the cell. It stops the cell contents from escaping (see Chapter 16 for a fuller account of chromosomes
and controls which substances can enter and leave and cell division).

(a) Animal cell about to (b) The nucleus divides first. (c) The daughter nuclei separate (d) Two cells are formed – one
divide. and the cytoplasm pinches may keep the ability to
off between the nuclei. divide, and the other may
become a specialised cell.
▲ Figure 1.5 Cell division in an animal cell

[Link] 3 15/09/21 10:52 PM

 1 Cells

Plant cells cell sap, a watery solution of sugars, salts and

A few generalised animal cells are shown in Figure sometimes pigments. This large, central vacuole
1.4, while Figure 1.6 is a drawing of two palisade pushes the cytoplasm outwards so that it forms just
cells from a plant leaf. (See ‘Leaf structure’ in a thin lining inside the cell wall. It is the outward
Chapter 6.) pressure of the vacuole on the cytoplasm and
cell wall that makes plant cells and their tissues
cell wall firm (see ‘Osmosis’ in Chapter 3). Animal cells may
sometimes have small vacuoles in their cytoplasm,
but they are usually produced to do a special job
chloroplast and are not permanent.
Chloroplasts
cytoplasm Chloroplasts are organelles that contain the green
nuclear
membrane substance chlorophyll (see Chapter 6).
vacuole nucleus

chloroplast

cell
membrane

▲ Figure 1.6 Palisade cells from a leaf vacuole

cytoplasm
Plant cells differ from animal cells in several ways
because they have extra structures: a cell wall, cell wall

chloroplasts and sap vacuoles.

Cell wall
The cell wall, which is outside the membrane,
contains cellulose and other compounds. It is non-
living and allows water and dissolved substances to
(a) longitudinal section (b) transverse section
pass through it. The cell wall is not selective like
the cell membrane. (Note: Plant cells do have a cell ▲ Figure 1.7 Structure of a palisade mesophyll cell. It is
important to remember that, although cells look flat
membrane, but it is not easy to see or draw because
in sections or in thin strips of tissue, they are three-
it is pressed against the inside of the cell wall dimensional and may seem to have different shapes
(see Figure 1.7).) depending on the direction in which the section is
Under the microscope, plant cells are quite cut. If the cell is cut across it will look like (b); if cut
distinct and easy to see because of their cell walls. longitudinally it will look like (a)
In Figure 1.1 it is only the cell walls (and in some
cases the nuclei) that can be seen. Each plant cell The shape of a cell when seen in a transverse
has its own cell wall but the boundary between two section may be quite different from when the same
cells side by side does not usually show up clearly. cell is seen in a longitudinal section, and Figure
So, cells next to each other appear to be sharing the 1.7 shows why this is so. Figures 7.8(b) and 7.8(c)
same cell wall. on page 105 show the appearance of cells in a stem
vein as seen in transverse and longitudinal sections.
Vacuole
Most mature plant cells have a large, fluid-filled
space called a vacuole. The vacuole contains

[Link] 4 15/09/21 10:52 PM

 Cell structure and organisation

▼ Table 1.1 Summary: the parts of a cell

Name of part Description Where found Function

cytoplasm jelly-like with particles and enclosed by the cell contains the cell organelles, e.g.
organelles in membrane mitochondria and nucleus
site of chemical reactions
cell membrane a partially permeable layer that around the cytoplasm prevents cell contents from
Animal and plant cells

forms a boundary around the escaping

cytoplasm
controls what substances enter
and leave the cell
nucleus a circular or oval structure inside the cytoplasm controls cell division
containing DNA in the form of
controls cell development
chromosomes
controls cell activities
mitochondria circular, oval or slipper-shaped inside the cytoplasm responsible for aerobic respiration
organelles
ribosomes small, circular structures attached inside the cytoplasm protein synthesis
to membranes or lying free
cell wall a tough, non-living layer made around the outside of prevents plant cells from bursting
of cellulose surrounding the cell plant cells
Plant cells only

allows water and salts to pass

membrane
through (freely permeable)
vacuole a fluid-filled space surrounded by a inside the cytoplasm of contains salts and sugars
membrane plant cells
helps to keep plant cells firm
chloroplast an organelle containing chlorophyll inside the cytoplasm of traps light energy for
some plant cells photosynthesis

When studied at much higher magnifications with electron micrograph of a liver cell. Organelles
the electron microscope, the cytoplasm of animal in the cytoplasm can be seen clearly. They have
and plant cells no longer looks like a structureless recognisable shapes and features.
jelly. It appears to be organised into a complicated Figure 1.8(c) is an electron micrograph of a plant
system of membranes and vacuoles. Ribosomes are cell. As well as the organelles already named and
one of the organelles present. They may be held described, other organelles are also present, like
on a membrane but can also be found free in the chloroplasts and a cell wall.
cytoplasm. They build up the cell’s proteins (see
Chapter 4). mitochondrion
cell
Mitochondria are tiny organelles, which may nuclear pore membrane
appear slipper-shaped, circular or oval when
viewed in sections. In three dimensions, they nucleus
may be spherical, rod-like or extended. They have
an outer membrane and an inner membrane with
many inward-pointing folds. Mitochondria are most
cytoplasm
frequent in regions of rapid chemical activity.
They are responsible for releasing energy from
food substances through the process of aerobic
respiration (see Chapter 10). ribosomes on
Figure 1.8(a) is a diagram of an animal cell membranes
(a) diagram of a liver cell (×10 000)
magnified 10 000 times. Figure 1.8(b) is an
▲ Figure 1.8 Cells at high magnification

[Link] 5 15/09/21 10:52 PM

 1 Cells

cell ribosomes found in plant and animal cells but have

membrane cytoplasm
the same function of protein synthesis.

ribosomes chromosome
on membranes cell wall (single DNA
strand coiled up)

nucleus
nuclear pore
ribosome glycogen
mitochondrion granule

plasmid

(b) electron micrograph of two liver cells (×10 000)

cytoplasm

0.001mm

nucleus ▲ Figure 1.9 Generalised diagram of a bacterium

cell wall
ribosomes
cell membrane
cytoplasm
mitochondrion

chloroplast
(c) electron micrograph of a plant cell (×6 000)
▲ Figure 1.8 Cells at high magnification (continued)

Test yourself
▲ Figure 1.10 Longitudinal section through a bacterium
1 a What structures are usually present in both (×27 000). The light areas are coiled DNA strands. There
animal and plant cells? are three of them because the bacterium is about to
b What structures are present in plant cells but divide twice (see Figure 1.11)
not in animal cells?
2 What cell structure is mainly responsible for
controlling the entry and exit of substances into or
out of the cell?
3 How does a cell membrane differ from a cell wall? (a) bacterial cell (b) chromosome replicates

Bacterial cell structure

Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are very small (c) cell divides (d) each cell divides again
organisms that are single cells not often more than
▲ Figure 1.11 Bacterium reproducing. This is asexual
0.01 mm in length. They can be seen only at high
reproduction by cell division (see ‘Asexual reproduction’
magnification under a microscope. and ‘Mitosis’ in Chapter 16)
They have a cell wall made of a complicated
mixture of proteins, sugars and lipids. (You Each bacterial cell contains a single chromosome
will remember that plant cell walls are made of made of a circular strand of DNA (see Chapter 17). The
cellulose.) Inside the cell wall is the cytoplasm, chromosome is not surrounded by a nuclear membrane
which may contain granules (small particles) but is coiled up to fill a small part of the cell, as
of glycogen, lipid and other food reserves (see shown in Figure 1.10. There are also smaller circular
Figure 1.9). Large numbers of ribosomes float structures called plasmids, which are also made of
freely in the cytoplasm. They are smaller than the DNA. Plasmids are used by scientists in the process of
6

[Link] 6 15/09/21 10:53 PM

 Cell structure and organisation

genetic modification because it is relatively easy to The functions of the structures in a bacterium are
insert genetic material into them (see Chapter 18). shown in Table 1.2.
Bacteria can be different shapes: they may be
spherical, rod-shaped or spiral.
▼ Table 1.2 Summary: the parts of a bacterial cell

Name of part Description Where found Function

cytoplasm jelly-like, contains particles and surrounded by the contains cell structures, e.g. ribosomes, circular
organelles cell membrane DNA, plasmids
cell a partially permeable layer that around the prevents cell contents from escaping
membrane surrounds the cytoplasm cytoplasm controls what substances enter and leave the cell
circular DNA a single circular chromosome inside the cytoplasm controls cell division
controls cell development
controls cell activities
plasmids small, circular pieces of DNA inside the cytoplasm contain genes that carry genetic information to
help the process of the survival and reproduction
of the bacterium
ribosomes small, circular structures inside the cytoplasm protein synthesis
cell wall a tough, non-living layer around the outside prevents the cell from bursting, allows water and
(not made of cellulose) that of the bacterial cell salts to pass through (freely permeable)
surrounds the cell membrane

Practical work
Safety
l Eye protection must be worn. l Place the epidermal tissue on a glass
l Take care when using a scalpel, follow your microscope slide.
teacher’s guidance. l Using a scalpel, cut out a 1 cm square of tissue
l Take care using the iodine solution and (throw away the rest) and arrange it in the
methylene blue stains – they will stain skin centre of the slide.
and clothing. l Add two to three drops of iodine solution.
(This stains any starch in the cells and makes
Looking at cells
different parts of the cells distinct.)
1 Plant cells – preparing a slide of onion l Using forceps, a mounted needle or a wooden
epidermis cells splint, support a cover-slip with one edge
The onion contains a very useful source of resting near to the onion tissue, at an angle of
epidermal plant tissue which is one cell thick. about 45° (Figure 1.12(b)).
This makes it quite easy to set up as a temporary l Gently lower the cover-slip over the onion
slide. The onion is made up of fleshy leaves. On tissue. Try to avoid trapping any air bubbles.
the incurve of each leaf there is an epidermal (Air bubbles reflect light when viewing under
layer which can be peeled off (Figure 1.12(a)). the light microscope, hiding the features you
l Using forceps, peel a piece of epidermal tissue are trying to see.)
from the incurve of an onion bulb leaf.

[Link] 7 15/09/21 10:53 PM

 1 Cells

l Leave the slide for about 5 minutes. This

allows the iodine solution stain to react with the
specimen. The iodine solution stains the cell
nuclei pale yellow and the starch grains blue.
l Place the slide on to the microscope stage,
choose the lowest power objective lens
and focus on the specimen. Increase the
magnification using the other objective lenses.
Under high power, the cells should look like
those shown in Figure 1.13.

An alternative tissue is rhubarb epidermis

(Figure 1.12(c)). You can strip this off from the
surface of a stalk and treat it in the same way as ▲ Figure 1.13 Onion epidermis cells
the onion tissue. If you use red epidermis from 2 Plant cells – preparing cells with
rhubarb stalk, you will see the red cell sap in the chloroplasts
vacuoles.
l Using forceps, remove a leaf from a
moss plant.
l Place the leaf in the centre of a microscope
slide and add one or two drops of water.
l Place a cover-slip over the leaf.
l Examine the leaf cells with the high power
objective of a microscope. The cells should
look like those shown in Figure 1.14.
(a) peel the epidermis from the inside of an onion bulb leaf

(b) place the epidermis on to the slide, adding 2–3 drops of

iodine solution and carefully lower a cover-slip on to it
▲ Figure 1.14 Cells in a moss leaf (×500). The vacuole
occupies most of the space in each cell. The
chloroplasts are limited to the layer of cytoplasm lining
the cell wall

3 Animal cells – preparing human

cheek cells
Human cheek cells are constantly being wiped
off the inside of the mouth when the tongue and
food rub against them, so they can be collected
(c) peel a strip of red epidermis from a piece of rhubarb skin
easily for use in a temporary slide.
▲ Figure 1.12 Looking at plant cells

[Link] 8 15/09/21 10:53 PM

 Cell structure and organisation

Note: Check local guidance to whether l Place the slide on to the microscope stage,
observing cheek cells is permitted. Use choose the lowest power objective lens
appropriate precautions to treat contaminated and focus on the specimen. Increase the
items with disinfectant or by autoclaving. magnification using the other objective lenses.
Under high power, the cells should look like
l Rinse your mouth with water. This will remove
those shown in Figure 1.15, but less magnified.
any fragments of food.
l When you have completed the ‘Test yourself’
l Take a cotton bud from a freshly opened pack.
section on the following page, place your used
Rub the cotton bud lightly on the inside of your
slide in laboratory disinfectant before washing.
cheek and gums to collect some cheek cells
in saliva. 4 Animal cell – preparing human skin cells
l Rub the cotton bud on to the centre of a clean
You can try another method of obtaining cells if
microscope slide, leaving a sample of saliva.
the previous method is not suitable.
Repeat if the sample is too small. Then drop
the cotton bud into a container of absolute l Wash your wrist well, then press some
alcohol or disinfectant. transparent sticky tape on to the cleaned area
l Add two to three drops of methylene blue dye. of skin.
(This stains parts of the cheek cells to make l Remove the tape and stick it to a
nuclei more visible.) microscope slide.
l Using forceps, a mounted needle or wooden
splint, support a cover-slip with one edge l Place the slide on the microscope stage.
resting near to the cheek cell sample, at an l Look for cells. You should be able to see nuclei
angle of about 45°. Gently lower the cover- in them.
slip over the tissue. Try to avoid trapping any
air bubbles. (Air bubbles reflect light when l If you add a few drops of methylene blue
viewing under the light microscope, hiding solution before putting the tape on the slide,
the features you are trying to see.) the cells take up the stain and it makes the
l Leave the slide for a few minutes. This allows nuclei more distinct.
the methylene blue stain to react with
Practical work questions
the specimen.
1 In experiment 1, what cell structures could
you identify in the onion cells you observed?
2 a For experiment 3, explain why the
chloroplasts appear to be pressed against
the cell wall of the cell.
b Why are the chloroplasts green?
3 For experiment 3, explain why it is necessary to
use a stain when preparing specimens of cells.
4 In experiments 3 and 4, the skin cells are
animal epidermal cells. Plants also have
epidermal cells. Compare a human skin
epidermal cell with an upper epidermal cell of
a leaf (see Figure 6.22 on page 95).
What cell structures do leaf epidermal
▲ Figure 1.15 Cells from the lining epithelium of the cells have which are not present in human
cheek (×1 500)
epidermal cells?

[Link] 9 15/09/21 10:53 PM

 1 Cells

cilia
Test yourself
4 How is a bacterial cell different from a plant cell?
5 Bacteria and plant cells both have a cell wall. In
what way are the cell walls different?
nucleus
6 Make a large drawing of one cell and label
the following parts: cell wall, cell membrane,
cytoplasm, nucleus.
7 Make a note of the magnification of the eyepiece
and objective lenses of your microscope.
8 Copy and complete the table by
(a) ciliated cells
a writing the magnification of the eyepiece lens These cells form the lining of the nose and windpipe, and the tiny
b writing the magnification of the objective lens cytoplasmic ‘hairs’, called cilia, are in a continual flicking movement,
of your microscope which you used to make which creates a stream of fluid (mucus) that carries dust and bacteria
your drawing through the bronchi and trachea, away from the lungs.
c calculating total magnification provided by the
microscope. root hair
(very thin cell wall)
magnification of the eyepiece lens
magnification of the objective lens
total magnification provided by the
microscope

9 Estimate how much bigger your drawing is than

the image you see through the microscope. Use
these figures to calculate the total magnification of
your drawing.

(b) root hair cell

These cells absorb water and mineral salts from the soil. The hair-like
Specialisation of cells projection on each cell penetrates between the soil particles and offers
a large absorbing surface. The cell membrane is able to control which
When cells have finished dividing and growing, most dissolved substances enter the cell.
become specialised and have specific functions.
cell wall
When cells are specialised:
» they do one special job
» they develop a distinct shape chloroplast
» special kinds of chemical changes take place in
their cytoplasm.
cytoplasm
The changes in shape and the chemical reactions nuclear
membrane
enable the cell to carry out its special function. Red
blood cells and root hair cells are just two examples vacuole nucleus
of specialised cells. Figure 1.16 shows a variety of
specialised cells.
The specialisation of cells to carry out special
functions in an organism is sometimes called
‘division of labour’ within the organism. Similarly,
(c) palisade mesophyll cells
the special functions of mitochondria, ribosomes These are found underneath the upper epidermis of plant leaves.
and other cell organelles may be called division of They are columnar (quite long) and packed with chloroplasts to trap
labour within the cell. light energy. Their function is to make food for the plant by photosynthesis
using carbon dioxide, water and light energy.
▲ Figure 1.16 Specialised cells (not to scale)

10

[Link] 10 15/09/21 10:53 PM

 Cell structure and organisation

acrosome
mid-piece
nucleus

tail

nerve fibre

(f) sperm cell

Sperm cells are male sex cells. The front of the cell is oval shaped
and contains a nucleus which carries genetic information. There is a
tip, called an acrosome, which secretes enzymes to digest the cells
around an egg and the egg membrane. Behind this is a mid-piece
which is packed with mitochondria to provide energy for movement.
The tail moves with a whip-like action, enabling the sperm to swim.
Their function is reproduction, achieved by fertilising an egg cell.

(d) nerve cells

These cells are specialised for conducting
electrical impulses along the fibre, to and
from the brain and spinal cord. The fibres
are often very long and connect distant jelly coat
parts of the body to the CNS, e.g. the foot nucleus
cell membrane
and the spinal column. Chemical reactions
cause the impulses to travel along the fibre.
cytoplasm
containing yolk
cell body follicle cells
droplets
nucleus
(g) egg cell
Egg cells are larger than sperm cells and are spherical. They have a
large amount of cytoplasm, containing yolk droplets made up of
protein and fat. The nucleus carries genetic information. The function
of the egg cell is reproduction.

cytoplasm containing haemoglobin ▲ Figure 1.16 Specialised cells (not to scale) (continued)

Test yourself
10 In what way does the red blood cell shown in
(e) red blood cells Figure 1.16(e) differ from most other animal cells?
These cells are distinctive because they have no nucleus 11 Why does the cell shown in Figure 1.7(b) on page 4
when mature. They are tiny disc-like cells that contain appear to have no nucleus?
a red pigment called haemoglobin. This readily combines
with oxygen and their function is the transportation
of oxygen around the body.

11

[Link] 11 15/09/21 10:53 PM

 (a) cells forming an epithelium
A thin layer of tissue, e.g. the lining of the mouth cavity. Different
1 Cells types of epithelium form the internal lining of the windpipe, air
(a) passages,
cells forming ancanal,
food epithelium
etc., and protect these organs from physical
A
or thin layer damage.
chemical of tissue, e.g. the lining of the mouth cavity. Different

Tissues, organs, organ

types of epithelium form the internal lining of the windpipe, air
(a) cells forming
passages, ancanal,
food epithelium
etc., and protect these organs from physical
A
or thin layer damage.
chemical of tissue, e.g. the lining of the mouth cavity. Different

systems and the organism types of epithelium form the internal lining of the windpipe, air
passages, food canal, etc., and protect these organs from physical
or chemical damage.

FOCUS POINTS
★ Definitions of tissues, organs, organ systems
and organism

Some microscopic organisms are made of one cell

only (see ‘Features of organisms’ in Chapter 2). These (b) cells forming a small tube
E.g. a kidney tubule (see page 210). Tubules such as this carry liquids
can carry out all the processes needed to keep them from one part of an organ to another.
alive. The cells of the larger plants and animals (b) cells forming a small tube
cannot survive on their own. A muscle cell could not E.g. a kidney tubule (see page 210). Tubules such as this carry liquids
from one part of an organ to another.
obtain its own food and oxygen. Other specialised (b) cells forming a small tube
E.g. a kidney tubule (see page 210). Tubules such as this carry liquids
cells provide the food and oxygen needed for the from one part of an organ to another.
muscle cell to live. Unless these cells are grouped
together in large numbers and made to work
together, they cannot stay alive.

Tissues (c) one kind of muscle cell

A tissue, like bone, nerve or muscle in animals, and Forms a sheet of muscle tissue. Blood vessels, nerve fibres and
epidermis, xylem or pith in plants, is made up of connective tissues will also be present. Contractions of this kind of
(c) one kind of muscle
muscle help to movecell
food along the food canal or close down
large numbers of cells. These are often just a single Forms a sheet
small blood of muscle tissue. Blood vessels, nerve fibres and
vessels.
type. The cells of each type have a similar structure connective tissues will also be present. Contractions of this kind of
(c) one kind of muscle
muscle help to movecell
food along the food canal or close down
and function so that the tissue itself has a special Forms a sheet of muscle tissue. Blood vessels, nerve fibres and
small blood vessels.
function. For example, muscles contract to cause connective tissues will also be present. Contractions of this kind of
muscle help to move food along the food canal or close down
movement, xylem carries water in plants. Figure 1.17 small blood vessels.
shows how some cells are arranged to form simple
tissues. Some forms of tissues are epithelium,
tubes, sheets and glands.
Key definitions
A tissue is a group of cells with similar structures
working together to perform a shared function. (d) cells forming part of a gland
The cells make chemicals, which are released into the central space
and carried away by a tubule such as that shown in (b). Hundreds of
(d) cells forming
cell groups part
like thisofwould
a gland
form a gland like the salivary gland.
The cells make chemicals, which are released into the central space
and carried away by a tubule such as that shown in (b). Hundreds of
(d) cells forming
cell groups part
like thisofwould
a gland
form a gland like the salivary gland.
The cells make chemicals, which are released into the central space
and carried away by a tubule such as that shown in (b). Hundreds of
cell groups like this would form a gland like the salivary gland.
▲ Figure 1.17 How cells form tissues

(a) cells forming an epithelium

A thin layer of tissue, e.g. the lining of the mouth cavity. Different
types of epithelium form the internal lining of the windpipe, air
passages, food canal, etc., and protect these organs from physical
or chemical damage.

12
 brain

Tissues, organs, organ systems and the organism

spinal
cord nerve
Organs brain

Organs are made of several tissues grouped together

to make a structure with a special job. For example,
the stomach is an organ that contains tissues made spinal
from epithelial cells, gland cells and muscle cells. cord nerve
These cells are supplied with food and oxygen
brought by blood vessels. The stomach also has a
nerve supply. The heart, lungs, intestines, brain
and eyes are further examples of organs in animals.
In flowering plants, the root, stem and leaves are
the organs. Some of the tissues of the leaf are
epidermis, palisade tissue, spongy tissue, xylem and
phloem (see Chapter 6).

Key definitions (a) nervous system

An organ is a structure made up of a group of tissues
working together to perform a specific function.

Test yourself (a) nervous system

12 a Study Figure 7.11 on page 106 and identify
examples of tissues and an organ.
b Study Figure 8.14 on page 128 and identify
examples of tissues and an organ.

artery

Organ systems heart

An organ system usually describes a group of organs
with closely related functions. For example, the vein
heart and blood vessels make up the circulatory
artery
system; the brain, spinal cord and nerves make up
the nervous system (Figure 1.18). In a flowering heart
plant, the stem, leaves and buds make up a system
called the shoot (Figure 7.5 on page 103). vein

Key definitions
An organ system is a group of organs with related
functions working together to perform a body function.

(b) circulatory system

▲ Figure 1.18 Two examples of systems in the human body

(b) circulatory system

13

[Link] 13 15/09/21 10:53 PM

1 Cells

Organisms
An example in the human body of how cells,
Key definitions tissues and organs are related is shown in
An organism is an individual animal or plant, formed by Figure 1.19.
all the organs and systems working together to produce
an independent living thing.

oesophagus
stomach lining

muscle layer
stomach
(b) an organ – the stomach,
from the digestive system
(cut open to show the
small large lining and the muscle layer) gland
intestine intestine
circular
muscle

longitudinal
muscle

(c) tissue – a small piece

of stomach wall with
(a) a system – the digestive system (d) cells – some muscle cells muscle tissue and
of the human organism from the muscle tissue gland tissue
▲ Figure 1.19 An example of how cells, tissue and organs are related

Size of specimens a nosepiece which can be rotated (turned round).

Light, from a mirror or a bulb, is projected through
FOCUS POINTS the specimen placed on a microscope slide. The
light passes through the objective and eyepiece
★ How do you calculate the magnification and
lenses, magnifying the image so you can see detail
size of biological specimens using millimetres
as units?
of the specimen. You can use coarse and fine focus
★ How do you convert measurements between knobs to make the image clearer. You need to
millimetres and micrometres? place specimens on microscope slides, which may
be temporary or permanent preparations. You can
prepare temporary slides quickly, but the specimens
The light microscope dry out quite rapidly, so they do not store well.
You cannot see most cells with the naked eye. A You carefully lay a cover-slip (a thin piece of glass)
hand lens has a magnification of up to ×20, but this over the specimen. This helps to keep it in place,
is not enough to see the detail in cells. The light slows down dehydration and protects the objective
microscope (Figure 1.20) has two convex lenses, lens from moisture or stains. To make a permanent
with magnifications of up to ×1 500, although most preparation you usually need to dehydrate the
found in school laboratories only magnify to ×400. specimen and fix it in a special resin, for example,
The eyepiece lens is usually ×10 and there is a choice Canada Balsam. These types of slides store well for a
of objective lenses (usually ×4, ×10 and ×40), set in long time.

14
 Size of specimens

Practical work
Safety l Place a slide on the stage and use the clips to
l Do not use direct sunlight as a light source. secure it. Line up the specimen so that it lying
directly over the hole in the centre of the stage.
Using a microscope l Look down the eyepiece and adjust the light
l If the microscope has its own light source, plug source so that maximum amount of light is
the microscope in and switch it on. passing through the microscope. There may
l Arrange the microscope so that the body is be a diaphragm (a rotating disc) under the
nearest to you. stage that also needs adjusting.
l If the microscope has a mirror, switch on a l Gently turn the focusing knob until the
bench lamp and adjust the mirror to reflect the specimen becomes focused.
light into the microscope. l To increase the magnification, turn the
l Turn the nosepiece so that the lowest power nosepiece to select the next objective lens
objective lens (e.g. ×4) is in line with the (e.g. ×10) and adjust the focus.
barrel. l Repeat the process if the highest magnification
(e.g. ×40) is required.

Calculating magnification Key definitions

A lens is usually marked with its magnifying power. Magnification is the observed size of an image divided by
This tells you how much larger the image will be the actual size of the specimen.
compared to the specimen’s actual size. So, if the
lens is marked ×10, you know that the image will
When you draw the image, your drawing is
be ten times greater than the specimen’s real size.
usually much larger than the image, so the total
Since a light microscope has two lenses, you need to
magnification of the specimen is even bigger.
know the magnification of both lenses. For example,
if the specimen is viewed using a ×10 eyepiece lens image size
and ×40 objective lens, the total magnification will Magnification =
actual size of the specimen
be 10 × 40 = 400.
eyepiece lens When doing this type of calculation, you need
to make sure that the units of both sizes are the
barrel
same. If they are different, convert one to make
them the same. For example, if the actual size is in
millimetres and the image size is in centimetres,
convert the centimetres to millimetres. (There are
10 millimetres in a centimetre.)
body objective lens
In questions, you may be asked to calculate
clip the actual size of a specimen, given a drawing or
stage photomicrograph and a magnification.
focusing knob
image size
Actual size of the specimen =
light source magnification

stand When you give the answer, make sure you quote
the units (which will be the same as those used for
measuring the observed size).
▲ Figure 1.20 A light microscope

15

9781398310582_CH01.indd 15 16/09/21 12:40 PM

 1 Cells

Test yourself
13 a In order to see cells clearly in a section of plant 14 In Figure 1.3, the cell membranes are not always
tissue, which magnification would you have clear. Why is it still possible to decide roughly how
to use? many cells there are in each tubule section?
A ×5 C ×100
B ×10 D ×1 000
b What is the approximate width (in millimetres) of
one of the largest cells in Figure 1.3?

Worked example
If you are asked to calculate the magnification of a drawing, Tasks
e.g. of a cell, you will be told the actual size of the cell and the 1 The image of a root hair cell is 5.0 cm long. Its actual size
diameter of the cell in the drawing. is 1.5 mm. Calculate the magnification of the image.
2 One of the moss leaf cells in the photomicrograph in
Start by making sure that both figures (the observed size and
Figure 1.14 is 2.5 cm wide.
actual size) are the same units. For example, if the drawing
The magnification of the image is ×500. Calculate the
of a cell is 6 cm wide (the observed size) and its actual size is
actual size of the cell.
0.1 mm you need to change the cm to mm.
3 The diameter of a drawing of a red blood cell is 14 mm.
There are 10 mm in 1 cm, so 6 × 10 = 60 mm. The actual size of the cell is 7 µm. Calculate the
magnification of the image.
Now use these figures in the equation:
imagesize
Magnification =
actual size of the specimen

60
Magnification = = ×600
0.1

Converting measurements (micron or µm), is used. Figure 1.21 shows a

comparison of the sizes of a range of objects.
Organelles in cells are too small to be measured in
millimetres. A smaller unit, called the micrometre
electron microscope optical microscope unaided eye

water sugar antibody virus bacterium Amoeba a full stop an orange

molecule molecule

10 × 10−4 10 × 10−3 10 × 10−2 10 × 10−1 1.0 10 × 101 10 × 102 10 × 103 10 × 104 10 × 105

size (micrometres)

▲ Figure 1.21 Comparing the sizes of a range of objects

16

[Link] 16 15/09/21 10:53 PM

 Size of specimens

There are: and the observed size is in millimetres, convert the

» 1 000 000 micrometres in a metre millimetres to micrometres.
» 10 000 micrometres in a centimetre
» 1 000 micrometres in a millimetre. Test yourself
15 The tail of a sperm cell is 0.05 mm long. What is
Remember to make sure that the units of both sizes its length in micrometres?
used in a calculation involving magnification are 16 An amoeba is 750 µm long. Calculate its length
the same. So, if the actual size is in micrometres in centimetres.

Revision checklist
After studying Chapter 1 you should know and ✔ The nucleus directs the chemical reactions in the
understand the following: cell and also controls cell division.
✔ The definitions of cell, tissue, organ, system ✔ Plant cells have a cellulose cell wall and a large
and organism. central vacuole.
✔ Nearly all plants and animals are made up of ✔ Cells are often specialised in their shape and
microscopic cells. activity to carry out special jobs.
✔ All cells contain cytoplasm surrounded by a ✔ Large numbers of similar cells packed together
cell membrane. form a tissue.
✔ Most cells have a nucleus. ✔ Different tissues arranged together form organs.
✔ Many chemical reactions take place in the ✔ A group of related organs makes up an organ system.
cytoplasm to keep the cell alive. ✔ The magnification of a specimen can be calculated
✔ Cytoplasm contains organelles, which if the actual size and the size of the image
include mitochondria (respiration), are known.
chloroplasts (photosynthesis) and ribosomes
image size
(protein synthesis). Magnification =
actual size of the specimen

17

[Link] 17 15/09/21 10:53 PM

 1 Cells

Exam-style questions
1 The terms tissue, organ and organ systems are 5 The diagram shows a human sperm cell.
used when describing the organisation inside A
an organism. B
Complete the table by C
a defining what each term means [3] mid-piece

b giving one example in a plant and one in

an animal for each structure. [6]
name of example example in
structure definition in a plant an animal
tissue
organ
a State the names of parts A, B and C. [3]
organ system
b The mid-piece of the sperm cell provides
2 a Complete the table to compare the parts energy for the cell. Suggest what type of
present in a liver cell with those in a palisade organelle it contains. [1]
cell. One component has been done for you.[5] c State the function of the sperm cell. [1]
6 The diagram shows four specialised cells.
present in present in
part of cell palisade cell liver cell
nucleus  
cell wall B

chloroplast
cytoplasm A
membrane
(sap) vacuole

b Choose three of the parts and state D

C
their functions.[3]
3 The diagram shows a drawing of a bacterium. a Complete the table, using the letters
0.001 mm of the cells to identify them as plant or
animal cells. [1]
plant animal
letters

b State two features found in all plant cells

but not in animal cells. [2]
a Label four parts of the cell. [4] c State one function of each of cells
b Calculate the magnification A, B, C and D. [4]
of the drawing. [2] 7 A student used a microscope to study a human
4 a Draw a labelled diagram of a named cheek cell. She drew the cell. The drawing was
specialised plant cell. [5] 30 mm wide. The actual diameter of the cell was
b Describe the function of the cell. [1] 60 µm.
a Calculate the magnification of the drawing.[3]
b The eyepiece of the microscope was ×10
and its objective lens was ×40. Calculate
the total magnification of the microscope. [1]

18

[Link] 18 15/09/21 10:53 PM