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CIVIL ENGINEERING DISCIPLINES

CHAPTER 8: STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

Objectives:
 Define structural engineering;
 Functions of structural engineering;
 Structural Components and Types of Structures;
 Other significant information in structural engineering.
Topic Outline:
i. What is Structural Engineering?
ii. Difference between a Structural Engineer and a Civil Engineer
iii. Functions of Structural Engineering
iv. Structures
v. Structural Components
vi. Types of Structures
vii. Loads
viii. Building Materials
ix. Stresses

Introduction:
Structural Engineering
A structural engineer analyzes and designs the gravity support and lateral force resistance of buildings,
bridges, and other structures.
*** Structural engineers primary role is to analyse which means the process of determining forces in each
element in a structure (such as a beam) when the configuration of elements is already defined while
design is the process of configuring elements to resist forces whose values are practically and originally
known. Analysis and Design are complementary procedures in the overall process of designing new
structures.
Structures are subject to vertical, or "Gravity" Loads and horizontal, or "Lateral" Loads. Gravity loads
include "dead", or permanent, load, which is the weight of the structure, including its walls, floors,
finishes, and mechanical systems, and "live", or temporary load, which is the weight of a structure's
contents and occupants, including the weight of snow. Lateral loads include those generated by the wind,
earthquakes, or explosions. Structural elements must be designed so that, as a system, the structure can
resist all loads that will act upon it.
Structures are any system that resists vertical or horizontal loads. Structures include large items such as
skyscrapers, bridges, and dams, as well as small items such as bookshelves, chairs, and windows.

What is Structural Engineering?

 Structural Engineering is a specialty within the field of civil engineering in which they create
drawings and specifications or structural design, analyze structural elements, perform calculations,
review the work of other engineers, write reports and evaluations, and observe construction sites.
*** Note: Structural engineering is a branch or a sub discipline of civil engineering in which they
specialize on focusing more on structural stability and integrity rather than on the design of the
building as they have to consider lots of environmental elements together with the application of laws
of physics like force and many more in order to use for calculations and analysis of the structural
components.
 Structural engineering involves the application of the laws of physics, mathematics and empirical
knowledge to safely and handedly design the “bones” or and load bearing elements of manmade
structures.
 Structural design is a highly specialized area of civil engineering. It can be described as a set of
methods or tools that are used to determine safe and economical specifications for a structure, and to
ensure that a planned structure will be sufficiently strong to carry its intended load.
*** Structural engineers conduct a structural analysis to determine what internal and external forces
could affect the structure, then design a structure with the appropriate materials and reinforcements to
satisfy the requirements.
 Structural engineering mainly gives emphasis on the framework of structures, and on designing those
structures to withstand the stresses and pressures of their environment and remain safe, stable and
secure throughout their use.
*** In other words, structural engineers make sure that buildings don't fall down and bridges don't
collapse, and they are in good shape and strength in case of any types of loads or stresses from the
environment.
Structural engineers are professionals who are responsible for ensuring that buildings and
infrastructures are strong and durable enough to withstand damages that can be caused by both
natural (earthquakes, flooding, hurricanes) and man-made disasters (explosion, wear and tear).
Structural engineers are essentially focused on the materials used for constructing structures and they help
select and design the appropriate construction material for a given class or type of structure. Some of the
most commonly used structural materials, which will be selected based on the needs of the project,
include timber, concrete,
steel, and masonry.
Difference between a Structural Engineer and a Civil Engineer
 Civil engineers design and maintain structures like public and private buildings, water systems,
airports, roads, and other infrastructures. Civil engineers generally get involve themselves in a
variety of locations and conditions as part of their jobs. It is common for them to work between
an office and working at construction sites so that they can monitor functions or solve problems
onsite.
 Structural engineers give emphasis in analyzing, designing, building and also maintaining the
structures and materials that counteract with existing loads. Structural engineers are typically
mostly significant in the approval of materials for a design or other structural related concerns.
*** The structural engineer is the lead designer on these structures, and often the sole designer. In the
design of structures such as these, structural safety is of paramount importance (in the UK, designs for
dams, nuclear power stations and bridges must be signed off by a chartered engineer).
*** Civil engineering structures are often subjected to very extreme forces, such as large variations in
temperature, dynamic loads such as waves or traffic, or high pressures from water or compressed gases.
They are also often constructed in corrosive environments, such as at sea, in industrial facilities, or below
ground.
*** Civil engineers work closely with contractors, clients, and employees to ensure cohesiveness and
efficiency.
*** civil engineering focuses on design elements while structural engineering is more concern on
inspecting the materials used for construction. The structural engineers are the one who are supposed to
ensure that the materials used for construction can support the design of the structure.
*** Civil engineers can be involved in different types of projects and aspects of projects than structural
engineers.
*** Structural engineers ensure that bridges don't collapse and are structurally sound, while civil
engineers ensure that things like annual flooding and potential traffic bottlenecks are taken into
consideration during transportation planning.

Functions of Structural Engineering

Structural Engineering is a specialization or sub-discipline of Civil Engineering. Structural Engineers
design, plan, and oversee the construction of structures such as buildings and bridges ensuring that they
are safe and can withstand elements that they are exposed to.
 Site investigations and analysis
 Technical and feasibility studies
 Design layout and materials proposals
 Preparation of construction documents and cost estimates
 Construction site management
 Regulatory compliance management
 Risk management
 Area inspections and site appraisals
 Construction materials evaluations
 Building code implementation
 Building inspections
 Demolition management
 Damage assessments
Listed below are a few of the projects structural engineers may work on:
 Culverts
 Parking garage
 Retaining walls
 Building design
 Building remodel or renovation
 Houses, multi-family homes, condo & townhomes, barns, sheds, and commercial buildings.
 Commercial Projects
 Home Purchase Transactions
 Construction Defect
 Storm Damage
 Additional Structural Needs
 Bridge construction
 City Infrastructure
 Community development impact analysis
Duties and Tasks:
 Prepare reports, designs, or drawings
 Calculate pressures, loads, stresses, and strains of each component of the structure
 Selecting appropriate construction materials considering strength and integrity
 Examine structural risks and improve structural integrity and providing technical advice
 Monitoring and inspecting process of work by contractors and any other workers involved
 Inspecting conditions and foundation of properties
Technical Skills
 Computer aided design (CAD) software
  Three-dimensional conceptual skills
 Blueprint creation or Structural design skills
 Diagrammatic skills
 Materials requirements, planning logistics, and supply chain software
 Skillful in mathematics and physics
Other Skills:
 Material resources management – ensuring the appropriate use of materials, equipment, and
facilities to complete projects
 Critical thinking – using logic to identify strengths and weaknesses of plans, explore alternative
solutions, and come up with different approaches to problems
 Organizational, project management, planning skills, commercial awareness, and good attention
to detail
 Good communications skills – written and verbal
 Project and budget management skills.
Structures
A structure is a combination and aggregation of components which are compacted firmly in such ways
that structures can resist and endure the action of loads and stresses imperishably. Structures are
everywhere in the constructive environment including buildings, bridges, tunnels, storage tanks, roads,
factories, and transmission lines.
Within the context of the built environment , the term ‘structure’ refers to anything that is constructed or
built from different interrelated parts with a fixed location on the ground.
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*** Structural engineering is the discipline which is concerned with identifying the loads that a structure
may experience over its expected life, determining a suitable arrangement of structural members,
selecting the material and dimensions of the members, defining the assembly process, and lastly
monitoring the structure as it is being assembled and possibly also over its life.
These loads may be due to gravity, wind, ground shaking, impact, temperature, or other environmental
sources.
Structural Components
The components are the basic building blocks of a structure. We refer to them as structural elements.
Elements are classified into two categories according to their geometry [1]:
Structural elements are the primary members that form the skeleton of any structure. They are inter-
connected in different ways to materialize a structural design.
1. One dimensional elements- All line elements, whether straight or curved, are called 1D element
in which they have translational and rotational displacement functions [13]. Examples of 1D
element are truss element and beam element [14]. 2D elements are typically surface elements
with triangle or quadrilateral as their basic shapes [13].
2. Two-dimensional elements - which typically consist of thin structured slabs of metals or plate-
like and dielectrics on grounds, allow enclosure along two dimensions in the plane horizontal to
the line of spread. Examples like membranes, plates, slab, shells, vaults. They are also flat or
level surface
2D elements are three- or four-node elements that must be formulated in the YZ plane. They are
used to model and analyze objects such as bearings or seals, or structures such as dams.
3. Three dimensional elements – These elements are defined as a solid figure or an object or shape
that has three dimensions—length, width, and height or the thickness of the materials. Examples
are cylindrical beams in buildings, sphere, cone, prism, and any other solid masses
Types of Structures
A structure is classified according to its function and the type of elements used to
make up the structure. Typical structures and their corresponding functions are
listed
 Building Provide shelter above ground
 Bridge Provide means of traversing above ground over a site
 Tunnel Provide means of traversing underground through a site
 Tower Support transmission lines and broadcasting devices
 Retaining walls Retain earth or other material
 Containments Provide means of storage of materials, also enclose dangerous devices such as
nuclear reactors
 Platforms Provide a platform for storage of materials and machinery either onshore or offshore
Structural Design and Analysis
Structural design is the methodical investigation of the stability, strength and rigidity of structures. The
basic objective in structural analysis and design is to produce a structure capable of resisting all applied
loads without failure during its intended life.
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Significant information in Structural Engineering
Loads
Structures are designed to resist loads. These loads are forces applied to the structure that are either
vertical or horizontal that ultimately cause stresses on the load bearing elements.
 Dead Loads
- weight of the structure itself
- floors, beams, roofs, decks, beams/stringers, superstructure
 Live Loads
- People, furniture, equipment
- Loads that may move or change mass or weight
 Wind Loads
- Wind load is primarily horizontal load caused by the movement of air relative to earth.
- Wind has become a very important load in recent years due to the extensive use of lighter
materials and more efficient building techniques.
 Snow Loads
- This is the load that can be imposed by the accumulation of snow and is more of a
concern in geographic regions where snowfalls can be heavy and frequent.
 Dynamic Loads
- Moving loads (e.g. traffic)
- Impact loads
- Gusts of wind
- Loads due to cycling machinery
 Earthquake Loads
- Structure loaded when base is shaken
- Response of structure is dependent on the frequency of motion
- When frequencies match with natural frequency of structure – resonance
Special Loads
  Thermal load – The loads occur when the materials expand or contract with temperature change
and this can exert significant loads on a structure.
 Settlement load – When one part of a building settles more than other parts this type of load
occurs.
 Flood load – These are caused by flood and water ingress in the foundation which results in
corrosion.
 Soil and fluid load – It is caused due to excessive flow of water in the soil which impacts the soil
density.
*** Wind load is required to be considered in structural design especially when the heath of the building
exceeds two times the dimensions transverse to the exposed wind surface. A building built with heavy
masonry, timber tiled roof may not be affected by the wind load, but on the other hand the structural
design of a modern light gauge steel framed building is dominated by the wind load, which will affect its
strength, stability and serviceability.
Building Materials
Structures can be built out of many different types of building materials. The most common types of
materials are wood, reinforced concrete, steel and masonry. Each of these materials have different
properties, characteristics and costs associated with them that make some more suitable than others
depending on the type of structure, look of the structure and budget.
Building material signifies structural existence. It demonstrates the presence of aesthetic sense in a
design, and hence, defines the practicability of the structure.
*** The traditional materials used today are far superior to those of the past, and new materials are being
specially developed to satisfy the needs of civil engineering applications. To a civil engineer the
performance of materials in structures and their ability to resist various stresses are of prime importance.
Here is a breakdown of each of these common building materials:
 WOOD is readily available and an economically feasible natural resource that is lightweight and
easy to use for construction. It also provides good insulation from the cold which makes it an
excellent building material for homes and residential buildings. Wood is very flammable which
requires additional costs for fire rating if required by code.
 REINFORCED CONCRETE is a composite material made up of steel reinforcing and concrete.
Concrete is very strong when placed in compression however, it’s brittle and weak when it is
placed in tension. Steel reinforcing, or rebar, is used to resist tension loads in a concrete element.
Combined with steel rebar, reinforced concrete is stronger and more suitable for a wide range of
structures such as tall multi-story buildings, bridges, roads, tunnels and so many other
applications.
 STEEL is one of the strongest building materials available with excellent strength capacity in
both tension and compression. It has a high strength-to-weight ratio which makes it ideal for
structural framework of tall buildings and large industrial facilities. Steel is a relatively expensive
building material but it is quick to install, and can support large loads without taking up much
space.
 MASONRY construction uses individual units to build structural elements along with mortar to
bound the units together. The most common material used in design of masonry structures is
concrete block with vertical steel reinforcing if necessary. Because masonry is strong in resisting
compression stresses it is ideal for it to be used in the construction of load bearing walls where
the load is applied vertically on the masonry units.
 STONE is the longest lasting building material available is the one that’s been here for thousands
of years: stone. In fact, the most ancient of buildings still in existence in the world are made of
 stone. It has many advantages, though engineers and architects must make some special
considerations when planning a building using stone.
 GLASS Clear windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a
building. They provided humans with the ability to both let light into rooms while at the same
time keeping inclement weather outside. Glass is generally made from mixtures of sand and
silicates, and is very brittle.
 CERAMIC are such things as tiles, fixtures, etc. Ceramics are mostly used as fixtures or
coverings in buildings. Ceramic floors, walls, counter-tops, even ceilings. Many countries use
ceramic roofing tiles to cover many buildings.
 PLASTICS covers a range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic condensation or polymerization
products that can be molded or extruded into objects or films or fibers. Plastics vary immensely in
heat tolerance, hardness, and resiliency. Combined with this adaptability, the general uniformity
of composition and lightness of plastics ensures their use in almost all industrial applications
today.
*** Their name is derived from the fact that in their semi-liquid state they are malleable, or have
the property of plasticity.
Stresses
Structural engineers design structures bases on the
stresses imposed on the load bearing elements that
make up the structure. The amount of stress depends on the magnitude of load and the geometry of these
elements. Each type of material has different stress limits. Stress is defined as load over an area, therefore
a load spread over a smaller area will have a higher stress than a load spread over a larger area. The types
of stresses depend on the direction of the load being applied to the structural element.
The stresses structural engineers design for include
the following:
 Bending
 Bending stress is the normal stress that an object encounters when it is subjected to a large
load at a particular point that causes the object to bend and become fatigued. Bending stress
occurs when operating industrial equipment and in concrete and metallic structures when they
are subjected to a tensile load. Therefore, bending stress is a combination of compressive and
tensile stresses due to internal moments. Since the stress across a beam section varies from
compression to tension, there is a location at which stress is equal to zero. This is called the
“neutral axis”. Bending stress is a form of stress seen when loads are applied perpendicularly
to an object, forcing it to deflect under the load. When a structural member is loaded as
shown in the opposite figure a bending stress will result. Bending stress is a more specific
type of normal stress.
 Compression
 The stress that squeezes something. It is the stress component perpendicular to a given
surface, such as a fault plane, that results from forces applied perpendicular to the surface or
from remote forces transmitted through the surrounding rock. Compressive stress is the force
that is responsible for the deformation of the material such that the volume of the material
reduces. Stress that decreases the volume of a material.
 Tension
 A stress that pulls materials apart. It is the stress component perpendicular to a given surface,
such as a fault plane, that results from forces applied perpendicular to the surface or from
remote forces transmitted through the surrounding surface.
 Torsion
  Torsion occurs when two forces of similar value are applied in opposite directions, causing
torque(turn or twist). For example, picture a traffic sign mounted on a single column on a
windy day. The wind causes the sign to twist, and this twist causes shear stress to be exerted
along the cross section of the structural member.
 Shear
 A stress that causes the materials to twist. Shear stress (tau) is defined as a stress that is
applied parallel or tangential to a face of a material, as opposed to a normal stress which is
applied perpendicularly. When you chew feed between your teeth, it is an example of shear
stress. After that, when you walk or run and your feet push ground back to move forward.
Similarly, when a moving vehicle will start or stop, the seat's surface experiences shear stress.
 Bearing
 Bearing stress and crushing stress both are same or equal term, can be defined as the localized
compressive stress at the surface of contact between two members of a machines which are
relatively at rest.
*** A very large load in an element does not necessarily mean that the stress in that element will be large
as well.