UNIT THREE: PHOTOFGRAPHIC FILMS

3.1. Film components

Photographic films consist of two parts: emulsion and backing or support.

The emulsion contains light-sensitive silver halide crystals. These are placed on the backing or
support in a thin coat, as shown in Figure 1. The support material is usually paper, plastic film,
or glass.

When the silver halide crystals are exposed to light, the bond between the silver and the halide
is weakened. An emulsion that has been exposed to light contains an invisible image of the
object called latent image. When the latent image is developed, areas of the emulsion that
were exposed to intense light turn to free silver and become black. Areas that are received no
light become white if the support is white paper. (They become clear if the support is glass or
transparent plastic film). The degree of darkness of the developed image is a function of the
total exposure (product of illuminance and time) that originally sensitized the emulsion to form
the latent image.

In any photographic exposure, there will be variations in illuminance received from different
object in the photographed seen and therefore between black and white there will exist various
tones of gray which result from these variations in illuminance. Actually the crystal turns black,
not gray when exposed to sufficient light. However, if the light received in a particular area is
sufficient to sensitize only apportion of the crystal, then a gray tone results from a mixture of
the resulting black and white. The greater the exposure, the greater the percentage of black in
the mixture and hence the darker the shade of gray.

3.2. Types of Film

Although there are a number of aerial films in use, many serve unique situations. Two
commonly utilized films employed in planimetric and/or topographic digital mapping are
panchromatic and natural color. These two films plus infrared and false color form the basic
media used in image analysis procedures.

3.2.1 Panchromatic

Panchromatic, more often termed black and white, is the most commonly encountered film
employed for photogrammetry. The sensitive layer consists of silver salt (bromide, chloride, and
halide) crystals suspended in a pure gelatin coating which sits atop a plastic base sheet. Visible
light waves react with the silver particles in the emulsion, causing a chemical reaction that
creates a gray-scale image. The emulsion is sensitive to the visible (0.4- to 0.7-µm) portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum that is detected by the human eye.

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 Figure 1 Basic components of panchromatic film.

3.2.2 Color

Natural color film is also called true color or color. The multilayer emulsion is sensitive to the
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye. There are three layers
of gelatin containing sensitized dyes, one each for blue (0.4–0.5 µm), green (0.5–0.6 µm), and
red (0.6–0.7 µm) light. Green and red layers are also sensitive to blue wavelengths. Visible light
waves first pass through and react with the blue layer and then pass through a filter layer which
halts further passage of the blue rays. Green and red waves pass through this barrier and
sensitize their respective dyes, causing a chemical reaction and thus completing the exposure
and creating a true color image.

Fig.2 Cross section of normal color film

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3.2.3 Infrared

Current aerial infrared film is offered as two types: black and white infrared and color infrared.

Black and White Infrared

Infrared film is also known as black and white infrared. The emulsion is sensitive to green (0.54–
0.6 µm), red (0.6–0.7 µm), and part of the near infrared (0.7–1.0 µm) portions of the spectrum
and renders a gray-scale image. Positive images appear quite like panchromatic film, except
that water and vigorous vegetation tend to register as darker gray to black. The film structure
resembles panchromatic with the exception that the emulsion sensitivity range is shifted
upward, eliminating blue wavelengths and including a portion of the near infrared. In the past
this film was used extensively in vegetation and water studies, but its popularity seems to be
declining in favor of color infrared.

Color Infrared

Color Infrared film is commonly termed false color. The multilayer emulsion is sensitive to
green (0.5–0.6 µm), red (0.6–0.7 µm), and part of the near infrared (0.7–1.0 µm) portions of the
spectrum. A false color image contains red/pink hues in vegetative areas, with the color
depending upon the degree to which the photosynthetic process is active. It also images water
in light blue/green to dark blue/black hues, depending on the amount of particulates
suspended in the water body. Clean water readily absorbs near infrared radiation. As the
amount of foreign particulates increases, the near infrared rays reflect increasingly more of
these particles. The film structure resembles natural color, except that the blue sensitive layer
is eliminated and replaced by a layer that reacts to a portion of near infrared (0.7–1.0 µm).

Fig.3 Basic components of color Infrared-red film

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3.3. Film processing

Film processing is the chemical means by which photographic film is treated after photographic
exposure to produce a negative image. Film processing transforms the latent image into a
visible image, makes this permanent and renders it insensitive to light.

All processes based upon the gelatin-silver process are similar, regardless of the film or paper's
manufacturer. Exceptional variations include instant films such as Polaroid (films from which
pictures that develop within seconds of being taken) and thermally developed films.

3.3.1 Common processes

All films are treated in a series of chemical baths, which are closely monitored and maintained
at a specific temperature and treatment time. Developer baths are most sensitive to deviations
from the standard time and temperature of treatment; other baths are less sensitive.

Before processing, the film must be removed from the camera and from its cassette, spool or
holder in a light-proof room or container.

3.3.2 Black and white negative processing

1. The film may be soaked in water to swell the gelatin layer.

2. The developer converts the latent image to metallic silver.
3. A stop bath, typically a dilute solution of acetic acid or citric acid, halts the action of the
developer. A rinse with clean water may be substituted.
4. The fixer makes the image permanent and light-resistant by dissolving any remaining
silver halide salts.
5. Washing in clean water removes any remaining fixer. Residual fixer can corrode the
silver image, leading to discoloration, staining and fading

Film is then dried in a dust-free environment, cut and placed into protective sleeves.

Once the film is processed, it is then referred to as a negative. The negative may now be
printed; the negative is placed in an enlarger and projected onto a sheet of photographic paper.

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3.3.3 Color processing

Chromogenic materials use dye couplers to form color images. Modern color negative film is
developed with the C-41 process and color negative print materials with the RA-4 process.
These processes are very similar, with differences in the first chemical developer.

The C-41 and RA-4 processes consist of the following steps:

1. The color developer develops the silver negative image, and byproducts activate the dye
couplers to form the color dyes in each emulsion layer.
2. Rehalogenising bleach converts the developed silver image into silver halides.
3. A fixer removes the silver salts.
4. The film is washed, stabilized, dried and cut.

Transparency films, except Kodachrome, are developed using the E-6 process, which has the
following stages:

1. A black and white developer develops the silver in each image layer.
2. Development is stopped with a rinse or a stop bath.
3. The film is fogged in the reversal step.
4. The fogged silver halides are developed and exhausted developing agents’ couple with
the dye couplers in each layer.
5. The film is bleached, fixed, stabilized and dried as described above.

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In some old processes, the film emulsion was hardened during the process, typically before the
bleach. In modern processing, these hardening steps are unnecessary because the film
emulsion is sufficiently hardened to withstand the processing chemicals.

Further processing

Black and white emulsions both negative and positive, may be further processed. The image
silver may be reacted with elements such as selenium or sulphur to increase image permanence
and for aesthetic reasons. This process is known as toning.

3.3.4 Small scale processing

In amateur processing, the film is removed from the camera and wound onto a reel in
complete darkness (usually inside a darkroom with the safelight turned off or a lightproof bag
with arm holes). The reel holds the film in a spiral shape, with space between each successive
loop so the chemicals may flow freely across the film's surfaces. The reel is placed in a specially
designed light-proof tank (called daylight processing tank or a light-trap tank) where it is
retained until final washing is complete.

Sheet films can be processed in trays, in hangers (which are used in deep tanks), or rotary
processing drums. Each sheet can be developed individually for special requirements. Stand
development, long development in dilute developer without agitation, is occasionally used.

3.3.5 Commercial processing

In commercial processing, the film is removed automatically or by an operator handling the film
in a light proof bag from which it is fed into the processing machine. The processing machinery
is generally run on a continuous basis with films spliced together in a continuous line. All the
processing steps are carried out within a single processing machine with automatically
controlled time, temperature and solution replenishment rate. The film or prints emerge
washed and dry and ready to be cut by hand. Some modern machines also cut films and prints
automatically, sometimes resulting in negatives cut across the middle of the frame where the
space between frames is very thin or the frame edge is indistinct, as in an image taken in low
light.