. Piease Get) (GU iso At Science Market Call 0545MUSIC IN AFRI SOCIAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND It’s difficult to come out with a definition for African culture and for that matter, a definition for African music. The reasons are that, the continent of Africa is not culturally homogenous. This means, we have North Africa being inhabited by societies whose languages ‘Gnd cultures are closely relateu to those of the Arab world of the Middle East while the southern portion of Africa is domineted by settler populations from Europe Naturally, the music practiced by these two societies will belong to families outside Africa. Thus, the Arabized. communities will practice music that is of Arabic origin or Oriental music; while the southem Affican ‘ties will definitely practice European or Westem “classical” music.’ Therefore the por ‘iar idioms of these two groups or genre of music are distinct from those of the rest of Africa. : ‘When we tum to the rest of Africa, we find societies whose musical cultures do not only have their roots in the soil of Aftica, but also from a network of distinct yet related traditions which overlap in certain aspects of style, practice or usage, and share common features of intemal pattern, basic procedure, and contextual similarities. But the most important characteristic of this family of musical traditions is the diversity of expressions it accommodates, a diversity arising from different applications of common procedures and usages. Secondly, the music of Affica is “ethnic bound”. Each society practices its own variant. Hence, we speak of Yoruba music, Akan music, Ewe music, Nyamwezi music, etc, etc, Moreover, the type of music that can be described as African music is seen to be in two ain categories ~ Traditional African mnsic and Contemporary African music cor.” TRADITIONAL AFRICAN MUSIC Traditional [Link] can be described as a style of music or a body of closely related styles of music that ate uniformly different in certain particulars from other known rausical styles. These include the types of music that were performed by Afticans in the pre~ colonial era and have survived in their pure state till today. Do you agree with definition? Why + ‘uot? Just consider some of the following Ghanaian traditional songs . > Vorutia dome > Kodzo ga do ha'ya mie > Kokro yi kro Yaa Asantewa > Adue, boyen dwa > Ashi ee tatale bee ‘ : ompare them with West or Bakopen nag i ‘ya f ay Ln wrth a definition PL Renca muse iy as VE ONE FTCA bo COME PDN cand CSS HE Ba Rahrig As Qak cdturd PeMogeIn‘Ghana today, + (ordirges), fest we can find traditional African music in childr songs, lullabi Leen(ce ime Songs, funeral songs . War songs, ete, etc, - re ~ CONTEMPORARY AFRICAN MUSIC iB ‘The second category of music that is also regarded as Affican music is what is refered to - 8s Contemporary African'musio, This type of music is mainly composed in Western form but has Clements, charactetisticS"and idioms that are found in both Affican and Westem musical styles. » i Examples are highlife (or popular musig of Africa), art-mysic, and anthems composed by { Aficans. An art-music is usually a piece of musi for. * a single performer or a soloist (for example music for piano or a ditge: for atentébeni player) * ‘two peiformers --- duet (for example music for one atenteben and piano, or ~ B ‘trumpet and piano) ' : F % three performers — trio (for example music for two atentebesi and piano ot three * atenteben), . a * four performers — quartet (for example music for four atenteben) : = BLEMENTS‘AND CHARACTERISTICS OF AFRICAN-MUSIC 4 Like Westem music, African music can also be grouped into two types — vocal A ‘instumental music. The elements and characteristics of both instrumental and vocal mus, include: a ¥ scale patterns, Y melodic formation, ¥ harmonic structure, 2° -¥ thythnnic stroture, and ~ . ¥ form of inusic, . 2 Scale Patterns ‘ ‘The most commonly used scale patterns found in Aftican music are - = Y tetratonic~a four-note scale, Y pentatonic —a five-note scale, Y hexatonic—a six-note scale, Y heptatonic~a seven-note scale. = Akens ‘The pentatonic scales are in two forms — hemitonic and anhemtitonic. eroHemitonic pentatonic scale is a five-note scale with one of tw halfsteps within the se Music, a half-step is also known as semitone. On the other hand, an anhemito half-step is a five-note scale that has no occurrence of a half-step in the structure. pentatonic Melodic Format Melodic structures in African music depict three forms. ’>* The fist form includes pieces that make use of peculia# melodic intervals, contour, and Phrases that are characteristic of particular vocal traditions. , > The second type of melodic formation includes pieces that have their tanes arranged as sequences of repeated melodic pattems. > The third’ type, mostly found in instrumental music, i characterized by interlocking tines, : ET NO Harmonic Structure ‘Many types of harmonic structures are found in African music, > Incne possibility, the parts are arranged so that some of the tones of the contrasting parts Sounded simultaneously withthe main par, while others are sounded separately. This - tion is called the hocket technique. E > ‘Intlie second possibility, societies that use the seven-tone scale employ polyphonic styles bestd-on parallel thirds and sixths, and passing intervals of Sevenths, fiftis and fourths | >. The third type involves a more contrapuntal polyphonic structure which takes the form of / ~ Simultaneous melodies. In this type, the main melody is supported be an ostinate in J intelocking melodie figures. For example, in Malinke xylophone music, the leader plays / the main’ame and the improvised parts wi le the other players provide the accompanying melodic pattems. Similarly, in the xylophone music of the Chopi, each of the'three or four supporting sets of xylophones plays an ostinato pattern in support of the imain melody while the leader plays variations. An ostinato isa clearly defined phrase that is ‘epested persistently usyally in immediate successions throughout'a composition, 5 & wvthmic Structure There are various rhythmic structures in African music. Som: aples are: > Hemiola ~meaning an alteration of two ‘sqyal sections of duple and tiple effects, > Divisive rhythms ~ these involve the articulation of the regular division of the ‘time span. > Additive rhythms — here, “the durational values of some of the ‘Notes may extend the time span, Thus, in phrase of £2 nove such as 6 + 6 notes, the i2-notes phrase may be dividedAfrican music: generally involves group participation. For this reason, the music usually expresses. this." We can identify two major forms — these are soloand-chorus, and call-and- response, , . ‘The soloist in the solo-and-chorus form is known: as cantor. So, thie form ig also called cantor- and-chorus. In this form, the soloist or the cantor sings the entire song from the beginning to the end; and this same tune is taken by the group or the chorus, In the call-and-response form, the leader sings part of the music while the-end of the mtisic is sung by the group. . ’ CONVERGENCIES AND DIVERGENCES BETWEEN AFRICAN AND WESTERN: MUSIC CONVERGENCES 7 ~ ‘The use of heptatonic scale, Shoes ~ React to. music performance through the avenue of body movements ~ danciag, ‘The-use of four classes of instruments, : Jnstruments with African skin covering them, . [Link] are both vocal and instru ‘The use of costumes in dance or musical performance. tal. Dae1. In Aftican set-up, singing, drumming and dancing are not separated: but Wester music Separates them. . y i 2. In Africani music, there is no* separation between audience. and performers; but in ‘Wester music, the performers are located on the stage while the audiense osu watch, : 3. Aftican music is transmitted orally from-one generatioh to another. but Westem , music is documented and read by riew generations, 4. In Affica, music is regarded as a part of life — flom-birth through marriage till death -- but Westerh music is‘a social ‘event. . . ' ‘ Musical Types . In Aftican societies, participation in music may-be a voluntary activity or an obligation imposed by one's membership in a social group, Such a social grout! nlay be a'descent group or it may be a group based on, the broader societal classifications’ of sex, age, ‘interest, or cecupation. Different kinds of eves exist in Aftcan communities and each ofthese social vents is ocompanied with musical performances. . There ate four major types of music in Africa — four major types of i “1. spontaneous musical type, 2. musical types that are attached to traditional establishinents, 3. musical types performed by social-groups; and 4, cult orreligious music. Spontaneotis musical types are usually organized autonomously. ‘They include children’s game songs, storytelling songs, “ > . Children’s song of insult for the habitual bed — wetter . etreational music performed by adults after work or at weekends," * ‘work songs, and "| . in ’ funeral songs (or dinges). & Normally, childcen play their games at whenever they hse the chance: This ineaas ican bein the moming, afternoon or evening, Mt ip is always open to zen living in the community, Work Songs are usually sung by fishermen and farmers, ‘Thus, farmers have their own songs sung inthe farms while fishemmen also'sing {heir sings while they ‘ish. Membership is limited to members. Fuieral songs are sung during finerals, Music associated with traditional establishments include ..‘The third type is the one that emphasizes the role of a lead singer or cantor, or 4 ‘number of cantors, with a supporting chorus. Since the group must participate fully, the foctis is on the entire group. And in this case, there are separate choruses for men and women who sing in a kind of antiphony. The fourth type of peiformance is the one based on the interlocking principle, which establishes interdependence among the performers. The interlocking principle makes use of the hocket technique whereby each singer contributes a specific note or phrase at a point in time. AFRICAN INSTRUMENTAL RESOURSES Classification ‘There are four main types of ihstruments in Aftica. These are — idiophones, aerophones, membranophones, and chordophones, Idiophones ‘These are instruments that are “self-sounding”, They are in two major categories ~ those used mainly as rhythm instruments, and those played independently as melodic instruments. Rhythmic Idiophones ‘The most common idiophones used as rhythm instruments are the rattles algo known as shaken idiophones. Functionally, they can be subdivided in to two groups — primary rattles, which are held in the hand and played, and secondary rattlés, which are wom on the body of the performers and activated by their movements. The sécondary ratiles are also attached to other instruments. Primary rattles include the gourd variety, which may appear as container rattles or rattles surrounded by nets of ¢oviries, sea shelis, pieces'of bone, bamboo shoot, metal or beads. “Other Vatieties of container rattlés are wicker rattles, reed-box rattles, metal Jingles, bowl rattles, stick or rod rattles, dad the sistrum, which is a kind of rattle with metal discs suspended on fixed rods." * . Another type of idiophones used for rhythm are the struck or concussion idiophones. These include — rock gongs, stone clappers, two rourid’ sticks or two flat sticks struck together as clappers, clapperless iron bells struck with sticks, rods or small animals homs, bell-like iton castanets. 7 A third type of rhythmic idiophones are the scraped and fiction idiophones, which include the rasp ~ a notched baitioo or palm stem scraped with another stick, or with a bracelet of brass. i The fourth type of rhythmic idiophones are known as stamped idiophones. There are two types iping sticks and stamping tubes. The stamping sticks are used for hitting the ground, usually in vertical motion. In some societies, old pestles are [Link] stamping sticks. The stampirig tubes consist of a piece of bamboo tube cut so that only ~ one end of it is open, To produce a sound, the closed end is hit on the ground. Anothermusic performed at girls’/boys’ initiation rites music played by women in courts to entertain chiefs, court music played by men, royal praise singers, festival songs, music for installation of chiefs, music for destoolment of chiefs, special funeral songs for chief, music performed for a chief's procession to or recession from a durbar ground, music performed for the execution of war and civil criminals, and 1 © music performed to match a thief through the streets of a town with the objects in his/her hands, : In Africa, music performed by social groups relates to those forms of associations that have their own distinctive forms of music that they perform in connection with their ceremonies and other activities. Examples of such groups are ... + hunters” group, and * warriors? group. music performed to worship gods, and + music performed at the shrine or cult music. RECRUITMENT AND TRAINING OPMUSICIANS © 5 ‘Although active participation in music making is encouraged, participation differs with respect to performing roles, and the skills and knowledge that individuals playing a given role bring to beat on a performance: Tn vocal music, there are usually four types of performances. The first involves a soloist ~ solo performances in which an individual sings on his/her own, with or without instrumental accompaniment or even hand clapping. The solo “performer may be supported by others — someone to play a bell or a drum, someone to sing answering phrases or respoiises at appropriate moments. The soloist may also be accompanied by a horus 4 there with a few notes also at approriate moments, in-all these instances, the primary focus is on the soloist who would generally be regarded as a specialist and a musician. 2 ‘The second-type of performance involves two people who have rehearsed together and who share a common performance repertoire, singing in 2 duet although one of them lead role. The performers may sing in alteration, one echoing the other, or both may sing simultaneously, or one may begin a stanza with a few notes before the second person joins in, Since the focus is on both performers, they are invariably regarded as musicians.stamping sticks. The stamping tubes consist of a piece of bamboo tube cut so that only one end of it is open. To produce a sound, the closed end is hit on the ground. Another stamping tube is made out of an elongated gourd with a long neck. The tip of the gourd is, sliced off to make it open-ended, and the opening is cupped by the free hand. In Ghana, stamped idiophones made out of gourd are played by Ashanti women who call it adenkum, and in Nigeria, by Hausa women, who call it shantu. Melodic or Tuned Idiophones These include mbira (or hand piano), and xylophones. An mbira may have from one to three manuals or between 5 and 20 keys. Large mbiras of 34 to 45 keys occur among the Gogo of Tanzania. The mira is played for personal enjoyment or for social occasions of a reereational nature; but there are types such as mbira dza Vadzimu that are played on other occasions such as ancestral rituals. ‘Another important tuned idiophone played in many African societies is the xylophone, which appears in 3 forms. In'the first type, the gradateg series of wooden ‘labs or keys are mounted over a resonance chamber such as a pit, a box or trough or a clay pot. These pit xylophones are found in Guinea, Nigeria, Chad. It is also found among the Azande and the Kala of Central African Republic and, among the Kusu of Kenya, Jn the second type of xylophone, the keys are laid over two pieces of banana stems that are kept in position by sticks affixed to the stems between the keys. This type can be found among the Kissi in Guinea and Cote dIvoire and also in Zaire, Uganda, Tanzania and Mozambique. The third type has keys mounted over a wooden frame, bélow which a number of gourd resonators are suspended, gradated in size in relation to the pitches of the wooden slabs, This has a very wide distribution in West Aftica, as well as in Central and Eastern ‘Aftica — from Zaire to Mozambique and further south to Vendaland. ‘The number of slabs used for constructing African xylophones varies. Some xylophones, have a. narrow compass of one to four keys. These are found among the Ibo of Nigeria, the Bariba of Benin, the Kabere of Togo, the Baule of Cote dIvoire and the Nsenga snd Valley Tonga of Zambia. Xylophones with 10 to 22 keys have a wider distribution, + The Ganda of Uganda play 22-key xylophone which they call akandida; The Chokwe of Angola play 17 keys; © ThePende’of Zaire also play 17 keys; + The Chopi of Mozambique play 10, 12, 16 and 19 keys; ©. The Venda of South Africa play 20 keys; The Lobi, Dagaaba and Sisaala of Ghana play 14, 17 and 22 keys; © The Bambara of Mali play 16 keys; and © The Sara of Chad play 14 keys. 10Membranophones Simply put, membranophones are drums. In Africa, drums are carved out of solid Jo8s of wood. They may also. be made out of strips of wood bound together by iron hoops. Another material used for making drums is the large gourd or calabash, We alee have toy drums for children which are made out of hard fruit shells or discarded tins Drums appear in a wide variety. of shapes. They may be conical or semi cotindrical, with a bulge inthe middle or a bowl-shaped top, cup-shaped, bottle-shaped, in the form of a goblet or vase, or inthe shape of an hourglass. The frames may be teand or square. There are smali drums which are held in the hand and played, or held under the armpit when played. The big drums are placed on the ground when playeil. Some druims ave single-headed, that is they are open at one end buit closed at the other by an animal skin, i Examples: Ewe... kagan, kidi, sogo, atsimewu, Akan .... petia, apentemma, atumpan, fontonfrom. ; e Other drums are double-headed, that is they are closed with the animal skin at both ends, Examples: Akan...-dondo. 1h Uganda, a set of tuned drums are played in a kind of hocket arrangement. The rhost Cuslanding of these are the:set of 15 enfenga drums of the Kabaka (or the king) of Uganda, E ™ Aerophones Acrophones ate the wind instruments or the instramenis that are played by blowing air into them. They fallinto three groups. ‘he fist group includes the fute family. Flutes from Africa are made from materials with natural bore such’ as bamboo, the husk of a cane, the stalks of millet, or the tip of horn Sr Bours alternatively, they may be carved out of wood. The flutes inay be open-ended oF Stopped, and be designed for playing in vertical or transverse: position, The south picse or the embouchure of vertical flutes may be notched or roind. The numberof finger holes. povided for cath ‘type of flute depends on the way-the instrument is used. Flutes of Wide compass usually have four to six finger holes, and flutes with fewer holes can have their ranges extended by the technique of over blowing. There are also flutes of mare Trane with @ range of two or tee tones, as wel as others that can play only one note. These are often made in scts‘of different’ pitches, so that a number of them can be combined to play melodies ofa wider compass through [Link] of the hocket technique The second type of aerophone found: in Affican sociaties i However, this is not wide spread as the flute class, Theré types. “The third type of aerophone is made of animal homs and elephant tusks as inpets. This type is generally designed to be side-blown. It is also found as rampet made of gourd or bamboo or both. There ate both short and long trumpets of four to soe Eee such as the malakat of Bthiopia and similar trumpets played by the Ny Nyisansu of Tanzania. Trumpets with a headpiece of wood carved in the form figure, played in vertical position are found in DR. ilis & g 2 ‘ oe : = Chordophones The string instruments found in African societies are what we call chordophones ‘The most common of the chordophories is the musical bow. Musical bows exist in variety of forms. One of them is the earth bow. ) The earth bow, consists of a flexible stick in the ground, to whose upper end a piece of string is attached. This string is stretched down and buried in the earth. A piece of stone may be placed on top of the earth to keep the string in position. This is found in northem Ghana and Uganda; and it is usually regarded as 4 toy instrument. “Another type of musical bow is the mouth bow (a bow resonated in the mouth). A section of the bow’s string is held across the mouth. As the bow is hit at a convenient spot, the shape and size of the mouth cavity are altered so as to amplify the sounds. Some musical-bows use calabash as resonators. The calabash is usually placed in the middle of the bow or towards the tip. ‘Another type of chordophone found in African societies is the zither whose distinguishing characteristic is the horizontal position of its strings. One variety is the idiochord zither whose strings are made out of the bark of the sticks that form the frame of the instrument. A single piece of stick can be made in this manner into a monochord zither. A number of such sticks cut out of the stalks of millet are put together and tied in the form of a raft to make a raft zither. A tube zither called valiba is found in Malagasy, ‘Another type of chordophone is the lute. The lute is an instrument whoe strings run parallel to its neck. It can be either bowed or plucked. An example called masinko is found in Ethiopia. We have goje among the Hausa of Nigeria and the Dagomba of Ghana, We can also find ritf among the Wolof of Senegal. The Role of Song Texts It is-important to note that Affican songs. are treated _as_avenues-of verbal communication which can reflect both personal and social experiences. Therefore, .the {hemes OPI Songs-centre around events and matters of common interest and conoeim-to the members of a commiunity or the social, groups within it: They may deal with,everyday life or with the traditions, beliefS, and customs of the society. Aftican gongs as means of expression can be seen in’cradle songs,-reflective songs, historical, songs and-gencral songs. : = if yi The cradle songs usually are meant to console children who are crying as a result of being left alone in the house while their parents go to the farm in search of food. For example: Where has your mother gone? * She has gone to fetch firewood. What did she leave for. you? She left some bananas. May Ihave one? No! Iwont give you any. ‘Are you crying? You mustn't Areyou singing? You mustn't. 5 Tk imrorlont of Song deed Teen wy ~ : soko garsoral ane! 20! af ev prlencth vy vel? Ss a s wSome cradle songs convey matters of personal interest, reflection or commentary, - For example, women in polygamous homes have the habit of referring to their rivals 14 cradle songs. Someone would like to have you for child, But you are my own, Someone wished she had you to nurse on a mat, Someone wished you were hers; She would put you on camel blanket. But I have you to rear you on a torn mat. Someone wished she had you, But Thave you. Another ......... Child of cocoyam leaves: Plump and robust. Child of cocoyam leaves: Plump and robust, Child of meat and salt is weak and lean, ~ An example of a reflective song ......... Itis the ambition of the star To shine like moon, Although God never intended it, If the fowl had a hoe, I would have performed great deeds On the dunghill, One of the most important categories of songs fotind in African societies may be described as “songs of the elders” or “historical songs”. The cultivation of ‘historical songs usually finds its highest expression at the courts of kings and princes, Here, the chronicles of kings and genealogical referénces that link the generation of royalty to their ancestors help to strengthen the position of those in authority or t6 legitimize their claim to power. Such songs are also intended to exhort the ‘King to encourage him to emulate his predecessors and to share in their glories and learn from their defeats. They may also be intended as praise songs. ‘ Forexample: Wake up Adu, descendant of Kor]bea Asante, Jsfe Tutu, permit me to call you thus. Who would not like to be the child of Owusu Panini of Edweso And dkua Bakoma, renowned for gold nuggets? Ef anyone-had it that way, he would welcome it. Dnmmirefaa that keeps vigil O child of Atie Difie, wake up! KR. General songs deal with philosophical and religious themes. These sonys are also "+ connected with a person's achievements, occupation and experiences. Example....... am, — One who tills the hills. One who with yams challenge the soil, Knife that clears bushes Barn that yields wealth 7 Bush that is colosal _ Bush that is fearful. Another .. iam, 4 Tiger that defends neighbours u King that is liked by public Fame that never wanes. Man, lord of earth's life giving force Looks up to God. Earth sustains us but God is supreme. When the fowl drinks water, It looks up and shows it to God; God is supreme. Another .. 14One important and unique aspect of African music is that it is primarily religiouis, There is music fur the gods, deiiy, divinities, cic which are voudl, uastiuauental oF boil a public worship in Aftica can be in doubt that one of the aisibutes of the gods is thal they are music-luving gods. The :ost eomun situation in which they manifest themselves is the musical situation in which music which affects them is performed. They descend to the people through their human mediums and patticipate in the drama of worship. Acting through the mediums, they are known to object to particular songs or o bhow displeasure when performance is lacking in animation or vigour. , In addition to the priests and other officers, "musicians may be set aside to: provide musical leadership. The detaii of worship may be plamed io meet the ritual need of the individual society. There may be prescribed places and periods of worship. Miming, procession and dances are important elements of worship in African societies. Special music, is generally’ set aside Tor the gods, for itis believed that like other worshipers they can be affected by music; they can participate directly in worship through some chosen mediums. They may also be represented by instrumental sounds or distinctive noise. As our gods are localized, the music of worship Similacly reflects local idioms and local usages, Hence music may function as an identifying characterization of cult groups. The nature of rites performed on various occasions of worship oF the length of time such rites take, the type of movements may all influence the selection and use of music, fa ritual is concemed with strctural relations, the special music ofthe gods may not normally be used, Most societies appear to make separate x i provisions. of ¢ach occasion except that textual provisions may be made in the song repertoire to enable special references to the deities’ to be made when nevessary..When occasions ofa mixed nature arise for example, when a priest or a medium dies, both the masic of the gods as weil as other kinds of misic may be performed, Sometimes, the’pérfirmance of music: may not be direétiy related to a rite, ve {a general, both instrumental and vocal forms are exploited for worship. On some occasions, one or the other fori may receive greater emphasis. Drums may be used in sume areas while the xylophone may be more important in some places. Sometimes what determines the choice of instruments may not be what is common, but wiiat is rare or restricted by supernatural sanctions. ‘cinal music played on the chosen instrument of worship may be differentiated in. syle According to the requirement of the rua situations. Insirumental piecés may be designed for different kinds of movement, for dances, processions, or other situations in the drama of worship. Some pieces inay be played in the course of some rite or before or after it. Sometimes, these A nstruments may be used on others 1¢ musical inst ensemble may be used on some occasions, while only o:+ a chant to urge on the transmission to welcome the descending spi In using instrumental resources, differentiations may sometimes be made bebeen intimate or siniuus siiualions whee « suf-souidig i iinet UL taille play public ouidoor situations requlie iigeiuus action, Instrumental differences exist between the cults. For example, in Yorubaland, the music of the baie duis identified w ipping of Shango is differeutiated fiom that of the Egungun cults. The Bullroarer is associated with the: > god Oro, while in the dances performed in the woiship of Ogun following @ good hunting expedition, the young meu beat tiine on the lus of animals and renowned hunters dance with tails of rare animals in the hands, and vaunt the power of the god and their prowess. At the fynéral of a woman member of the midwives’ society of the Sande’Cult in Liberia, the members sing the songs of their own society andjperform its dances. The Big Devil, impersonated by the oldest initiated member of the Poro Cult is said to sing, The singing is not done'actually by the Devil himself, but by three to five assistarts, each blowing a whistle like blowing across the mouth of a bottle. <7 The rhythm of songs for worship’ may be free or relaxed. A recitative or declamatory style may be employed in soiié cases along with free rhythm as well as stéaight forward stanzaic form in solo-chorus patterns. In Yoruba and Dahomean worship, oné finds Jow chants along with aster and more:shythinic ones. Among the Ga of Ghana, ‘The music of the gods is also by and large, a means of maintaining the religious state. Once possessed, a medium ‘continues to remiain in the atmosphere of music to call up songs. of her particular liking in order that she mighit have the strength to act as required of her. The excitement of certain phases of worship is prolonged for as long as the instruments remain sounding and worshippers continue to sing “To conclude, it must be admitted that as a musical type, the music for the gods is essentially the music of religious drama, which fulfils both religious and social purposes. It carries with it its own ideals which are recognized by worshippers. It also helps in keeping the community of worshippers together and in bringing them in close, communion with fhe g: CATEGORIES OF AFRICAN MUSIC A close observation to music-making in Aftica confirms the fact that an African child is ushered into his/her society [Link] and the child leayes through music. Music punctuates the life cycle of the Aftican. In Ghana for example, among-some ethnic groups, mui¢ is performed to encourage women during childbirth, In most-Affican’ societies, no outdooring or aaming ceremony can be complete without music. A lot of music is performed during puberty rites in Atica. During these rites; music performed does not only'entertain but also carry material for the education of the initiates. Traditional marriage ceremonies as well as modem ones, require 16special musical performances. Funeral rites are performed with music and it is common sight 0 +! Sad wove dun one musical group providing inusic at Tuueral. ‘ Music is performed during various vocations. Traders sing or play m uerchandise. Shepherd boys, farmers, siug as they work, Women sing as they go about their fiousehold chores and olf: vocativis to advertise their a, masons, carpeniers, and ollies allisatis hs, fisher Owing to this extensive use of music, various musical groups are formed by people who come ~ together as aniateur or professional musicians to perform music to entertain, encourage and educate themselves and others. These groups may be based on sex, age, vocation or religion There are vatious sex Based musical groups e.g. among the Akan of Ghata, there are femule- groups like adeniayo, awonkoro, and spamamos; male groups like abofo, (hunters organization). age based. groups like those performed by children during play: vocation based .g70ups like abofo: anid religious based groups like the yeoe cult of the Ewe and kple of the Ga. JERS SN of the Eve and Kple of'the Ga For these reasons, music in Africa can be placed under three broad categoties: occasional, incidental, and recreational, according to the purpose and event for which itis being performed. ao { wis occa: This-category of music includes musical, types associated -with rites and ceremonies or other. activities of individuals, groups or societies and are used in connection with the following: * Life-cycle events: birth rites, naming ceremonies, puberty rites, marriage ceremonies and funerals, * Socio-political institutions: enstoolment/enskinment, and destoolment/deskinment ceremonies, ceremonies of social groups and organizations, and stale functions: * _Relsions music: music used in the woiship of objects of worship e.g. Akoin of the kau,” Yeve'of Ewe, Kple of Ga, eic. % 4 INCIDENTAL MUSIC ‘This category of music includes musical types associated-with activities which are non-ritual or emoaial, This means, incidental music is music performed in the context of activities to which it does not an integral part. This type of music includes the following: songs: songs aso mowing, sawing, carpé household chores. ated with different types of occupations like fishing, farming, y, catile herding, etc. songs sung by women as they do the© Lullabies or cradle songs: songs sung by women and elderly children to make babies © Game songs: musical types performed in connection with games by grown-ups and chilaren. + Siuty ielling songs, musical iypes performed during story telling sessions. pin! e ov Tisoneamion ‘AD MUSIC. f This category of music includes musical types performed for entertainment and relaxation. In Ghana for exainple, music is performed ater a hard day's work and also after a week-long’s activities for enteriainment and relaxation in the rural-communities. Such musical types are also be performed during festivats and other occasions between the actual programme of events as an additional form of musical entertainment. Even during funeral celebrations, such music are performed to provide entertainment to mourners, sympathizers and well-wishers who may gather at the fineral grounds. Some of these musical types in Ghana afe .!. Nnworikors, Agbadza, Adowa, B2b20b2, Kpanlogo, and Bawa. Py MUSICAD TYPES IN AFRICA NIGERIA Juju Mus This is a brand of music which emerged in, the 1960s in Yorubaland. This music, which developed from Lagos Owambe. -arteform, appéars to be somewhat more popular than the other forms of pop music. Its rhythms and dance styles are more indigenous and it conveys its message jn the language of the land. It employs a lot of guitars, not tuned to ‘one another, Afican drums especially [ya Hu (the hour glass tension drum), and percussion. It thrives on incorporation music from other sources and othe? composers in the performance of its various exponents, for example, hymn tunes, Christmas Carols, Westem pop music, and highlife by other musicians. Great artists in this field include Ayinde Bakare; Tunde Nightingale; LK. Dairo; Ebenezer Obey; Sunny Ade; Theophilus Iwalokun; Idowu Amimashaun; Prince Adenkunle; Dede Abiodun and many others. IN the eastern states of Nigeria, acounterpart to juju music, known as Native Blues ‘became popular. The Orientals band and the Ikenga of Aftica have been major exponents of the music which is a cross between highlife and juju music. . Bogos fkwue, who left Engineering to turn musician developed a new type known as city blues with sophisticated sound effects and electronic psychedelia, Bogos’ music, whether in English or : art?The gt dey ie Or HOS» Reof Adowe ts mace up of two Mp verforméd - a é Pyle ore ° Yrs Novo € Performan A Praklas eae Ramey of intvument ie Cuban, es Looroge YF og , g avy fe SOM. ’ a7 \ native Ianguage, is characterized with soothing’ melodies of intense charm and simple but enchanting melodies, Folk Opera Before the rise of juju music, an indigenous art foam sprang in the 1940s, Populasized by Hubert Ogunde, this new art-form known as Folk Opera, incorporates dance drama, costume, and music into audio-visual form of opera buffa in the Yoruba language or pidgin English, ‘he popularity of Ogunde’s early ve Tise to the growth of the, suth as those led by Kola Ogunmola and Duro Ladipo. Eadh- leader is usually a playwright,.“Gomposei, choreographer; director and business, manager in addition to playing the leading role in the ‘operas. The folk opera employs foreign and local instruments in its orchestration, althdugh the ‘words are in Yoruba, and the plot is from Yoruba mythology, or somé topical ‘subject of current inferest. The harinony incorporatés Senontaiy tester harmony andthe thythm inchdes Buropeai dance beats as well as traditional Yoruba dagce rhythm. Here, merition must be made “of Meki Nzewi, who attempted to take the idea of ofthe opera to high dimensions in such works as The Lost Finger and A Drop of Honey by jntroducing’serious orchestration into his music, Fhe Are Ys Hult ogunde™ tego by Magersn +t incl, Meng ghomend ers of over - © operd sertae dad ‘oare BE Fo egara Bul fa- om ane operts seniad—end On “rage cell wee DREAM buffa 13 Lasoglon combd oM granite mytholegy ThaineerS > ys dane dc Ne geetey ayer art ings “Dano dramd wilh sao “ee. 2 dans. Awd ong aber ee ghlicogers . te isa gyeet Sele wk asiovygran: Therinos @ beautiful Called Hesoats UG ua! ondet a. th? drum) woo fk MUSICAL THPES IN GAMA apowa ( MPERE) “ This is a kind of music and dance type found among the Twi-speaking people in Ghana, Tt isa dance made up of drum orchestra and chorus, predominated by female singers. The dance, acdording to the legend, was seen by a hunter on one of hishusual expeditions in the night. It said thatthe hunter saw a chimpanzee beating the chest and itsounded like the graceful movement of : the deer G.e. adowa in Akan language). ‘Therhunter spent long hours in the forest and observed several movements. Some ofthese movements are: ey © Adowa pa I i oF - = Dampon ° @ cae © Asokore Manpong, 2 AO, PAM ey Whe yr seg , © Techiman + Each item, in the movement is actually a playing style characterized by emphi tempo or the type of rhythmic pattems that ae played on the atumpan grams. Instrumental setup: Anumpan, petia, ap Performance pmclics: In the. peefomince setting, tho instnimentalists sit in’ a horséshoe formation with the singers standing behind them, The lead begins the performace by singig an” introductory pieod in freé style referred to as “sho”, The bell-player is invited by the master on either the tema, two donno, two adaivuraa lit belts). = druminer immediately by setting the pace of the performance and delivering the timecdiné for thé’ 3 bell to imitate. The other instrumentalists aterinvited tj join thé performance in tums. Finally, the lead singer and the chorus enter with a medley of songs. “Members of the band or the general public take. tums in the open dancing arena. Usually, dancers dance [Link], male and féimale, though solo dancing is permitted, . — uf Occasions for nerfommanee: Festivals, funerals, tare Rinctons. Costume; The women wear one piove of cloth around their bodies to the knee level leaving the shoulder bare, They also wear another cloth from the waist to the calf while the men wear a piece of cloth folded into a lump at the waist leaving the upper torso bate. ” vw ap pss. A cneke - ‘ ese, KUNDUM ‘According to oral tradition, Kundum music was first introduced to Aboade jn Ahantaland during the reign of King Atwenekwesi, According to this tradition, the Aboade town was hit by very severe famine that forced the inhabitants to wander about looking for food, It was di ing one of such expeditions in the forest that 2 woman chanced upon some dwarfs who were playing “and dangjng 1 what has now become known 9s, Kundum, It jg suid that when the woman teported what she had seen to her townspeople ‘they accompanied her to the forest and saw, everything for themselves. Meanwhile there was a ‘medicine-man in the town also’ known as Kuhdum. This man. did not believe the story untilthe dwarfs tevealed themselves to kim. and asked him to fashion an ensemble: They taught him how to play the music and to dance. This dance was called “Kom atu” meaning the famine has ended. By this, the dwarfs announcéd to him the end of the famine. The king accepted the music and the dance and instituted an annual ic, and the dance were named after Kundum. The festival and its music and dance wére introduced to the Nzemas by one Belehua Aka Amihyia of [Link] had been a residént of Aboade.” Kundhim became i post haivest festival celebrated by the Abantas and Nzemas of the Weston iegica Of Ghaia! ‘The ‘dance expresses" the spisit afd sentiments of the Ahanta and Néemia people during the Kundum festival In the dasice, the men display bravéry, prowess, endurance and determination like the Asafo dance whilé the women sing. to hail them as festival to commemorate the event. The festival, t conquerors. a Kindum is, now a festival dance that seeks io express thankfilness for a great harvest: It is also an occasion for remembering departed ftiends and relations. The songs serve as a form of social control. That is, through insinuation, people‘tonftont others directly and openly by telling thein oftheir crimes, misdeeds, and other social vices they commited inthe course of the year. clappers, (Casianst), fi ad Elawille (bells), ban abrema, (first drum) apeniema, (second drum), and edonighle (ister drum). Performance practice: The dnammers usually stoop to play thé drums in the Centre of the dancing y tradi 3 ntnols the is nomally a jan dances, the master drumine Kund frée-style dance" performed by the general’public. Ax identified’ group ‘wear special costiime and dance in a chomus, oom 8 AtwenekwesiCostume: Both men and women wear raffia skirts, textile skirts with jingle bells sewn into them, beads, cow-tail whisk and raffia'hat. ATSIAGBEKOR: The Atsiagbelo dance is mostly performed by the Southem Ewe communities in Ghana. - It developed out o “Agbeks”, During the petiod of the interstibal wars, Agbelo dance was pesformed,to incite the people for war. When ike iter-ribal war subsided; Agbéks became an object of art and led to the development of other dances., Thus, Atsiagbelo is performed as an , object of art which helps people to reflect on the tribal wars. Some ofthe dance patterns actually depict warlike movements... ube Tnstmumental setup: Atsimees (master drum), sog0, boba, lalev, kdl, gakogul (double bel), and ccatse (rattle). Performance practice: In the, performance setting, the instrumentalists sit in a horseshoe formation. with the singers standing behind them. The lead singer begins the, performancé. by singing an introductory piees in fiee-style, The master drumimer plays the gakogui pattem on the J shell ois drum forthe player to imitate, All other instrumentalists are similarly invited to play, Atsiagbeko dancers perform structural dances to set thythmic patterns at a signal from the mast giveth 2 drummer. Danoers may dancin iteular formation or dance in files, Fiolren, Gn i Occasions for performance: It is. performed during the installation of a chief “fp Costume: Funeral cloth withred headband for both dancers and drummers. an 1 % 5 A fl Loe agen AGBADZA. Agbadza is also a dance, that is mostly rae by: “the Southem Ewe communities, of Ghana. Like Atsiagbeko, Agbadzd derived from an old war dance called “Atrikpui”. It started as predominantly male dance, but now itis performed by both sexes. Instrumental set up: Gakogui, axawse, kagary (ns ‘drum), Kidi (second grimy ‘and 5080 (indir drum)... . Performance practice: - habeden pexfoumsnce practice is similar to. that of ‘Asiagbelo i in which the singers stand behind the drummers in horseshoe formation, There is an element of free- -style asinging by way of introduction, as the other players are cued in [Link] master drummer. Dancing is done in pairs — normally a man pairs with a'woman, Occasion: for performance; Agbadza dance is basically performed. during funerals, durbar of chiefs, festivals and installation of chiefs. .... , Costuine: [Link] Agbadza do-not have any limitations. ini their. desing Men mostly wear. . shorts (Je: togas with cap on) and a cloth ted round the,waist while they dance with horse-ail whisk in their hands. BOBOOBO 7 This is a dance type meant for the youth in Volta Region of Ghana. It was founded by + Francis Kojo Nuatro fiom Kpandu in the Volta Region, as a recreational dance. It vas limited to the Ewe-sp spread of the dance to the southem sector and even across the borders to neighbouring’ Togo. Insist situ Asioit (hand ‘dnim), bug, pain (omall- dum), ouga (ig ~ master dnd) aid bo akoge (caStanéts)."As'tinie’ went 614 conga, donno ‘and the tambouritie were inchidéa' on thé list of drums while’! was deleted. . Perfomance pricice: Bokcib Peitoimance Begins ith a Séxied OF unacconipanied soi to prepare the dancers into action. Then, dancers cue in with @thytimi® figure played by the master a Dandi, Jed by the "Teader, shan nb fa ni ira Wi pinged tion of the people has promoted the vple of the northem sector. But mi mh Yule AEN Hy a This i is found ainong the, Dangme of the Greater Agora Region of Ghana, The dence originated-from a hunter's story. It is believed that a bhuntor found some dwasts dancing jn the bush. So, be hi self and wi On his return home, nized peopl and ‘taught them the dance, H characte named it Kpatsa owing to the limping gait believed to be tic of dwarts,Kpatsa dance was basically used for entertainment but it is now performed at social gatherings such as out-doorings as well as during national festivals, “ Instrumental sot up: Gogoti (double bell), toke (banana bell), oko. (castanet), maa (wooden clappers), faw (enmeshed gourd rattle), oplete wayo (small drum), oplete nwa (big drum), Performarice practice: drummers sit in a horseshoe formation. ‘The master drimmer plays'the bell pattern for-the bell player to imitate, He invites other performers [Link] manner. into the performance. The dancers dance in fairs, male and female at a time. Songs may be created bn themes based on kinds of human experience such as humility, love, wickedness, gossip, hypocrisy, prostitution, and foolishness. i Qccasions for perform: Puberty sites, marriages, funerals, festivals, durbars, and other social occasions. i KOLOMASHIE, . a vie . This dance is found among, the Ga people of Ghana, Originally, the dance was called yaa, Ttis.a social dance performed in the evenings for entertainment. The darice i vigorous and... depicts acts of sensual nature, It is believed that the dance has been borrowed from the Ewe of . Volta Region of Ghana. It is also believed that drivers who actively participated in the, musical typelhave evolved the new name Kolomashie. Berformance practice: Ds Drusimets sit wit the fame droms on thir thighs, The master érvames, 7 playing the biggest drum, invite all the other instrumental into the performance. The singers sing to accompany the instuméntalsts from behind, The dancers dress and dance to casigate élite of the period between’ 1920 and 1960, Dancers oversindulgent behaviour of the mimic the dressing styles of the period by being in three-picée suits, top hats or bowler hats, long flying ties and holding walking sticks, Some dress like sanitary inspectors and so = The heres Kolomashie dance very often describes, in a jovial way, how thesé people went about theit’ and their way of life in the Society. Boitt sexes participate in vibe dance, and very of dancing is encouraged 24GOME Gome is another musical type found among the Ga people of Ghana. Gome is believed to have been introduced in the country by the Ga people who had returned from Fernando, Po where they hiad gone to work'in various occupations such-as masonry, carpentry, farming, dnd Soon, Instrumental setup: Bamboo clappers, pati enmeshed rattle and gome-drum, Perfoimiance practice: The ensemble consists of mea; women, and children, numbering between twenty-five and forty. Out of this number, four play: the major instruments inthe ensemble, About five to ten of the rest play bamboo cluppers. A soloist calls the song and the rest respond and daneé in a’semicircular formation in front-of the whole ensémble, The men put-on: open. ‘necked jumpers and tie a wrapper or a piece of cloth loosely from the waist to the middle part of the feg arid another cloth of similar material is used to cover the upper part of thé body up-to the, breast: Clay is used to paint designs on the exposed upper part ofthe body up to the’neck, They also Wieas big beads around their waist aind load theif buttocks with lots of folded cloths. to give, them extra size and weight. Both men and women hold tools of their trade like saws, paddles, cutldsses; hoes, baskets, and twine. Through the danve they. dramatize their various occupations, Occiisioris fot performance: Funerals, festivals, durbars, recreation and other social occasions. , set ite * {keapioco This is yet another musical type performed by the Ga people of Ghana, It is said to have: becii|inttoduced into the:country from Fernando Fo by a Ga fisherman called Lincoln Ot in 1962: Iris very similar to Kolomashie ‘and: Gome:ilt is: very«popular. among. the youth nf Ga, formance practice: Out-door funerals; pubériy rites, marriagesSIKYI ‘The dance is performed among the Akans. It is a gay dance that evolved in the 1920's. Its flination in character and its movement nctudes sting and bobbing up and down. Tn these arrangements the performers seek to’ depict the innocent playful flirtation of the lads and lasses of the period when this dance was-in the height ofits popularity. + Sikyi dance-came during the introduction of paper money, In the Sikyi dance the men _ showed 6f their wealth by luring the women with-money. Thus, Sikyi is a recreational dance for. the youth performed by both sexes. Instnaméntal-set up: Sikyi'tworie (sikyi drum), apentema, petia, donno, trowa, dawuro, frikyiwa (castanet), and tamale. Performance practice: Sikyi instrumentalists sit in a semi-circle with the singers standing behind them,The-master drummer, as usual, [Link] other instrumentalists to join the performance, Chorus? déncifiis' encouraged! The dince: pattems’are pre-stractured to go, with set musical patterns: Costumé::The men wear one'[Link] cloth around their bodies leaving one shoulder bare. The women -wear “ntoma”.(cloth) and."“kaba” (blouse). from the same material of the men,and with handkerchiefs when they dancing as a symbol of wealth. BAWA © » 7 cree anne . ' This dancé is found among:the Lobi and a ee of the: 3 West Region of, Ghana. The dance-type died out. some. time ago. but has, been revived. It used to be a festival ” dance performed only when the moon was up. aes Instrumental set up: Gyil (xylophone), kour (gourd drum), gangear (ovooden drum), ankle ‘bells and castanet. - -' in wescetin ee In Bawa music, the xylophonist plays the melodies. He is accompanied by Performance practice: the kour dnd the gangoar players, After playing for a while, the xylophonist changes the style of performance to-play music for dancing, Immediately, the dancers are drawn onto the dancing zing. They dance round the instrumentalists. Both male and female dancers dance in a chorus. Occasions for performance: Marriage ceremonies and festivals. . Costumes: Short skirt, raffia skiits, animal skins .— BAMAYA ve te a w ‘This dance is [Link] the Dagombe people in Ghana. Legend has it that there was a severe drought and the women solicited the [Link] the gods, As a result, the rain fell and the valleys became wet; hence “ba” means valley and “maya”means it is wet. “Bamaya” therefore means valley is wet. ‘The dance pieces of Bamaya include + Tugbangbele —- meaning — fried beans balls Sikolo — meaning — opened door, that is everybody can dance ‘ig | Nyanboli — meaning —-Sléw walk (slow dance steps) © Yokolikutoko ~ meaning'+-man without a wile still manages to eat : Brékete of gungon, hin (dorino) ° "Péiforitidne practice: Bamdaya drimmers harig their dims on their shoulders and play as‘they ‘dance alsng side with the dancérs ‘The dance'is miade tp’ of Both 'm special costuiné and centre thé vibrant activity’ of the dance around the waist. GéEasidiis Yor perfotmatide: Fimeials and festivals Costume: Both men and women wear skirt and blouse'with fat in the right hand and with jingles aid women ‘who 'weart ‘on both legs. They also wear goat’s skin hats, éariiigs and wear Band around théir heads. yoo This ig'a'Dagboi daiits'eSsebitilly ileat for gebtlemied oF princés. It is-bélioved 15 have’ originated’ froin the Guriinig of Burkina Faso" The “dance is‘tenhanced by the*calculated cultivation of graceful Roving fobs, By nigans of pivot tun nd torso swings und stainps‘Tehas links with Islam. They hold rods and the sound of the rods as they are hit complements the shythm of this dance and it has tremendous effect on the people, The dance is gay, but restr ‘The pieces of Takai are: a + Zimtakurugu — meaning ~- blood spoils irons (be sympathetic) * Dipsaaia —- meaning — three sticks (dance by hitting three times) *) Nkyidanara ~ smenial set up: Donno, brekete. eaning to hit twice)