Book

A book is a medium for recording information in the

form of writing or images. Books are typically
composed of many pages, bound together and
protected by a cover.[1] Modern bound books were
preceded by many other written mediums, such as the
codex and the scroll. The book publishing process is
the series of steps involved in their creation and
dissemination.

As a conceptual object, a book typically refers to a

The Gutenberg Bible, one of the first books to be
written work of substantial length, which may be
printed using the printing press
distributed either physically or in digital forms like
ebooks. These works are broadly classified into fiction
(containing imaginary content) and non-fiction (containing content representing truths). Many smaller
categories exist within these, such as children's literature meant to match the reading level and interests of
children, or reference works that gather collections of nonfiction. Books are traded at both regular stores
and specialized bookstores, and people can borrow them from libraries. The reception of books has led to a
number of social consequences, including censorship.

A physical book does not need to contain written works: for example, it may contain only drawings,
engravings, photographs, puzzles, or removable content like paper dolls. Physical books may be left empty
to be used for writing or drawing, such as account books, appointment books, autograph books, notebooks,
diaries and sketchbooks.

The contemporary book industry has seen several major changes due to new technologies. In some markets,
the sale of printed books has decreased due to the increased use of eBooks.[2] However, printed books still
largely outsell eBooks, and many people have a preference for print.[3][4][5][6] The 21st century has also
seen a rapid rise in the popularity of audiobooks, which are recordings of books being read aloud.[7]
Additionally, awareness of the needs of people who can't access print media due to limitations like visual
impairment has led to a rise in formats designed for greater accessibility, such as braille printing or formats
supporting text-to-voice. Google Books estimated that as of 2010, approximately 130,000,000 unique
books had been published.[8]

Etymology
The word book comes from Old English bōc, which in turn comes from the Germanic root *bōk-, cognate
to 'beech'.[9] In Slavic languages like Russian, Bulgarian, Macedonian буква bukva—'letter' is cognate with
'beech'. In Russian, Serbian and Macedonian, the word букварь (bukvar') or буквар (bukvar) refers to a
primary school textbook that helps young children master the techniques of reading and writing. It is thus
conjectured that the earliest Indo-European writings may have been carved on beech wood.[10] The Latin
word codex, meaning a book in the modern sense (bound and with separate leaves), originally meant 'block
of wood'.[11]
An avid reader or collector of books is a bibliophile, or colloquially a "bookworm".[12]

Definitions
In its modern incarnation, a physical book is typically a collection of pages (most commonly of paper,
parchment, or vellum) that are bound together and protected by a cover. By extension, 'book' may refer to a
physical book's written, printed, or graphic contents.[1]

A single part or division of a longer written work may also be called a book, especially for some works
composed in antiquity: each part of Aristotle's Physics, for example, is a book.[13]

It is difficult to create an exact definition of books that clearly delineates them from other kinds of written
material across time and culture: many physical mediums for communication have existed throughout
history, and the question of whether a particular object is a book may be subjective and contentious (as in
the case of eBooks). Historian of books James Raven has suggested that when studying how books have
been used to communicate, they should be defined in a broadly inclusive way as "portable, durable,
replicable and legible" means of recording and disseminating information, rather than by physical or
contextual features. This would include, for example, eBooks, newspapers, and quipus (a form of knot-
based recording historically used by cultures in Andean South America), but not objects fixed in place such
as inscribed monuments.[14][15]

Stricter definitions appear in other specialized contexts. For the purpose of recording national statistics on
book production, UNESCO recommended that a book be defined as "a non-periodical printed publication
of at least 49 pages, exclusive of the cover pages, published in the country and made available to the
public", distinguishing them from other written material such as pamphlets.[1][16]

Although in academic language a monograph is understood to be a specialist work on a single subject, in

library and information science the term is sometimes used more broadly to mean any non-serial publication
complete in one volume (a physical book) or a definite number of volumes (such as a multi-volume novel),
in contrast to serial or periodical publications.[1][13]

History of books
The history of books became an acknowledged academic discipline in the 1980s. Contributions to the field
have come from textual scholarship, codicology, bibliography, philology, palaeography, art history, social
history and cultural history. Its key purpose is to demonstrate that the book as an object, not just the text
contained within it, is a conduit of interaction between readers and words. Analysis of each component part
of the book reveals its purpose, where and how it was kept, who read it, ideological and religious beliefs of
the period, and whether readers interacted with the text within. Even a lack of evidence of this nature leaves
valuable clues about the nature of that particular book.

The earliest forms of writing were etched on stone slabs, transitioning to palm leaves and papyrus in ancient
times.[17] Parchment and paper later emerged as important substrates for bookmaking, introducing greater
durability and accessibility.[18] Across regions like China, the Middle East, Europe, and South Asia, diverse
methods of book production evolved. The Middle Ages saw the rise of illuminated manuscripts, intricately
blending text and imagery, particularly during the Mughal era in South Asia under the patronage of rulers
like Akbar and Shah Jahan.[19][20] Prior to the invention of the
printing press, made famous by the Gutenberg Bible, each text was
a unique handcrafted valuable article, personalized through the
design features incorporated by the scribe, owner, bookbinder, and
illustrator.[21]

The invention of the printing press in the 15th century marked a

pivotal moment, revolutionizing book production.[22] Innovations
like movable type and steam-powered presses accelerated
manufacturing processes and contributed to increased literacy rates.
Copyright protection also emerged, securing authors' rights and
shaping the publishing landscape.[23] The Late Modern Period
introduced chapbooks, catering to a wider range of readers, and
mechanization of the printing process further enhanced efficiency.

The 20th century witnessed the advent of typewriters, computers, 12-metre-high (40 ft) stack of books
sculpture at the Berlin Walk of Ideas,
and desktop publishing, transforming document creation and
commemorating the invention of
printing. Digital advancements in the 21st century led to the rise of
modern book printing
e-books, propelled by the popularity of e-readers and accessibility
features. While discussions about the potential decline of physical
books have surfaced, print media has proven remarkably resilient, continuing to thrive as a multi-billion
dollar industry.[24] Additionally, efforts to make literature more inclusive emerged, with the development of
Braille for the visually impaired and the creation of spoken books, providing alternative ways for
individuals to access and enjoy literature.[25][26]

Notable advances

Tablet
Some of the earliest written records were made on tablets. Clay tablets (flattened pieces of clay impressed
with a stylus) were used in the Ancient Near East throughout the Bronze Age and well into the Iron Age,
especially for writing in cuneiform. Wax tablets (pieces of wood covered in a layer of wax) were used in
classical antiquity and throughout the Middle Ages.

The custom of binding several wax tablets together (Roman pugillares) is a possible precursor of modern
bound books.[28] The etymology of the word codex (block of wood) suggests that it may have developed
from wooden wax tablets.[29]

Scroll
Scrolls made from papyrus were first used for writing in Ancient Egypt, perhaps as early as the First
Dynasty, although the earliest evidence is from the account books of King Neferirkare Kakai of the Fifth
Dynasty (about 2400 BC). According to Herodotus (History 5:58), the Phoenicians brought writing and
papyrus to Greece around the 10th or 9th century BC. Whether made from papyrus, parchment, or paper,
 scrolls were the dominant
writing medium in the
Hellenistic, Roman, Chinese,
Hebrew, and Macedonian
cultures. The codex
dominated in the Roman
Book of the Dead of Hunefer; c. 1275 BC;
world by late antiquity, but
ink and pigments on papyrus; 45 × 90.5 cm;
British Museum (London)
scrolls persisted much longer
in Asia.

Codex
Fragments of the
The codex is the ancestor of the modern book, consisting of sheets of Instructions of Shuruppak:
uniform size bound along one edge and typically held between two covers "Shurrupak gave
made of some more robust material. Isidore of Seville (died 636) explained instructions to his son: Do
the then-current relation between a codex, book, and scroll in his not buy an ass which brays
Etymologiae (VI.13): "A codex is composed of many books; a book is of too much. Do not commit
one scroll. It is called codex by way of metaphor from the trunks (codex) of rape upon a man's daughter,
do not announce it to the
trees or vines, as if it were a wooden stock, because it contains in itself a
courtyard. Do not answer
multitude of books, as it were of branches". back against your father, do
not raise a 'heavy eye.'".
The first written mention of the codex as a form of book is from Martial, in From Adab, c. 2600–2500
his Apophoreta CLXXXIV at the end of the first century, where he praises its BCE[27]
compactness. However, the codex never gained much popularity in the
pagan Hellenistic world, and only within the Christian community did it
gain widespread use.[30] This change happened gradually during the 3rd
and 4th centuries, and the reasons for adopting the codex form of the book
were several: the format was more economical than the scroll, as both sides
of the writing material can be used; and it was portable, searchable, and
easier to conceal. The Christian authors may also have wanted to
distinguish their writings from the pagan and Judaic texts written on scrolls.

The codices of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica had the same form as the

European codex, but were instead made with long folded strips of either fig
bark (amatl) or plant fibers, often with a layer of whitewash applied before
A Chinese bamboo book
writing. New World codices were written as late as the 16th century (see
meets the modern definition
Maya codices and Aztec codices). Those written before the Spanish of codex.
conquests seem all to have been single long sheets folded concertina-style,
sometimes written on both sides of the local amatl paper.

Manuscript
Manuscripts, handwritten and hand-copied documents, were the only form of writing before the invention
and widespread adoption of print. Advances were made in the techniques used to create them.

In the early Western Roman Empire, monasteries continued Latin writing traditions related to Christianity,
and the clergy were the predominant readers and copyists. The bookmaking process was long and
laborious. They were usually written on parchment or vellum, writing surfaces made from processed animal
 skin. The parchment had to be prepared, then the unbound pages
were planned and ruled with a blunt tool or lead, after which the
text was written by a scribe, who usually left blank areas for
illustration and rubrication. Finally, it was bound by a
bookbinder.[31]

Because of the difficulties involved in making and copying books,

they were expensive and rare. Smaller monasteries usually had only
a few dozen books. By the 9th century, larger collections held
around 500 volumes and even at the end of the Middle Ages, the
papal library in Avignon and Paris library of the Sorbonne held only
Folio 14 recto of the 5th-century
Vergilius Romanus contains an
around 2,000 volumes.[32]
author portrait of Virgil. Note the
bookcase (capsa), reading stand and
The rise of universities in the 13th century led to an increased
the text written without word spacing demand for books, and a new system for copying appeared. The
in rustic capitals. books were divided into unbound leaves (pecia), which were lent
out to different copyists, so the speed of book production was
considerably increased. The system was maintained by secular
stationers guilds, which produced both religious and non-religious material.[33]

In India bound manuscripts made of

birch bark or palm leaf had existed
since antiquity.[34] The text in palm
leaf manuscripts was inscribed with
a knife pen on rectangular cut and
cured palm leaf sheets; coloring was
then applied to the surface and
wiped off, leaving the ink in the
incised grooves. Each sheet
Burgundian author and scribe Jean typically had a hole through which
Miélot, from his Miracles de Notre a string could pass, and with these
Dame, 15th century the sheets were tied together with a
string to bind like a book. The Codex Amiatinus
anachronistically depicts the
Biblical Ezra with the kind of
Woodblock printing books used in the 8th
century AD.
In woodblock printing, a relief image of an entire page is carved into blocks
of wood, inked, and used to print copies of that page. It originated in the
Han dynasty before 220 AD, used to print textiles and later paper, and was widely used throughout East
Asia. The oldest dated book printed by this method is The Diamond Sutra (868 AD). The method (called
woodcut when used in art) arrived in Europe in the early 14th century. Books (known as block-books), as
well as playing-cards and religious pictures, began to be produced by this method. Creating an entire book
was a painstaking process, requiring a hand-carved block for each page, and the wooden blocks could
crack if stored for too long.

Movable type and incunabula

 The Chinese inventor Bi Sheng
made movable type of earthenware
c. 1045, but there are no known
surviving examples of his printing.
Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg
independently invented movable
type in Europe, along with
innovations in casting the type
based on a matrix and hand mould.
Selected Teachings of Buddhist This invention gradually made
Sages and Son Masters, the earliest books less expensive to produce
known book printed with movable
and more widely available. Early
metal type, printed in Korea, in 1377,
Bibliothèque nationale de France
printed books, single sheets and
Bagh print, a traditional
images which were created before
woodblock printing
1501 in Europe are known as technique that originated in
incunables or incunabula.[35] Bagh, Madhya Pradesh,
India

19th century to 21st century

Steam-powered printing presses became popular in the early 19th century.
These machines could print 1,100 sheets per hour,[36] but workers could
only set 2,000 letters per hour. Monotype and linotype typesetting machines
were introduced in the late 19th century. They could set more than 6,000
letters per hour and an entire line of type at once. There have been
numerous improvements in the printing press. In mid-20th century,
European book production had risen to over 200,000 titles per year.

Throughout the 20th century, libraries have faced an ever-increasing rate of

publishing, sometimes called an information explosion. The advent of
electronic publishing and the internet means that much new information is
published online rather than in printed books, for example through a digital
A 15th-century Incunable
library. Though many books are produced digitally, most digital versions
are not available to the public, and there is no decline in the rate of paper
publishing.[37] There have also been new developments in the process of publishing books. Technologies
such as POD or "print on demand", which make it possible to print as few as one book at a time, have
made self-publishing (and vanity publishing) much easier and more affordable. On-demand publishing has
allowed publishers, by avoiding the high costs of warehousing, to keep low-selling books in print rather
than declaring them out of print.

Contemporary publishing
Presently, books are often produced by a publishing company for the sake of being put on the market by
distributors and bookstores. The company negotiates with authors in order to reach a formal legal agreement
to obtain the copyright to works, then arranges for them to be produced and sold. The major steps of the
publishing process are: editing and proofreading the work to be published; designing the printed book;
manufacturing the books; and selling the book, including marketing and promotion. Each of these steps is
usually taken on by third-party companies paid by the publisher.[1] This is in contrast to self-publishing,
where an author arranges to publish their work without the involvement of a publishing company.[38]

English-language publishing is currently dominated by the so-called "Big Five" publishers: Penguin
Random House, Hachette Book Group, HarperCollins, Simon and Schuster, and Macmillan Publishers.
They were estimated to make up almost 60 percent of the market for general-readership books in 2021.[39]

Design
Book design is the art of incorporating the content, style, format, design, and sequence of the various
components and elements of a book into a coherent unit.[40] In the words of renowned typographer Jan
Tschichold (1902–1974), book design, "though largely forgotten today, [relies upon] methods and rules
upon which it is impossible to improve, [and which] have been developed over centuries. To produce
perfect books, these rules have to be brought back to life and applied".[41] Richard Hendel describes book
design as "an arcane subject", and refers to the need for a context to understand what that means.[42]

Layout

Modern books are organized according to a particular format called

the book's layout. Although there is great variation in layout,
modern books tend to adhere to a set of rules with regard to what
the parts of the layout are and what their content usually includes. A
basic layout will include a front cover, a back cover and the book's
content which is called its body copy or content pages. The front
cover often bears the book's title (and subtitle, if any) and the name
of its author or editor(s). The inside front cover page is usually left
blank in both hardcover and paperback books. The next section, if
present, is the book's front matter, which includes all textual
material after the front cover but not part of the book's content such Scheme of common book design
as a foreword, a dedication, a table of contents and publisher data
1. Belly band
such as the book's edition or printing number and place of
2. Flap
publication. Between the body copy and the back cover goes the
3. Endpaper
end matter which would include any indices, sets of tables,
4. Cover
diagrams, glossaries or lists of cited works (though an edited book
with several authors usually places cited works at the end of each 5. Head
authored chapter). The inside back cover page, like that inside the 6. Fore edge
front cover, is usually blank. The back cover is the usual place for 7. Tail
the book's ISBN and maybe a photograph of the author(s)/ 8. Right page (recto if printing
editor(s), perhaps with a short introduction to them. Also here often is left to right, verso if right
to left)
appear plot summaries, barcodes and excerpted reviews of the
book.[43] 9. Left page (verso if printing
is left to right, recto if right
to left)
10. Gutter
The body of the books is usually divided into parts, chapters, sections and sometimes subsections that are
composed of at least a paragraph or more.

Illustration
The illustration of manuscript books was well established in ancient
times, and the tradition of the illuminated manuscript thrived in the
West until the invention of printing. Other parts of the world had
comparable traditions, such as the Persian miniature. Modern book
illustration comes from the 15th-century woodcut illustrations that
were fairly rapidly included in early printed books, and later block
books.[44] Other techniques such as engraving, etching, lithography
and various kinds of colour printing were to expand the possibilities
and were exploited by such masters as Daumier, Doré or
Gavarni.[44]

Manufacturing
The methods used for the printing and binding of books continued
fundamentally unchanged from the 15th century into the early 20th Illustration from "The House that
century. While there was more mechanization, a book printer in Jack Built" in The Complete
1900 still used movable metal type assembled into words, lines, and Collection of Pictures & Songs;
engraving and printing by Edmund
pages to create copies. Modern paper books are printed on paper
Evans, illustration by Randolph
designed specifically for printing. Traditionally, book papers are off-
Caldecott (1887)
white or low-white papers (easier to read), are opaque to minimize
the show-through of
text from one side of
the page to the other
and are (usually)
made to tighter
caliper or thickness
specifications,
particularly for case-
bound books.
Different paper
The spine of the book is an important
aspect in book design, especially in the qualities are used
cover design. When books are stacked up depending on the
or stored on a shelf, the spine is often the type of book:
only visible surface that contains Machine finished
information about the book. In stores, it is coated papers,
the details on the spine that attract a
woodfree uncoated
prospective buyer's attention first.
papers, coated fine
One of 12 illustrations in the 4th
papers and special
edition of Paradise Lost by John
fine papers are common paper grades. Milton, by John Baptist Medina, 1688

Today, the majority of books are printed by offset lithography.[45]

When a book is printed, the pages are laid out on the plate so that after the printed sheet is folded the pages
will be in the correct sequence. Books tend to be manufactured nowadays in a few standard sizes. The sizes
of books are usually specified as "trim size": the size of the page after the sheet has been folded and
trimmed. The standard sizes result from sheet sizes (therefore
machine sizes) which became popular 200 or 300 years ago, and
have come to dominate the industry. British conventions in this
regard prevail throughout the English-speaking world, except for
the US. The European book manufacturing industry works to a
completely different set of standards.

Printing
Some books, particularly those with shorter runs (i.e. with fewer A small bookshelf

copies) will be printed on sheet-fed offset presses, but most books

are now printed on web presses, which are fed by a continuous roll of paper, and can consequently print
more copies in a shorter time. As the production line circulates, a complete "book" is collected together in
one stack of pages, and another machine carries out the folding, pleating, and stitching of the pages into
bundles of signatures (sections of pages) ready to go into the gathering line. The pages of a book are printed
two at a time, not as one complete book. Excess numbers are printed to make up for any spoilage due to
make-readies or test pages to assure final print quality.

A make-ready is the preparatory work carried out by the pressmen to get the printing press up to the
required quality of impression. Included in make-ready is the time taken to mount the plate onto the
machine, clean up any mess from the previous job, and get the press up to speed. As soon as the pressman
decides that the printing is correct, all the make-ready sheets will be discarded, and the press will start
making books. Similar make readies take place in the folding and binding areas, each involving spoilage of
paper.

Digital printing
Recent developments in book manufacturing include the development of digital printing. Book pages are
printed, in much the same way as an office copier works, using toner rather than ink. Each book is printed
in one pass, not as separate signatures. Digital printing has permitted the manufacture of much smaller
quantities than offset, in part because of the absence of make readies and of spoilage. Digital printing has
opened up the possibility of print-on-demand, where no books are printed until after an order is received
from a customer.

Binding
After the signatures are folded and gathered, they move into the bindery. In the middle of last century there
were still many trade binders—stand-alone binding companies which did no printing, specializing in
binding alone. At that time, because of the dominance of letterpress printing, typesetting and printing took
place in one location, and binding in a different factory. When type was all metal, a typical book's worth of
type would be bulky, fragile and heavy. The less it was moved in this condition the better: so printing would
be carried out in the same location as the typesetting. Printed sheets on the other hand could easily be
moved. Now, because of increasing computerization of preparing a book for the printer, the typesetting part
of the job has flowed upstream, where it is done either by separately contracting companies working for the
publisher, by the publishers themselves, or even by the authors. Mergers in the book manufacturing industry
mean that it is now unusual to find a bindery which is not also involved in book printing (and vice versa).
If the book is a hardback its path through the bindery will involve more points of activity than if it is a
paperback. Unsewn binding is now increasingly common. The signatures of a book can also be held
together by "Smyth sewing" using needles, "McCain sewing", using drilled holes often used in schoolbook
binding, or "notch binding", where gashes about an inch long are made at intervals through the fold in the
spine of each signature. The rest of the binding process is similar in all instances. Sewn and notch bound
books can be bound as either hardbacks or paperbacks.

Finishing
"Making cases" happens off-line and prior to the book's arrival at the binding line. In the most basic case-
making, two pieces of cardboard are placed onto a glued piece of cloth with a space between them into
which is glued a thinner board cut to the width of the spine of the book. The overlapping edges of the cloth
(about 5/8" all round) are folded over the boards, and pressed down to adhere. After case-making the stack
of cases will go to the foil stamping area for adding decorations and type.

Formats
For most of the history of book making, books have been shared as
physical books. However, with changes of technologies and
growing awareness of the needs of people who have reading
disabilities, other formats such as audiobooks and digital books
have gained traction in the book market place.

Physical books
Hardcover books have a stiff binding. Paperback books have
cheaper, flexible covers which tend to be less durable. An Hardcover books
alternative to paperback is the glossy cover, otherwise known as a
dust cover, found on magazines, and comic books. Spiral-bound
books are bound by spirals made of metal or plastic. Examples of
spiral-bound books include teachers' manuals and puzzle books
(crosswords, sudoku).

Publishers may produce low-cost, pre-publication copies known as

galleys or 'bound proofs' for promotional purposes, such as
generating reviews in advance of publication. Galleys are usually
made as cheaply as possible, since they are not intended for sale.
Paperback books

Size
The size of a book is generally measured by the height against the width of a leaf, or sometimes the height
and width of its cover.[46] A series of terms is commonly used by libraries and publishers for the general
sizes of modern books, ranging from folio (the largest), to quarto (smaller) and octavo (still smaller).
Historically, these terms referred to the format of the book, a technical term used by printers and
bibliographers to indicate the size of a leaf in terms of the size of the original sheet. For example, a quarto
(from Latin quartō, ablative form of quartus, fourth[47]) historically was a book printed on sheets of paper
folded in half twice, with the first fold at right angles to the second, to produce 4 leaves (or 8 pages), each
leaf one fourth the size of the original sheet printed – note that a leaf refers to the single piece of paper,
whereas a page is one side of a leaf. Because the actual format of many modern books cannot be
determined from examination of the books, bibliographers may not use these terms in scholarly descriptions.

Ebook
An ebook (short for electronic book), also known as an e-book or eBook, is
a book publication made available in electronic form, consisting of text,
images, or both, readable on the flat-panel display of computers or other
electronic devices.[48] Although sometimes defined as "an electronic
version of a printed book",[49] some e-books exist without a printed
equivalent. E-books can be read on dedicated e-reader devices, also on any
computer device that features a controllable viewing screen, including
desktop computers, laptops, tablets and smartphones.

Audiobook
An audiobook (or a talking book) is a recording of a book or other work
being read out loud. A reading of the complete text is described as
"unabridged", while readings of shorter versions are abridgements.
A Kindle e-reader
Spoken audio has been available in schools and public libraries and to a
lesser extent in music shops since the 1930s. Many spoken word albums
were made prior to the age of cassettes, compact discs, and downloadable audio, often of poetry and plays
rather than books. It was not until the 1980s that the medium began to attract book retailers, and then book
retailers started displaying audiobooks on bookshelves rather than in separate displays.

Accessibility formats
Accessible publishing is an approach to publishing and book design
whereby books and other texts are made available in alternative
formats designed to aid or replace the reading process. It is
particularly relevant for people who are blind, visually impaired or
otherwise print-disabled.

Alternative formats that have been developed to aid different people

An example of someone using a
to read include varieties of larger fonts, specialised fonts for certain
screen reader showing documents
kinds of reading disabilities, braille, e-books, and automated
that are inaccessible, readable and
audiobooks and DAISY digital talking books. accessible

Accessible publishing has been made easier through developments

in technology such as print on demand (POD), e-book readers, the XML structured data format, the EPUB3
format and the Internet.

Content
Libraries, bookstores, and collections commonly divide books into fiction
and non-fiction, though other types exist beyond this. Other books, which
remain unpublished or are primarily published as part of different business
functions (such as phone directories) may not be sold by bookstores or
collected by libraries. Manuscripts, logbooks and other records may be
classified and stored differently by special collections or archives.

Fiction
Many of the books published today are "fiction", meaning that they contain
invented material, and are creative literature. Other literary forms such as
poetry are included in the broad category. Most fiction is additionally Novels in a bookstore
categorized by literary form and genre.

The novel is the most common form of fiction book. Novels are stories that typically feature a plot, setting,
themes and characters. Stories and narrative are not restricted to any topic; a novel can be whimsical,
serious or controversial. The novel has had a tremendous impact on entertainment and publishing
markets.[50] A novella is a term sometimes used for fiction prose typically between 17,500 and 40,000
words, and a novelette between 7,500 and 17,500. A short story may be any length up to 10,000 words, but
these word lengths vary.

Comic books or graphic novels are books in which the story is illustrated. The characters and narrators use
speech or thought bubbles to express verbal language.

Non-fiction
Non-fiction books are in principle based on fact, on subjects such as history,
politics, social and cultural issues, as well as autobiographies and memoirs.
Nearly all academic literature is non-fiction. A reference book is a general
type of non-fiction book which provides information as opposed to telling a
story, essay, commentary, or otherwise supporting a point of view.

References
An almanac is a very general reference book, usually one-volume, with lists
of data and information on many topics. An encyclopedia is a book or set of
A page from a dictionary books designed to have more in-depth articles on many topics. A book
listing words, their etymology, meanings, and other information is called a
dictionary. A book which is a collection of maps is an atlas. A more specific
reference book with tables or lists of data and information about a certain topic, often intended for
professional use, is often called a handbook. Books which try to list references and abstracts in a certain
broad area may be called an index, such as Engineering Index, or abstracts such as chemical abstracts and
biological abstracts.

Technical
Books with technical information on how to do something or how
to use some equipment are called instruction manuals. Other
popular how-to books include cookbooks and home improvement
books.

Educational
Students typically store and carry textbooks and schoolbooks for
study purposes. Lap books are a learning tool created by students.
Elementary school pupils often use workbooks, which are An atlas

published with spaces or blanks to be filled by them for study or

homework. In US higher education, it is common for a student to take an exam using a blue book.

Religious
Hymnals are books with collections of musical hymns that can typically be found in churches. Prayerbooks
or missals are books that contain written prayers and are commonly carried by monks, nuns, and other
devoted followers or clergy.

Children's books
Children's literature or juvenile literature includes stories, books,
magazines, and poems that are created for children. Modern
children's literature is classified in two different ways: genre or the
intended age of the reader, from picture books for the very young to
young adult fiction.

Children's literature can be traced to traditional stories like fairy

tales, that have only been identified as children's literature in the
eighteenth century, and songs, part of a wider oral tradition, that
adults shared with children before publishing existed. The
development of early children's literature, before printing was
invented, is difficult to trace. Even after printing became
widespread, many classic "children's" tales were originally created
for adults and later adapted for a younger audience. Since the
fifteenth century much literature has been aimed specifically at
children, often with a moral or religious message. Children's
literature has been shaped by religious sources, like Puritan
traditions, or by more philosophical and scientific standpoints with
the influences of Charles Darwin and John Locke.[51] The late A mother reads to her children,
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries are known as the "Golden depicted by Jessie Willcox Smith in
Age of Children's Literature" because many classic children's books a cover illustration of a volume of
were published then. fairy tales written in the mid to late
19th century.

Unpublished
There is a large set of books that are made only to write private ideas, notes, and accounts. These books are
rarely published and are typically destroyed or remain private. Notebooks are blank papers to be written in
by the user. Students and writers commonly use them for taking notes. Scientists and other researchers use
 lab notebooks to record their notes. They often feature spiral coil bindings
at the edge so that pages may easily be torn out.

Directories and record keeping

Address books, phone books, and
calendar/appointment books are
commonly used on a daily basis for
recording appointments, meetings
A page from a notebook and personal contact information.
used as hand written diary
Books for recording periodic entries
by the user, such as daily
information about a journey, are called logbooks or logs. A similar A telephone directory, with business
book for writing the owner's daily private personal events, and residence listings
information, and ideas is called a diary or personal journal.
Businesses use accounting books such as journals and ledgers to
record financial data in a practice called bookkeeping (now usually held on computers rather than in hand-
written form).

Collection and classification

Since the beginning of creation of books, there has been need to create strategies for organizing, collecting
and creating access to the books. Personal and public libraries, archives and other forms of collecting has
led to different strategies for organizing, and subsequently making access to the books easier for different
use cases.

In the 19th and 20th century, libraries and library professionals systematized book collecting and
classification systems to respond to the growing literacy and print industries around the world. The most
widely used system is ISBN, which has provided unique identifiers for books since 1970.

Libraries
Private or personal libraries made up of non-fiction and fiction
books, as opposed to state or institutional archives, first appeared in
classical Greece. In the ancient world, the maintaining of a library
was usually (but not exclusively) the privilege of a wealthy
individual. These libraries could have been either private or public,
i.e. for people who were interested in using them. The difference
from a modern public library lies in that they were usually not
funded from public sources. It is estimated that in the city of Rome
at the end of the 3rd century there were around 30 public libraries. The Library of Celsus in Ephesus,
Public libraries also existed in other cities of the ancient Turkey, was built in 135 AD, and
Mediterranean region (for example, Library of Alexandria).[52] could house around 12,000 scrolls.
Later, in the Middle Ages, monasteries and universities also had
libraries that could be accessible to the general public. Typically not the whole collection was available to
the public; the books could not be borrowed and often were chained to reading stands to prevent theft.

The beginning of the modern public library begins around 15th century when individuals started to donate
books to towns.[53] The growth of a public library system in the United States started in the late 19th
century and was much helped by donations from Andrew Carnegie. This reflected classes in a society: the
poor or the middle class had to access most books through a public library or by other means, while the rich
could afford to have a private library built in their homes. In the United States the Boston Public Library
1852 Report of the Trustees established the justification for the public library as a tax-supported institution
intended to extend educational opportunity and provide for general culture.[54]

The advent of paperback books in the 20th century led to an explosion of popular publishing. Paperback
books made owning books affordable for many people. Paperback books often included works from genres
that had previously been published mostly in pulp magazines. As a result of the low cost of such books and
the spread of bookstores filled with them (in addition to the creation of a smaller market of extremely cheap
used paperbacks), owning a private library ceased to be a status symbol for the rich.

The development of libraries has prompted innovations to help store and organize books on shelves. In
library and booksellers' catalogues, it is common to include an abbreviation such as "Crown 8vo" to
indicate the paper size from which the book is made. When rows of books are lined on a book holder,
bookends are sometimes needed to keep them from slanting.

Identification and classification

During the 20th century, librarians were concerned about keeping
track of the many books being added yearly to the Gutenberg
Galaxy. Through a global society called the International Federation
of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA), they devised a
series of tools including the International Standard Bibliographic
Description (ISBD). Each book is specified by an International
Standard Book Number, or ISBN, which is meant to be unique to ISBN with barcode
every edition of every book produced by participating publishers,
worldwide. It is managed by the ISBN Society. An ISBN has four
parts: the first part is the country code, the second the publisher code, and the third the title code. The last
part is a check digit, and can take values from 0–9 and X (10). The EAN Barcodes numbers for books are
derived from the ISBN by prefixing 978, for Bookland, and calculating a new check digit.

Commercial publishers in industrialized countries generally assign ISBNs to their books, so buyers may
presume that the ISBN is part of a total international system, with no exceptions. However, many
government publishers, in industrial as well as developing countries, do not participate fully in the ISBN
system, and publish books which do not have ISBNs. A large or public collection requires a catalogue.
Codes called "call numbers" relate the books to the catalogue, and determine their locations on the shelves.
Call numbers are based on a Library classification system. The call number is placed on the spine of the
book, normally a short distance before the bottom, and inside. Institutional or national standards, such as
ANSI/NISO Z39.41 – 1997, establish the correct way to place information (such as the title, or the name of
the author) on book spines, and on "shelvable" book-like objects, such as containers for DVDs, video tapes
and software.
One of the earliest and most widely known systems of cataloguing
books is the Dewey Decimal System. Another widely known
system is the Library of Congress Classification system. Both
systems are biased towards subjects which were well represented in
US libraries when they were developed, and hence have problems
handling new subjects, such as computing, or subjects relating to
other cultures.[55] Information about books and authors can be
stored in databases like online general-interest book databases.
Books on library shelves and call
Metadata, which means "data about data" is information about a numbers visible on the spines
book. Metadata about a book may include its title, ISBN or other
classification number (see above), the names of contributors (author,
editor, illustrator) and publisher, its date and size, the language of the text, its subject matter, etc.

Classification systems
Bliss bibliographic classification (BC)
Chinese Library Classification (CLC)
Colon Classification
Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC)
Harvard-Yenching Classification
Library of Congress Classification (LCC)
New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries
Universal Decimal Classification (UDC)

Conservation
The conservation and restoration of books, manuscripts, documents,
and ephemera is an activity dedicated to extending the life of items
of historical and personal value made primarily from paper,
parchment, and leather. When applied to cultural heritage,
conservation activities are generally undertaken by a conservator.
The primary goal of conservation is to extend the lifespan of the
object as well as maintaining its integrity by keeping all additions
reversible. Conservation of books and paper involves techniques of
bookbinding, restoration, paper chemistry, and other material
technologies including preservation and archival techniques.[56]

Book and paper conservation seeks to prevent and, in some cases,

reverse damage due to handling, inherent vice, and the
environment. Conservators determine proper methods of storage for
books and documents, including boxes and shelving to prevent
further damage and promote long term storage. Carefully chosen
methods and techniques of active conservation can both reverse A conservation technician examining
damage and prevent further damage in batches or single-item an artwork under a microscope at the
treatments based on the value of the book or document. Indianapolis Museum of Art
Historically, book restoration techniques were less formalized and carried out by various roles and training
backgrounds. Nowadays, the conservation of paper documents and books is often performed by a
professional conservator.[57][58] Many paper or book conservators are members of a professional body,
such as the American Institute for Conservation (AIC) or the Guild of Bookworkers (both in the United
States), the Archives and Records Association (in the United Kingdom and Ireland), or the Institute of
Conservation (ICON) (in the United Kingdom).[59]

Social and cultural issues

Reception
The impact of books can be various, and record of that reception comes in several formats: starting with
initial public reception in contemporary newspapers, pop culture and correspondence, and then developing
over time with different forms of literary criticism by professional and academic critics. For the publishing
industry the "book review" is an important part of increasing awareness and reception of a book: able to
make or break the public opinion about a newly published book.

Book reviews
A book review is a form of literary criticism in which a book is merely described (summary review) or
analyzed based on content, style, and merit.[60]

A book review may be a primary source, an opinion piece, a summary review, or a scholarly view.[61]
Books can be reviewed for printed periodicals, magazines, and newspapers, as school work, or for book
websites on the Internet. A book review's length may vary from a single paragraph to a substantial essay.
Such a review may evaluate the book based on personal taste. Reviewers may use the occasion of a book
review for an extended essay that can be closely or loosely related to the subject of the book, or to
promulgate their ideas on the topic of a fiction or non-fiction work.

Some journals are devoted to book reviews, and reviews are indexed in databases such as the Book Review
Index and Kirkus Reviews; but many more book reviews can be found in newspaper and scholarly
databases such as Arts and Humanities Citation Index, Social Sciences Citation Index , and dscipline-
specific databases.

Book censorship and bans

Book censorship is the act of some authority taking measures to suppress ideas and information within a
book. Censorship is "the regulation of free speech and other forms of entrenched authority".[62] Censors
typically identify as either a concerned parent, community members who react to a text without reading, or
local or national organizations.[63] Books have been censored by authoritarian dictatorships to silence
dissent, such as the People's Republic of China, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Books are most often
censored for age appropriateness, offensive language, sexual content, amongst other reasons.[64] Similarly,
religions may issue lists of banned books, such as the historical example of the Roman Catholic Church's
Index Librorum Prohibitorum and bans of such books as Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses by
Ayatollah Khomeini,[65] which do not always carry legal force. Censorship can be enacted at the national
or subnational level as well, and can carry legal penalties. In many cases, the authors of these books could
face harsh sentences, exile from the country, or even execution.

Book burning
Book burning is the deliberate destruction by fire of books or other
written materials, usually carried out in a public context. The
burning of books represents an element of censorship and usually
proceeds from a cultural, religious, or political opposition to the
materials in question.[66] Book burning can be an act of contempt
for the book's contents or author, intended to draw wider public
attention to this opinion, or conceal the information contained in the
text from being made public, such as diaries or ledgers.
Contemporary book burning
In some cases, the destroyed works are irreplaceable and their
burning constitutes a severe loss to cultural heritage. Examples
include the burning of books and burying of scholars under China's Qin Dynasty (213–210 BCE), the
destruction of the House of Wisdom during the Mongol siege of Baghdad (1258), the destruction of Aztec
codices by Itzcoatl (1430s), the burning of Maya codices on the order of bishop Diego de Landa (1562),[67]
and the burning of Jaffna Public Library in Sri Lanka (1981).[68]

In other cases, such as the Nazi book burnings, copies of the destroyed books survive, but the instance of
book burning becomes emblematic of a harsh and oppressive regime which is seeking to censor or silence
some aspect of prevailing culture.

See also
Books portal

Bibliodiversity
Open access book

Citations
1. Feather, John; Sturges, Paul (2003). International Encyclopedia of Information and Library
Science ([Link] (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. p. 41.
ISBN 0-415-25901-0. OCLC 50480180 ([Link] Archived
([Link] from
the original on November 25, 2009. Retrieved March 21, 2023.
2. Curtis, George (2011). The Law of Cybercrimes and Their Investigations ([Link]
[Link]/oclc/908077615). Hoboken: Taylor & Francis. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-4398-5832-5.
OCLC 908077615 ([Link]
3. Ang, Carmen (October 15, 2021). "Print Has Prevailed: The Staying Power of Physical
Books" ([Link] Visual Capitalist.
Archived ([Link]
nt-books-versus-e-books/) from the original on August 19, 2022. Retrieved August 19, 2022.
4. Richter, Felix (April 21, 2022). "E-Books Still No Match for Printed Books" ([Link]
[Link]/chart/24709/e-book-and-printed-book-penetration/). Statista. Archived ([Link]
[Link]/web/20230312015607/[Link]
k-penetration/) from the original on March 12, 2023. Retrieved March 12, 2023.
 5. Handley, Lucy (September 19, 2019). "Physical books still outsell e-books – and here's why"
([Link]
CNBC. Archived ([Link]
09/19/[Link]) from the original on January
2, 2021. Retrieved January 2, 2021.
6. Duffy, Kate (March 10, 2023). "Gen Zers are bookworms but say they're shunning e-books
because of eye strain, digital detoxing, and their love for libraries" ([Link]
[Link]/gen-z-book-ditch-digital-love-libraries-eye-strain-2023-3). Business Insider. Archived
([Link]
ditch-digital-love-libraries-eye-strain-2023-3) from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved
March 11, 2023.
7. Bussel, Rachel Kramer (December 31, 2021). "2021 Book Trends Show The Power Of
BookTok And Rise Of Audiobooks" ([Link]
2/31/2021-book-trends-show-the-power-of-booktok-and-rise-of-audiobooks/). Forbes.
Archived ([Link]
kramerbussel/2021/12/31/2021-book-trends-show-the-power-of-booktok-and-rise-of-audiobo
oks/) from the original on February 15, 2023. Retrieved February 15, 2023.
8. "Books of the world, stand up and be counted! All 129,864,880 of you" ([Link]
[Link]/2010/08/[Link]). Retrieved February 2,
2024.
9. "book | Etymology, origin and meaning of book" ([Link]
Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived ([Link]
[Link]/[Link]?term=book) from the original on June 27, 2017. Retrieved
March 21, 2023.
10. "Northvegr – Holy Language Lexicon" ([Link]
[Link]/holy/[Link]). November 3, 2008. Archived from the original ([Link]
[Link]/holy/[Link]) on November 3, 2008. Retrieved December 30, 2016.
11. "codex" ([Link]
Oxford Reference. Archived ([Link]
[Link]/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095621448) from the original on May 9,
2022. Retrieved May 9, 2022.
12. [Link]
13. "ALA Glossary of Library and Information Science (4th edition)" ([Link]
w-10-2013-0076). New Library World. 115 (3/4): 193. March 4, 2014. doi:10.1108/nlw-10-
2013-0076 ([Link] ISSN 0307-4803 ([Link]
[Link]/issn/0307-4803).
14. "What Exactly Do We Mean By a Book?" ([Link]
ook/). Literary Hub. October 1, 2020. Retrieved February 6, 2024.
15. Raven, James, ed. (March 23, 2023). The Oxford History of the Book ([Link]
93/oso/9780192886897.001.0001). Oxford University PressOxford.
doi:10.1093/oso/9780192886897.001.0001 ([Link]
6897.001.0001). ISBN 978-0-19-288689-7.
16. "Revised Recommendation Concerning the International Standardization of Statistics on the
Production and Distribution of Books, Newspapers and Periodicals 1 November 1985" (http
s://[Link]/10.1163/ej.9789004164543.1-0.64). Standard-Setting at UNESCO. Martinus
Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 593–604. 2007. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004164543.1-0.64 ([Link]
g/10.1163%2Fej.9789004164543.1-0.64). ISBN 978-90-04-16454-3. Retrieved February 2,
2024.
17. Cummins, Joan (2006). "Indian Paintings before the Creation of the Mughal Atelier". Indian
Painting: From Cave Temples to the Colonial Period. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts. pp. 11–
25.
18. Blair, Sheila; Bloom, Jonathan (1997). "Penmen and Painters: The Arts of the Book". Islamic
Arts. London: Phaidon. pp. 193–220.
19. Hillenbrand, Robert (2002). "The Arts of the Book in Ilkhanid Iran". The Legacy of Genghis
Khan. New York. pp. 134–167.
20. Sardar, Marika (October 2003). "The Art of the Mughals after 1600" ([Link]
rg/toah/hd/mugh_2/hd_mugh_2.htm). Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York. Archived
([Link]
2/hd_mugh_2.htm) from the original on June 1, 2021. Retrieved May 21, 2021 – via The
Metropolitan Museum of Art.
21. Pearson, David (2011). Books As History: The Importance of Books Beyond Their Texts.
London: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-7123-5832-3.
22. "The Printing Press" ([Link] [Link].
Archived ([Link]
[Link]) from the original on April 8, 2018. Retrieved April 11, 2018.
23. Lyons, Martyn (2011). Books: A Living History. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. p. 116.
ISBN 978-1-60606-083-4.
24. Ballatore, Andrea; Natale, Simone (May 18, 2015). "E-readers and the death of the book: Or,
new media and the myth of the disappearing medium" ([Link]
y/2015/05/18/1461444815586984). New Media & Society. 18 (10): 2379–2394.
doi:10.1177/1461444815586984 ([Link]
hdl:2318/1768949 ([Link] ISSN 1461-4448 ([Link]
[Link]/issn/1461-4448). S2CID 39026072 ([Link]
9026072). Archived ([Link]
content/early/2015/05/18/1461444815586984) from the original on March 15, 2016.
Retrieved September 16, 2015.
25. "History of Braille" ([Link] Braille
Works. Archived ([Link]
le-resources/history-of-braille/) from the original on July 26, 2018. Retrieved July 25, 2018.
26. Silksoundbooks. "The History of the audiobooks" ([Link]
026/[Link] [Link].
Archived from the original ([Link] on
July 26, 2018. Retrieved July 26, 2018.
27. Biggs, Robert D. (1974). Inscriptions from Tell Abū Ṣalābīkh ([Link]
pdf) (PDF). Oriental Institute Publications. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-62202-9.
Archived ([Link]
(PDF) from the original on July 29, 2012. Retrieved December 15, 2021.
28. Avrin, Leila (2010). Scribes, Script, and Books: The Book Arts from Antiquity to the
Renaissance. American Library Association. p. 173. ISBN 9780838910382.
29. Bischoff, Bernhard (1990). Latin palaeography antiquity and the Middle Ages ([Link]
[Link]/books?id=CFZgQgAACAAJ). Dáibhí ó Cróinin. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-521-36473-7. Archived ([Link]
10821053657/[Link] from the original on
August 21, 2021. Retrieved August 29, 2020.
30. The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature. Edd. Frances Young, Lewis Ayres,
Andrew Louth, Ron White. Cambridge University Press 2004, pp. 8–9.
31. Diehl, Edith (1980). Bookbinding : its background and technique ([Link]
clc/7027090). New York: Dover Publications. pp. 14–16. ISBN 0-486-24020-7.
OCLC 7027090 ([Link]
32. Joachim, Martin D. (2003). Historical Aspects of Cataloging and Classification ([Link]
[Link]/oclc/683191430). New York: Haworth Information Press. p. 452.
ISBN 9780789019813. OCLC 683191430 ([Link]
Archived ([Link]
1430) from the original on March 27, 2023. Retrieved March 21, 2023.
33. Bernhard Bischoff. Latin Palaeography, pp. 42–43.
34. Kelting, M. Whitney (2001). Singing to the Jinas: Jain Laywomen, Mandal Singing, and the
Negotiations of Jain Devotion ([Link]
wati+kankali+tila&pg=PA65). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-803211-3. Archived (h
ttps://[Link]/web/20211214094337/[Link]
CEC&q=saraswati+kankali+tila&pg=PA65) from the original on December 14, 2021.
Retrieved October 15, 2020.
35. Clapham, Michael, "Printing" in A History of Technology, Vol 2. From the Renaissance to the
Industrial Revolution, edd. Charles Singer et al. (Oxford 1957), p. 377. Cited from Elizabeth
L. Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change (Cambridge University, 1980).
36. Bruckner, D. J. R. (November 20, 1995). "How the Earlier Media Achieved Critical Mass:
Printing Press;Yelling 'Stop the Presses!' Didn't Happen Overnight" ([Link]
m/1995/11/20/business/earlier-media-achieved-critical-mass-printing-press-yelling-stop-pres
[Link]). The New York Times. Archived ([Link]
56/[Link]
[Link]) from the original on July 1, 2017. Retrieved
August 13, 2020.
37. "Bowker Reports Traditional U.S. Book Production Flat in 2009" ([Link]
b/20120128205430/[Link]
ditional-us-book-production-flat-in-2009). Archived from the original ([Link]
[Link]/press-releases/616-bowker-reports-traditional-us-book-production-flat-in-2009) on
January 28, 2012.
38. "SELF-PUBLISH definition | Cambridge English Dictionary" ([Link]
g/us/dictionary/english/self-publish). Cambridge English Dictionary.
39. "Memorandum Opinion [Redacted] | United States Department of Justice" ([Link]
[Link]/atr/case-document/file/1549941). [Link]. Retrieved February 4, 2024.
40. Lee, Marshall (2004). Bookmaking: Editing, Design, Production ([Link]
oks?id=OejMV-cELwUC) (3rd ed.). New York: W. W. Norton and Company. ISBN 978-0-393-
73018-0.
41. Tschichold 1991.
42. Hendel 1998.
43. Gary B. Shelly; Joy L. Starks (2011). Microsoft Publisher 2010: Comprehensive ([Link]
[Link]/books?id=PSQJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA559). Cengage Learning. p. 559.
ISBN 978-1-133-17147-8. Archived ([Link]
[Link]/books?id=PSQJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA559) from the original on December 21,
2019. Retrieved December 5, 2016.
44. "History of Book Illustration" ([Link]
[Link]/library/art-and-architecture/[Link]). Archived from the original
([Link] on March
29, 2010.
45. Vermeer, Leslie (2016). The Complete Canadian Book Editor ([Link]
ks?id=BNCODAAAQBAJ&q=Today,+the+majority+of+books+are+printed+by+offset+lithogra
phy&pg=PA213). Brush Education. ISBN 978-1-55059-677-9. Archived ([Link]
org/web/20211218164852/[Link]
y,+the+majority+of+books+are+printed+by+offset+lithography&pg=PA213) from the original
on December 18, 2021. Retrieved October 15, 2020.
46. Roberts, Matt; Etherington, Don (1982). "Book sizes" ([Link]
conse0000robe/page/34/mode/2up). Bookbinding and the conservation of books: a
dictionary of descriptive terminology. Library of Congress. ISBN 9780844403663.
"Book sizes" ([Link] Conservation OnLine.
Retrieved September 10, 2014.
47. Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 1989.
48. Gardiner, Eileen and Ronald G. Musto. "The Electronic Book." In Suarez, Michael Felix, and
H. R. Woudhuysen. The Oxford Companion to the Book ([Link]
6568). Archived ([Link]
oxford-companion-to-the-book/oclc/370356568) September 12, 2019, at the Wayback
Machine Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 164.
49. "e-book" ([Link]
ntry/m_en_us1242960). Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Archived from the
original ([Link] on February 8, 2011.
Retrieved September 2, 2010.
50. Edwin Mcdowell (October 30, 1989). "The Media Business; Publishers Worry After Fiction
Sales Weaken" ([Link]
[Link]). The New York Times. Archived ([Link]
[Link]/web/20120207141016/[Link]
[Link]) from the original on February 7, 2012.
Retrieved January 25, 2008.
51. Lerer, Seth (June 15, 2008). Children's literature : a reader's history, from Aesop to Harry
Potter ([Link] Chicago. ISBN 978-0-226-47300-
0. OCLC 176980408 ([Link]
52. Miriam A. Drake, Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science (Marcel Dekker, 2003),
"Public Libraries, History".
53. Miriam A. Drake, Encyclopedia of Library, "Public Libraries, History".
54. McCook, Kathleen de la Peña (2011), Introduction to Public Librarianship, 2nd ed., p. 23
New York, Neal-Schuman.
55. Hoffman, Gretchen L. (August 5, 2019). Organizing Library Collections: Theory and Practice
([Link] Rowman & Littlefield.
p. 167. ISBN 978-1-5381-0852-9. Archived ([Link]
tps://[Link]/books?id=SvCjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA167) from the original on August
6, 2021. Retrieved August 29, 2020.
56. Banik, Gerhard; Brückle, Irene (2011). Paper and water: a guide for conservators.
Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-7506-6831-6. OCLC 716844327 ([Link]
[Link]/oclc/716844327).
57. "How to Care for Paper Documents and Newspaper Clippings" ([Link]
20140312224951/[Link]
Canadian Conservation Institute. January 4, 2002. Archived from the original ([Link]
[Link]/caringfor-prendresoindes/articles/[Link]) on March 12, 2014. Retrieved
April 13, 2014.
58. AIC, "Caring for Your Treasures," American Institute for Conservation of Historic & Artistic
Works, Accessed 26 April 2014, [1] ([Link]
g-for-your-treasures#.U13JgK1dX4g).
59. "What is Conservation" ([Link] Institute of
Conservation. The Institute of Conservation. Retrieved March 9, 2020.
60. Princeton (2011). "Book reviews" ([Link]
eview). Scholarly definition document. Princeton. Retrieved September 22, 2011.
61. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (2011). "Book reviews" ([Link]
[Link]/web/20110910082750/[Link] Scholarly
definition document. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Archived from the
original ([Link] on September 10, 2011.
Retrieved September 22, 2011.
62. Chapman, Roger; Ciment, James (2014). Culture Wars in America : an Encyclopedia of
Issues, Viewpoints, and Voices (2nd ed.). Armonk, New York. ISBN 978-0765683175.
OCLC 881383488 ([Link]
63. "The Right To Read: Censorship in the School Library. ERIC Digest" ([Link]
[Link]/pre-9215/[Link]). [Link]. Retrieved April 15, 2019.
64. Commons, Information. "LibGuides: Banned Books: Reasons for Banning Books" ([Link]
[Link]/bannedbooks?p=217686). [Link]. Retrieved April 17, 2019.
65. Swan, John. 1991. "The Satanic Verses," the "Fatwa," and Its Aftermath: A Review Article.
The Library Quarterly: Information, Community, Policy 61.4:429–443
66. "Book Burning" ([Link]
n/[Link]?ModuleId=10005852). United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived
from the original ([Link] on March
5, 2012. Retrieved November 8, 2022.
67. Brockell, Gillian. "Burning books: 6 outrageous, tragic and weird examples in history" (https://
[Link]/web/20211113125409/[Link]
book-burning-history/). The Washington Post. Archived from the original ([Link]
[Link]/history/2021/11/13/book-burning-history/) on November 13, 2021. Retrieved
November 8, 2022.
68. Boissoneault, Lorraine (August 31, 2017). "A Brief History of Book Burning, From the Printing
Press to Internet Archives" ([Link]
[Link]/history/brief-history-book-burning-printing-press-internet-archives-18096469
7/). Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original ([Link]
ory/brief-history-book-burning-printing-press-internet-archives-180964697/) on September 4,
2017. Retrieved November 8, 2022.

Sources
Hendel, Richard (1998). On Book Design. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07570-0.
Tschichold, Jan (1991). The Form of the Book: Essays on the Morality of Good Design (http
s://[Link]/books?id=pp9oGQAACAAJ). Hartley & Marks. ISBN 978-0-88179-
116-7.

External links
Information on Old Books ([Link]
d-books), Smithsonian Libraries
"Manuscripts, Books, and Maps: The Printing Press and a Changing World" ([Link]
g/bjones/Books/[Link])
Retrieved from "[Link]