Analog
Electronic
Volt-Ohm-
Multimeters
D R . FAT M A H A N A F Y E L F O U LY
DR. KHALIL ELKHAMISY
Transistor
Voltmeter Circuits/
Operational
Amplifier
Voltmeter Circuits
Voltmeter Circuits
TRANSISTOR
VOLTMETER
CIRCUITS
Difference
Amplifier
Voltmeters
Transistors Q1 and Q2 together with RL1, RL2, and RE in Figure
constitute a differential amplifier, or emitter-coupled amplifier.
The circuit as a whole is known as a difference amplifier
voltmeter. This is because when the voltage at the base of Q2 is
zero, and an input voltage (E) is applied to the Q1 base, the
difference between the two base voltages is amplified and
applied to the meter circuit. When a small positive voltage is
applied to the base of Q1 in Figure 1, the current through Q1 is
increased, and that through Q2 is decreased. An increase in IC1
causes IC1 RL1 to increase and thus produces a fall in voltage
VC1. Similarly, a decrease in IC2 produces a rise in VC2. The
consequence of this is that the voltage across the meter circuit
increases positively at the right-hand side and negatively at the
left. This meter voltage (\I) is directly proportional to the input
voltage (E).
OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIER
VOLTMETER
CIRCUITS
OP-Amp Voltage-
Follower Voltmeters
• The operational amplifier voltage-follower voltmeter
in Figure is comparable to the simple emitter-follower
circuit. However, unlike the emitter-follower, there is no
base-emitter voltage drop from input to output. The
voltage-follower also has a much higher input
resistance and lower output resistance than the emitter-
follower. The voltage-follower input (EB) is applied to
the op-amp non-inverting input terminal, and the
feedback from the output goes to the inverting input
The very high internal voltage gain of the operational
amplifier, combined with the negative feedback, tends
to keep the inverting terminal voltage exactly equal to
that at the non-inverting terminal. Thus, the output
voltage (Vo) exactly follows the input. As discussed
earlier, the attenuator selects the voltmeter range.
OP-Amp Amplifier
Voltmeters
• Like a transistor amplifier, an IC operational
amplifier circuit can be used to amplify low
voltages to levels measurable by a deflection
instrument. Figure 3 shows a suitable op-amp
circuit for this purpose. Input voltage E is
applied to the op-amp non-inverting input, the
output voltage is divided across resistors R3
and R4, and VR3 is fed back to the op-amp
inverting input terminal. The internal voltage
gain of the op-amp causes VR3 to always equal
E. Consequently, the output voltage is
R3 R4
Vo E
R3
OP-Amp Amplifier
Voltmeters
• The circuit is known as a non-
inverting amplifier 1; because its output
is positive when a positive input voltage
is applied and negative when the input
is a negative quantity. The non-inverting
amplifier has a very high input
resistance, very low output resistance,
and a voltage gain of
R4
Av 1
R3
OP-Amp Amplifier
Voltmeters
Example 1
• An op-amp voltmeter circuit as in
Figure is required to measure a
maximum input of 20 mV. The op-amp
input current is 0.2 µA, and the meter
circuit has Im =100 µA FSD and Rm =10
kΩ. Determine suitable resistance
values for R3 and R4
OP-Amp Amplifier
Voltmeters
Solution:-
I 4 I B
select I 4 1000 I B 1000 0.2 A 0.2mA
At full scale , I m 100 A
and Vout I m Rm 100 A 10 K 1V
E 20 mV
R3 100
I 4 0.2mA
Vo E 1V 20mV
R4 4.9 K
I4 0.2mA
Voltage-to-
Current Converter
• The circuit shown in Figure is
essentially a non-inverting amplifier, as
in Figure 3. However, instead of
connecting the meter between the op-
amp output and ground, it is substituted
in place of resistor R4 (in Figure 3).
Once again, VR3 remains equal to the
input voltage, and as long as IR3 is very
much greater than IB, the meter current
is
E
I m I R3
R3
Voltage-to-
Current Converter
Example 2
Calculate the value of R3 for the circuit in
Figure 4 if E = 1 V is to give FSD on the
meter. The moving-coil meter has 1m= 1 mA
at full scale and Rm = 100 Ω. Also determine
the maximum voltage at the operational
amplifier output terminal
Solution
E 1V
R3 1K
I ( FSD ) 1mA
Vo I ( R3 Rm ) 1mA(1K 100) 1.1V
AC
ELECTRONIC
VOLTMETER
Inclusion of a Rectifier
Converts a Voltage
Follower DC into an AC
Electronic Voltmeter
COUPLING CAPACITOR (C1) IS USUALLY
PROVIDED AT THE INPUT TO BLOCK UNWANTED
DC VOLTAGE.
VF ACROSS RECTIFIER DIODE IS THE SOURCE
OF ERROR.
FOR +VE HALF CYCLE:-
VOUT =EB
VM=EB-VD
FOR -VE HALF CYCLE:-
VOUT =EB
VM=0 AS D1 IS OFF SO NO CURRENT PASS
THROUGH THE METER
Use of a Precision
Rectifier Improves
the Accuracy of
The AC Electronic
Voltmeter
An Amplifier with
a rectifier amplifies
and rectifies low
level ac voltages
prior to
measurement