Firefox [Link]

com/zybook/Ak78Fta73x/chapter/3/print

3.1 Time-ordered behavior

Time-ordered behavior is system functionality where outputs depend on the order in which input
events occur. For example, an electronic lock may require a user to press and release button A1,
then A0, then A2 to unlock a door. A toll booth may raise a toll gate©zyBooks
when the11/05/21
booth operator
13:38 231883
presses button A0, then keep the gate up as long as a car is detected by sensor A1 near
Lawrence Nderuthe gate.
For each system, the essential behavior involves not just input/output valuesAk78Fta73x
but also the order of
those input/output values over time.

Like most programming languages, C was not designed for time-ordered behavior. C uses a
sequential instructions computation model, wherein statements (instructions) in a list are executed
sequentially (one after another) until the list's end is reached. A sequential instructions model is
good for capturing algorithms that transform given input data into output data, known as data
processing behavior. However, the sequential instructions model is poorly-suited for capturing
time-ordered behavior.

For example, consider a system on a carousel (merry-go-round) that increments B whenever the
carousel rotates once, detected by a sensor that brie�y pulses A0 for each rotation. The following
RIMS code captures the system's behavior.

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.1.1: Pulse counting code for a carousel.

Animation content:

C program:
#include "RIMS.h"
void main()
{
B = 0;
while (1) {
while (!A0);
B = B + 1;
©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
while (A0); Lawrence Nderu
} Ak78Fta73x
}

Animation captions:

1. A0 outputs 1 if the sensor near, otherwise A0 outputs 0.

2. Program waits in �rst loop while A0 is 0. Waits in the second loop while A0 is 1.

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3. Carousel system increments B for each rotation.

The code's statements like while (!A0); may look unusual to a beginning embedded
programmer. The statement loops as long as A0 is 0, and the immediate ; means no statements
execute within the loop. Because C isn't designed to capture such time-oriented behavior, the code
is slightly awkward, but understandable. However, the code becomes less understable as more
©zyBooks
time-oriented behavior is introduced, such as having a button A1 that resets 11/05/21 13:38below.
B, as shown 231883
Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x

Figure 3.1.1: Extended carousel code:

Becoming hard to understand due to sequential
instructions model not made for capturing
time-oriented behavior.

#include "RIMS.h"

void main()
{
B = 0;
while (1) {
while (!A1 && !A0);
if (A1) {
B = 0; // Reset
}
else {
B = B + 1;
while (A0);
}
}
}

The code is becoming harder to understand. The text itself is simple, but how the code interacts
with the inputs over time is not obvious, and requires plenty of mental execution to understand the
system's behavior. With even more time-oriented behavior introduced, the code may become a
spaghetti-like mess whose behavior is extremely hard to understand.

The lesson is this: Capturing time-ordered behavior directly into C's sequential instructions
computation model is challenging. Instead, a computation model better suited
©zyBooks for capturing
11/05/21 time-
13:38 231883
ordered behavior is needed. State machines, introduced in another section,Lawrence Nderu
is one such model.
Ak78Fta73x

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.1.2: Time-ordered behavior.

Indicate whether each is more time-ordered behavior or data-processing behavior.

1) Raise a toll-gate, wait for a car to

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pass, lower the toll gate.

Time-ordered
Data-processing

2) Find the maximum value in a set of

100 integers.
Time-ordered ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
Lawrence Nderu
Data-processing Ak78Fta73x
3) Given two four-bit inputs, compute
their sum and average as two four-bit
outputs.
Time-ordered
Data-processing

4) When a person is detected

approaching the front of a door,
automatically open the door until
sensors in front of and behind the
door no longer detect anybody.
Time-ordered
Data-processing

5) A wrong-way system has 10 sensors

on a freeway offramp. If a car is
driving the wrong way, the sensors
will detect a car in the opposite order
as normal. The system should �ash a
"Wrong way" sign and notify the
police.
Time-ordered
Data-processing

©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883

Lawrence Nderu

3.2 State machines Ak78Fta73x

A state machine is a computation model intended for capturing time-ordered behavior. Numerous
kinds of state machines exist. Common features of state machines are a set of inputs and outputs,
a set of states with actions, a set of transitions with conditions, and an initial state. A drawing of a
state machine is called a state diagram.

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Consider a simple time-oriented system that turns on a light (by setting B0 = 1) if a user presses a
button (A0 is 1 when pressed). The light stays on even after the button is released. Pressing a
second button (A1 is 1) turns the light off. The following �gure captures that behavior as a state
machine.

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.2.1: A basic light toggle SM.
©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
Lawrence Nderu
Animation content: Ak78Fta73x

Shown state machine has input A0 and A1 and output B0, and the states
Unlit (with action B0 = 0) and Lit (with action B0 = 1).
The Unlit state has two transitions with conditions A0 and !A0. The
!A0 condition transitions back to Unlit and A0 transitions to Lit.
The Lit state has two transitions with conditions A1 and !A1. The !A1
condition transitions back to Lit and A1 transitions to Unlit.

Animation captions:

1. The SM has has two inputs, A0 and A1, and one output, B0. The SM has two states Unlit
and Lit. The Unlit state turns off the LED by setting B0 = 0. The Lit state turns on the LED by
setting B0 = 1.
2. The SM implements a basic light toggle that turns on a light if a user presses the button
connected to A0.
3. The light remains on even after the button to A0 is released. Pressing a second button,
connected to A1, turns the light off.

The above animation shows a state machine with inputs A0 and A1 and output B0 (each 1 bit), and
the states Unlit (with action B0 = 0) and Lit (with action B0 = 1). The state machine has four
transitions with conditions !A0, A0, !A1, and A1, and the initial state is Unlit (denoted by the special
"initial transition" arrow).

A system described by a state machine executes as follows. At any time, the system is "in" some
state, called the current state. Upon starting, the transition to the initial state is taken and that
©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
state's actions are executed once. The following process then occurs, called a tick of
Lawrence the SM:
Nderu
Ak78Fta73x
• A transition T leaving the current state and having a true condition is taken
• Transition T's target state has its actions executed once and becomes the current state

The ticking process repeats. Each tick takes a tiny but non-zero (perhaps nearly-in�nitesimally
small) amount of time, during which no event is assumed to occur. Ticks are assumed to occur at a
much faster rate than input events, so no input events are missed. The following animation

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illustrates SM ticking.

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.2.2: SM ticks.

Animation content:
©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
Lawrence Nderu
Shown state machine has input A0 and A1 and output B0,Ak78Fta73x
and the states
Unlit (with action B0 = 0) and Lit (with action B0 = 1).
The Unlit state has two transitions with conditions A0 and !A0. The
!A0 condition transitions back to Unlit and A0 transitions to Lit.
The Lit state has two transitions with conditions A1 and !A1. The !A1
condition transitions back to Lit and A1 transitions to Unlit.

Animation captions:

1. The initial state is Unlit, so the LED is off.

2. Upon a tick, the SM remains in the Unlit state since a button has not been pressed. The !A0
transition evaluates to true. The LED remains off.
3. On the next tick, the SM transitions to the Lit state because the A0 transition evaluates to
true. The Lit state sets B0 = 1, so the LED is turned on.

For the above example, upon startup the system takes the transition to state Unlit and executes B0
= 0 once. For subsequent ticks, if A0 is 0 then the system takes the transition back to state Unlit
and executes B0 = 0 again. At some time, if A0 is 1 then the system takes the transition to state Lit
and executes B0 = 1. The system stays in that state until A1 becomes 1, at which time the system
takes the transition back to state Unlit.

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.2.3: Tracing execution of an SM.

Given the following timing diagram and the above light on/off SM, determine the value of
B0 at the speci�ed times.
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Ak78Fta73x

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1) 0 s
1
0

2) 1 s
1 ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
Lawrence Nderu
0 Ak78Fta73x

3) 2 s
1
0

4) 3 s
1
0

5) 4 s
1
0

6) 5 s
1
0

For the above input sequence, the light was on from about 0.5 seconds when A0's button was
pressed, until about 2.5 seconds when A1's button was pressed.

If none of the current state's transitions has a true condition for a given tick, an implicit transition
back to the state itself is taken (thus causing the state's actions to execute each such tick). Good
practice, however, is to have an explicit transition point back to the same state with the proper
condition, rather than relying on the implicit transition from a state©zyBooks
to itself. The above
11/05/21 system
13:38 has
231883
Lawrence Nderu
an explicit transition with condition !A0 from Unlit back to Unlit, for example, making very clear what
Ak78Fta73x
happens when in state Unlit and A0 is 0.

For a state machine to be precisely de�ned, transitions leaving a particular state should have
mutually exclusive transition conditions, meaning only one condition could possibly be true at any
time (otherwise, which of two transitions with true conditions should be taken? The state machine
becomes non-deterministic in that case). For example, state Unlit transitions have conditions A0
and !A0, only one of which can possibly be true at any time.

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A transition may be speci�ed to have a condition of "true" or 1, meaning the transition should
always be taken. That transition of course should be the only one leaving a particular state, else
mutual exclusivity would not exist. A common shorthand notation omits the "true"; a transition with
no condition is known to have a true condition.

A state may have multiple actions, such as B0 = 1; B1 = 1; or may have no actions at all. A
state's actions execute once each time that a tick takes the state machine to that state, even if a
transition points back to the same state. ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x
We will use a particular form of a state machine model, referred to in this material just as an SM,
intended for creating C programs that support time-ordered behavior. An SM uses declared C
variables rather than explicit inputs and outputs; the lone exception is the use of RIMS' implicitly-
declared A and B input and output variables though. The SM's state actions consist of C
statements, and the SM's transitions consist of C expressions. Variable values (such as B0 = 1)
persist between ticks.

Using an SM, the earlier section's pulse counting system for a carousel can be captured as follows.
Note how the SM more clearly de�nes the time-oriented behavior, versus the earlier section's
awkward C code.

Figure 3.2.1: Pulse counting SM.

A reset behavior that returns the state machine to the initial state when A1 is pressed can be easily
added, as shown below.

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Ak78Fta73x

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Figure 3.2.2: Pulse counting with reset SM.

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Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x

The following timing diagram shows a sample sequence of inputs to the above SM.

Figure 3.2.3: Sample timing diagram for pulse

counter with reset.

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.2.4: Tracing the pulsing counting SM.

Given the above SM input sequence, type the SM's current state at the speci�ed times. At
time 0 ms, the answer is: Init.
©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
Lawrence Nderu
1) 0 s Ak78Fta73x

Check Show answer

2) 0.5 s

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Check Show answer

3) 1 s

Check Show answer ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883

Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x
4) 1.5 s

Check Show answer

5) What is the integer value of B at

time 4 s?

Check Show answer

6) What is the integer value of B at

time 5 s?

Check Show answer

Try 3.2.1: Trace the current state.

Complete the above timing diagram by showing the current state and also the B0 signal value.

Notice that the SM model and the C code from an earlier section have the same
©zyBooks behavior.
11/05/21 However,
13:38 231883
Lawrence Nderu
the SM more explicitly captures the desired time-ordered behavior. This straightforwardness
Ak78Fta73x
can be
further seen by trying to extend the SM.

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Try 3.2.2: Extend pulse counter to detect a threshold.

Extend the pulse counter SM to set B7 = 1 to indicate when the value of B reaches 99 (for
the carousel system, such an indication may tell the ride operator to do a routine safety
check). Note that 99 requires only the lower 7 bits of B, so B7 can©zyBooks
be used 11/05/21
for such13:38 231883
indication. When 99 is reached, counting stops until a rising event on A1Lawrence
resets theNderu
count.
Ak78Fta73x

The following pattern is common in SMs for detecting a rising edge of a signal. The SM stays in the
state while A0 is 0. When A0 becomes one, the transition is taken to another state. Detecting a
falling edge is similar, with the condition swapped.

Figure 3.2.4: Pattern to detect rising edge of a

bit signal.

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.2.5: State machines.

1) An SM tick consists of:

Executing the current state's
actions and then transitioning
to the next state.
Transitioning to the next state
©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
and executing that state's Lawrence Nderu
actions an unknown # of times. Ak78Fta73x

Transitioning to the next state

and executing that state's
actions once.

2) How many SM ticks occur per

second?

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0
1
Many
In�nite
3) In the SM model, which is true about
ticks and input events? ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
Lawrence Nderu
Input events may occur faster Ak78Fta73x
than ticks.
Two events may occur between
ticks.
An event may occur in the
middle of a tick.
Ticks occur faster than events.

Exploring further:

• Wikipedia: Finite state machine

• Wikipedia: State diagram

3.3 RIBS
The RIBS (Riverside-Irvine Builder of State machines) tool supports graphical state diagram capture
of SMs.

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.3.1: RIBS: Low and high example.  Full screen

• Press "Simulate", observe SM executing. Press A0 to change to 1, note state and

©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
output changes. Press A0 again. Press "End simulation". Lawrence Nderu
• Modify SM by adding action "B1 = 1;" to Lo, "B1 = 0;" to Hi. Simulate. Ak78Fta73x
• Modify SM by inserting state All, sets B0 = 1, B1 = 1. Delete transition from Hi with
!A0, insert transition with !A0 from Hi to All. Insert transition to stay in All while !A1,
and another to go to Lo when A1. Simulate.

Simulate Pause Insert state Insert transition

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LoHi +

A0 0

A1 0

A2 0
©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
A3 0 Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x
A4 0

A5 0

A6 0

A7 0

A = 0

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.3.2: RIBS basics.

1) The SM's initial state is set by double-

clicking the state.
True
False

2) After inserting a state, actions can be

added by typing in the "Actions" box ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
on the far right. Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x
True
False

3) A state or transition is deleted by

dragging the item off-screen.

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True
4) When False
an SM is executing (by pressing
"Simulate"), the values of inputs A0,
A1, A2, ..., cannot be changed.
True
False ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.3.3: RIBS with export/import.  Full screen

• SMs can be saved. Press "Export" and copy-paste the exported text. Modify the SM
somehow. Then paste the text into the box and press "Import" -- the previously-
exported SM is restored. (Users can save the exported text in a �le or email for
future use.)

Simulate Pause Insert state Insert transition

LoHi +

A0 0

A1 0

A2 0

A3 0

A4 0

A5 0

A6 0

A7 0

A = 0 ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883

Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x

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Export to RIMS

Export Import Lo hi

Paste design here.

©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.3.4: RIBS with export.

1) Pressing "Export" saves the current

SM to a �le.
True
False

3.4 Implementing an SM in C
Because microprocessors typically have C compilers but not SM compilers, implementing an SM in
C is necessary. Using a standard method for implementing an SM to C enhances the readability
and correctness of the resulting C code. The following illustrates such a method for the given SM
named Latch (abbreviated as LA), which saves (or "latches") the value of A1 onto B0 whenever A0 is
1.

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Figure 3.4.1: Method for implementing an SM in

C.

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Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x

#include "RIMS.h"

enum LA_States { LA_SMStart, LA_s0, LA_s1 } LA_State;

void TickFct_Latch()
{
switch(LA_State) { // Transitions
case LA_SMStart: // Initial transition
LA_State = LA_s0;
break;

case LA_s0:
if (!A0) {
LA_State = LA_s0;
}
else if (A0) {
LA_State = LA_s1;
}
break;

case LA_s1:
if (!A0) {
LA_State = LA_s0;
}
else if (A0) {
LA_State = LA_s1;
}
break;

default:
LA_State = LA_SMStart; ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
break;
Lawrence Nderu
} // Transitions
Ak78Fta73x
switch(LA_State) { // State actions
case LA_s0:
break;

case LA_s1:
B0 = A1;
break;

default:
break;

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TickFct_Latch();
}
}

©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883

Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x

While the code may seem imposing, the code follows a simple pattern:

• State variable declaration

• Tick function
• main loop that calls tick function

State variable declaration: The �rst line creates a new enum data type LA_States de�ned to have
possible values of LA_SMStart, LA_s0 and LA_s1. That same code line declares global variable
LA_State to be of type LA_States. enum is a C construct for de�ning a new data type, in contrast to
built-in types like char or short, whose value can be one of an "enumerated" list of values. The
programmer provides the enumeration list, as in { LA_SMStart, LA_s0, LA_s1 } above. In C, each
item in the list becomes a new constant, with the �rst item having value 0, the second item having
value 1, etc.

Tick function: The SM's tick function carries out one tick of the SM. This SM's tick function is
named TickFct_Latch(). For the current state LA_State, the tick function's �rst switch statement
takes the appropriate transition to a new current state; if LA_State is LA_SMStart, the transition is to
the SM's initial state. The second switch statement then executes the actions for the new current
state.

main loop that calls tick function: main() �rst initializes outputs; good practice for any embedded
program, whether implementing an SM or not, is to start the main function by initializing all outputs.
main() then sets the current state to a value of LA_SMStart. main() then enters the normal in�nite
"while (1)" loop, which just repeatedly calls the function TickFct_Latch() to repeatedly tick the Latch
SM.

PARTICIPATION ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883

ACTIVITY 3.4.1: Follow an SMs execution in C.  Full screen
Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x

Run the above code in RIMS. Press "Break" and then repeatedly press "Step" (setting A0
accordingly), observing how the code executes each tick of the state machine.

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A0 0

A1 0

A2 0

A3 0
©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
A4 0 Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x
A5 0

A6 0

A7 0

A = 0
1 #include "RIMS.h"
2 int main() {
3 while(1) {
4 B0 = A0 && A1;
5 }
6 return 0;
7 }

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B0 0

B1 0

B2 0

B3 0
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B4 0 Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x
B5 0

B6 0

B7 0
B = 0

The transition switch statement's default case should never actually execute, but good practice is
to always include a default case for a switch statement, in case something bad happens. For a
state machine, the default case should be included for safety if the state variable ever somehow
gets corrupted. The default case commonly has a transition to the initial state, causing the SM to
start over rather than getting stuck.

Capturing behavior as an SM and then converting to C using the above method typically results in
more code than capturing behavior directly in C. However, more code does not mean worse code.
The C code generated from an SM may be more likely to be correct, may be more easily extensible
and maintainable, and has other major bene�ts that will be seen later.

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Figure 3.4.2: Carousel SM in C.

©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883

Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x

#include "RIMS.h"

enum CR_States { CR_SMStart, CR_Init, CR_WaitRise, CR_Increment, CR_WaitFall } CR_State;

void TickFct_Carousel()
{
switch(CR_State) { // Transitions
case CR_SMStart: // Initial transition
CR_State = CR_Init;
break;

case CR_Init:
CR_State = CR_WaitRise;
break;

case CR_WaitRise:
if (A1) {
CR_State = CR_Init;
}
else if (!A1 && !A0) {
CR_State = CR_WaitRise;
}
else if (!A1 && A0) {
CR_State = CR_Increment;
}
break;

case CR_Increment:
CR_State = CR_WaitFall;
break;

case CR_WaitFall:
if (!A0) {
CR_State = CR_WaitRise;
}
else if (A0) {
CR_State = CR_WaitFall;
} ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
break; Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x
default:
CR_State = CR_SMStart;
break;
} // Transitions

switch(CR_State) { // State actions

case CR_Init:
B = 0;
break;
case CR_WaitRise:

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} // State actions
}

void main() {
B = 0x00; // Initialize outputs
CR_State = CR_SMStart; // Indicates initial call
while(1) {
TickFct_Carousel();
}
}

©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883

Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x

For the following question sets, consider the SM below.

Figure 3.4.3: Light on/off system.

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.4.2: Method for implementing an SM in C.

Strictly adhere to the above SM to C implementation method, including naming

©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38
conventions. Use LT_States as the enumerated type name, and TickFct_LightToggle as 231883
Lawrence Nderu
the tick function name. Ak78Fta73x

1) Provide the enumerated type

de�nition following the above
SM to C method.

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Check Show answer

2) main()'s while(1) loop will

consist of what one statement?

Check Show answer ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883

Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.4.3: C code for SM.

1) The tick function's �rst switch

statement will execute the current
state's actions.
True
False

2) The �rst switch statement's �rst case

will include: case LT_SMStart:
LT_State = LT_Unlit;
True
False

3) The �rst switch statement's second

case will be for the transitions going
to state Unlit.
True
False

4) The tick function's second switch

statement will include: case (LT_Unlit):
if (!A0) { B0 = 1;}...
©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
True Lawrence Nderu
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False

5) The SM to C method uses an if-else

statement for multiple transitions, but
could have just used multiple if
statements.

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True
False
6) If a state has no actions, the state
should be omitted from the second
case statement.
True
False ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
Lawrence Nderu
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7) The break statements could be
removed from the switch statements
without changing behavior, but should
be included for clarity.
True
False

8) A transition from a state back to that

same state can be omitted from the
�rst switch statement without
changing the SM's behavior.
True
False

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.4.4: SM to C for the light toggle system.  Full screen

Strictly following the above method for implementing an SM in C, implement the above
light toggle SM in C.

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A0 0

A1 0

A2 0

A3 0
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A4 0 Lawrence Nderu
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A5 0

A6 0

A7 0

A = 0
1 #include "RIMS.h"
2 int main() {
3 while(1) {
4 B0 = A0 && A1;
5 }
6 return 0;
7 }

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B0 0

B1 0

B2 0

B3 0
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B4 0 Lawrence Nderu
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B5 0

B6 0

B7 0
B = 0

CHALLENGE
ACTIVITY 3.4.1: Complete SM for given behavior.  Full screen

90524.463766.qx3zqy7

Start

A0 0

A1 0

A2 0

A3 0

A4 0

A5 0

A6 0

A7 0 ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883

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A = 0 Ak78Fta73x

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B0 0

B1 0

B2 0

B3 0

B4 0

B5 0

B6 0

B7 0
B = 0

Compile Run Stop

0.00 s
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3.5 Variables, statements, and conditions in

SMs
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Variables Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x
An SM can have variables declared at the SM scope (i.e., not within a state), which can be accessed
by all actions and conditions of the SM. For example, the following SM uses several variables to
output the average of 4-bit numbers that appear on A3..A0 when A7 rises.

Figure 3.5.1: SM using variables to compute average.

Variable sum maintains the sum of all 4-bit numbers seen so far, de�ned as a short to reduce
likelihood of over�ow. Variable cnt counts the number of times A7 has risen. Variable inNum stores
A3..A0, that variable used just to improve code readability. (Note: A reset for the above system,
perhaps using A6, is omitted for brevity).

In RIMS, the input/output variables like A0 or B can be thought of as having been declared as
unsigned char variables.

While the variables could be initialized when declared (e.g., unsigned short sum=0;),
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13:38 practice
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is to create a state named Init to carry out initializations of variables and also outputs. In this way,
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not only are all initializations in one place, but the system can be re-initialized merely by
transitioning back to the Init state.

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Example 3.5.1: Applause meter.

Consider an applause-meter system intended for a game show. A sound sensor measures
sound on a scale of 0 to 7 (0 means quiet, 7 means loud), outputting a three-bit binary
number, connected to RIM's A2-A0. A button connected to A3 can be pressed
©zyBooks by the
11/05/21 game
13:38 231883
Lawrence Nderu
show host to save (when A3 rises) the current sound level, which will then be displayed on
Ak78Fta73x
B. The system's behavior can be captured as an SM with a variable, as shown.

When converting to C, the SM variables can be implemented as global variables above the SM's tick
function.

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.5.1: SM variables.

1) A programmer can declare variables

within each SM state.
True
False

2) An SM variable maintains its value

across SM ticks.
True
False

3) Failing to write an SM variable in a ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883

particular state causes that variable Lawrence Nderu
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to become 0.
True
False

4) When implementing an SM in C, the

SM's variables should be declared in

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the main() function.

True
False

Try 3.5.1: System to count instances driving without seatbelt.

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Lawrence Nderu
Design a system for an automobile that counts the number of times the car was put into
Ak78Fta73x
drive (A0 is 1) while the driver's seatbelt was not fastened (A1 is 0). Once the car starts
driving, do no further counting until the car is taken out of drive (A0 is 0). While the car is
not in drive, a mechanic can view the count by holding a button (A2 is 1) causing the count
to appear on B. B is normally 0.

Statements

The statements that can appear in actions can include more than just assignment statements. Any
C statements can appear, such as if-else statements, loops, and function calls. However, for this
material's purposes, good practice is to ensure that actions don't wait on an external input value,
such as while (!A0) {};. Waiting behavior should be captured as states and transitions so
that all time-ordered behavior is visible at the transition level. Also, a state with actions that wait
could cause the SM to violate the basic assumption that SM ticks occur faster than events so that
no events are missed.

The following example changes RIMS' output LED pattern from 00000001 to 00000010 to
00000100, etc., each time A0 rises. When 10000000 is reached, the pattern wraps back to
00000001.

Figure 3.5.2: SM using if-else statement to output a shifting pattern.

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Try 3.5.2: Extend the applause meter SM.

Extend the above applause meter SM so that if A4 becomes 1 while in the WaitRise state,
the system outputs the maximum value seen so far. When A4 is returned to 0, the system
outputs the most-recently-saved value as before. Use a variable for the most-recently-
©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
saved value and another for the max value, and an if-else statement. Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x

Try 3.5.3: SM with loop.

Create an SM that waits for A0 to rise, upon which the SM counts the number of 1s on
A1..A7 and outputs the count on B. That count stays on B until A0 rises again. Use the
GetBit function from an earlier section, and a for loop, as the actions of a state that counts
the 1s on A1..A7.

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.5.2: SM statements.

1) A state's actions may include a for

loop.
True
False

2) A state's actions may include a

function call.
True
False

3) The statement if (A0) {...}

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should not appear in a state's actions.
Lawrence Nderu
True Ak78Fta73x

False

4) The statement while (A0) {...}

should not appear in a state's actions.

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True

Conditions

Conditions in an SM should be C expressions. The following rule is important:

• Exactly one—no more, no fewer—of a state's exiting transitions should have a condition that
©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
evaluates to true at a given time. In this way, the next state for each tick is precisely
Lawrence Nderu and
clearly de�ned. Ak78Fta73x

A common error is to create transitions leaving a state whose conditions are not mutually
exclusive, like one transition with condition A0 and another with condition A1, both of which could
be true simultaneously. Another common error is to create transitions such that sometimes no
transition has a true condition, like one transition with condition A0 and another with condition !A0
&& A1, which fail to cover the situation !A0 && !A1. Technically, neither situation is actually an error.
In the �rst case, the SM becomes non-deterministic, because the model does not de�ne which of
two true transitions will be taken. In the second case, the SM will implicitly take a transition back to
the same state, but explicit transitions are preferable for clarity.

For convenience, the SM's in this material use a condition named other to indicate the transition
that should be taken if none of the state's normal transition conditions are true. For example, the
following system opens a swinging door when a person approaches the front (A0 is 1) and nobody
is directly behind the door (A1 is 0). Note that the transition that remains in the WaitPerson state is
simply "other" rather than being !(A0 && !A1), which clutters the SM and detracts the readers
attention away from the more important transition A0 && !A1 from WaitPerson to Open. Once
opening the door, the system keeps the door open as long as the person is detected near the door
as indicated by A0 || A1, again using "other" for the opposite condition.

Figure 3.5.3: Door opener system using condition other.

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Lawrence Nderu
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When implementing an SM in C, the "other" transition may be implemented as a last else branch
(with no expression) in the state's transitions if-else code.

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.5.3: SM conditions.

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Transition conditions are expressions, not statements, so should not end with a
semicolon. For each, write the most direct answer.
Ex: For "A1 and A0 are true", write

A1 && A0
without parentheses, semicolons, and without == .
©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
1) Write the condition: either A1 or Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x
A0 is true.

Check Show answer

2) Write the condition that detects

that A is greater than or equal to
99.

Check Show answer

3) Write the condition that detects

that A2 A1 A0 is 010. Use
individual bit variables A2, A1,
A0.

Check Show answer

4) A designer intended to have one

transition taken if A0 is 1;
otherwise, a second transition is
taken if A1 is 0 and a third taken
if A1 is 1. The designer wrote
the conditions A0, !A1, and ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
Lawrence Nderu
A1, which are not mutually Ak78Fta73x
exclusive. Fix the second
condition.

Check Show answer

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5) A designer intended to have one

transition taken if exactly one of
A1 or A0 is 1, and a second
transition taken if both are 0s.
The designer wrote the
conditions as (A1 && !A0)
|| (!A1 && A0) and as !A1 ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
&& !A0. A third transition is Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x
missing; write its condition.

Check Show answer

6) A designer has two transitions

leaving a state. One transition's
condition is (A1 || A2 ||
A3). The second transition's
condition is "other". What
expression is equivalent to
"other"?

Check Show answer

7) A designer has three transitions

leaving a state. One transition's
condition is (!A1 && !A0).
The second condition is (A1
&& A0). The third transition's
condition is "other". What
expression is equivalent to
"other"?
Hint: Use parentheses, and don't
simplify. Start with: !((!A1 ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x

Check Show answer

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3.6 Mealy actions

The earlier state machine model associates actions with states only, known as a Moore-type state
machine. A Mealy-type state machine allows actions on transitions too. A Mealy-type SM can
make some behaviors easier to capture. ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
Lawrence Nderu
For example, the following �gure parts (a) and (b) show SMs that increment Ak78Fta73x
variable cnt once for
each rising A0. The Mealy SM increments on the transition that detected the rise, and thus avoids
the need for a separate state. Note that Mealy actions are shown graphically following a transition's
condition and a /.

Figure 3.6.1: Mealy SMs can reduce states and more intuitively
represent some behavior.

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Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x
Note that the SM in (c) is wrong, incrementing B repeatedly while A0 is 1. Removing the A0
transition from WaitFall would still be wrong because the SM model would have an implicit
transition back to the state if no other transition is true.

The following implements an applause meter system (from an earlier section), using a Mealy
action on the transition that detects a rising A3, thus preventing having an additional state.

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Figure 3.6.2: Applause meter using a Mealy action.

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Lawrence Nderu
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When translating to C, a transition's actions appear in the transition switch statement, in the
appropriate if-else branch.

Try 3.6.1: MealySMToggle.

Capture a toggle light system using an SM. A button connects to A0. B0 connects to a
light, initially off. Pressing the button (rising A0) changes the light from off to on. Another
press changes the light from on to off. And so on. First try capturing with a Moore SM.
Then try with an SM having Mealy actions, and notice that fewer states are required.

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.6.1: Mealy actions.

1) A Mealy action occurs at which point

during an SM tick?
While checking whether a
transition's condition is true or
false.
While taking a transition to the ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
next state. Lawrence Nderu
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Upon entering a new state.
Before an SM's tick.

2) Can a Mealy action include an if-else

statement?

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No, only one statement is

allowed.
No, only assignments
statements are allowed.
Yes, but the if and else must
both assign the same variable. ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
Lawrence Nderu
3) IntegerYes.
variable X is 0. A transition Ak78Fta73x
with action X = X + 1 points to a state
with action X = X + 2. If that transition
is taken during an SM tick, what is X
after the tick?
0
1
2
3

3.7 How to capture behavior as an SM

Capturing behavior as an SM is an art. The following 3-step process may help. Consider an
emergency exit door that sounds an alarm when armed (switch A0 is 1) and then opened (door A1
is 1).

Step 1: A �rst step is to list the system's basic states, adding actions if known:

Figure 3.7.1: Emergency exit door system:

Basic states.

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Step 2: A second step of the process is to add transitions to each state to achieve the desired
behavior. Clearly the �rst state to enter after initialization is the Unarmed state, so we add a

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conditionless (true) transition from Init to Unarmed. We add a transition to stay in Unarmed while
A0 is 0, and another transition to go to Armed when A0 is 1. We add a transition to stay in Armed
while the door is closed (A1 is 0), and another transition to go to Alarm if the door is opened. Finally,
we add a transition to stay in Alarm while the system is still armed (A0 is 1), and when disarmed
(A0 is 0) we could go to either Init or Unarmed; Unarmed seems reasonable so we add a transition
to there.
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Lawrence Nderu
Figure 3.7.2: Emergency exit door system: Ak78Fta73x
Adding transitions (�rst attempt).

Step 3: The third step is to mentally check the behavior of the captured SM. This step may result in
adding more transitions, or even more states. Minimally, for each state, we should check that
exactly one transition's condition will be true, modifying the conditions or adding transitions if
necessary. Even more importantly, we should also determine whether the SM's behavior is as
desired, by mentally executing the SM and thinking what input sequences might occur. In doing so
for the above SM, we consider the possibility that a user might want to disarm the system while
armed, and notice that is not possible in the SM. Thus, we may add transitions, such as !A0 from
Armed to Unarmed (requiring that the other two transitions be modi�ed, otherwise the state's
outgoing conditions would not be mutually exclusive).

When mentally executing, one might focus on a particular state, and then for each input not
explicitly on the transitions one might ask: "Does that input's value matter for this state's behavior?"
For example, the above system has two inputs, A0 and A1. For state Unarmed, does input A1's
value matter? It does not for that state. For state Armed, does input A0 matter? It does, so we need
to add transitions. For state Alarm, does A1's value matter? It does not; once the door has been
opened, the alarm continues sounding whether the door stays open or closed.

Capturing time-ordered behavior is hard. Good designers will spend much time mentally executing
©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
their SM and thinking of possible input sequences that need to be addressed. Re�ning
Lawrence an SM many
Nderu
times is commonplace. Ak78Fta73x

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.7.1: Capturing behavior as an SM.

1) The above process suggests creating

one state at a time, creating that

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state's actions and all the states

outgoing transitions, before moving
on to create another state.
True
False

2) Step 3 for the emergency door

©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
example determined that a transition Lawrence Nderu
with condition A0 is needed from Ak78Fta73x
Armed to Unarmed.
True
False

3) Upon adding a transition !A0 from

Armed to Unarmed, the transition A1
from Armed should be changed to A1
&& A0.
True
False

Try 3.7.1: Exit only doorway.

A doorway is for exit only. Sensors A0, A1, A2 detect a person passing through. A proper
exit causes A2A1A0 to be 000, then 100, then 010, then 001, then 000. Any other sequence
causes a buzzer to sound (B0=1) until 000.

Design an SM using RIBS that captures the doorway behavior, and simulate using RIMS.

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Lawrence Nderu
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Try 3.7.2: Automatic door.

An automatic door at a store has a sensor in front (A0) and behind (A1). The door opens
(B0=1) when a person approaches from the front, and stays open as long as a person is
detected in front or behind. If the door is closed and a person approaches from the13:38
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Lawrence Nderu
the door does not open. If the door is closed and a person approaches from the front but a
Ak78Fta73x
person is also detected behind, the door does not open, to prevent hitting the person that
is behind.

Design an SM using RIBS that captures the automatic door behavior, and simulate using
RIMS.

Try 3.7.3: Dimmer light system.

A dimmer light system has increase (A0) and decrease (A1) buttons. B sets the light
intensity, 0 is off, 255 is the maximum intensity, and:

• Pressing both buttons does nothing.

• Pressing both buttons immediately turns the light off.

Design an SM using RIBS that captures the dimmer light behavior, and simulate using
RIMS.

Try 3.7.4: Amusement ride.

An amusement park ride has sensor mats on the left (A0) and right (A1) of a ride car. A
ride operator starts the ride by pressing a button (A7); each unique press toggles the ride
from stopped to started (B0=1) and vice-versa. If anyone leaves the ride car and steps on a
sensor mat, the ride stops and an alarm sounds (B1=1). The alarm ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38
stops sounding when231883
Lawrence Nderu
the person gets off the sensor mat. The only way for the ride to restart is for the operator
Ak78Fta73x
to press the button again. The ride never starts if someone is on the sensor mat.

Design an SM using RIBS that captures the amusement ride behavior, and simulate using
RIMS.

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3.8 Testing an SM
Testing time-ordered behavior requires generating a good set of input scenarios, where a scenario
is a sequence of inputs that should cause a particular sequence of state. Such testing is in contrast
to merely generating a good set of input combinations for a system lacking internal states, each
©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
input combination known as a test vector. Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x
A testing process for time-ordered behavior may consist of:

1. Decide what scenarios to test, including normal cases as well as border cases.
2. Devise a sequence of test vectors to test each scenario.

Consider the following SM for an emergency exit alarm system.

Figure 3.8.1: Emergency exit door system to be tested.

The following lists some scenarios, and corresponding test vectors.

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Table 3.8.1: A few test scenarios for the emergency door system.

Expected �nal Expected Test vectors

Scenario. Starting state in ().
state output (B0) (A1A0)
©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
1 (Init): Alarm should not sound. Unarmed 0 00 Nderu
Lawrence
Ak78Fta73x
(Unarmed): Arm system:
2 Armed 0 01
Alarm should not sound.

(Armed): Open door. Alarm

3 Alarm 1 11
should sound.

(Alarm): Unarm: Alarm should

4 Unarmed 0 10
stop.

(Unarmed): Arm, open door,

5 close door. Alarm should Alarm 1 00, 01, 11, 01
continue to sound.

(Alarm): Unarm, arm, unarm:

6 Unarmed 0 00, 01, 00
Alarm should not sound.

Each row indicates the assumed starting state (same as previous row's �nal state), describes the
system's input scenario and the expected system behavior, lists the expected �nal state and output,
and �nally lists the test vectors that will generate the scenario. For example, the scenario 2 starts in
state Unarmed, then arms to the system, which should cause a change to state Armed and output
B0=1. Arming the system is achieved by A1A0 being 01, which is the test vector. Scenario 5 carries
out a longer sequence, requiring several test vectors.

Scenario 6 arms and then unarms the system. Testing with the given test vectors will yield the
correct �nal output of 0, but the �nal state will be Armed rather than Unarmed. Thus, testing
uncovers a problem, namely that Armed is missing a transition with condition
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13:38 to
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Unarmed . Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x
As with testing systems with combinational behavior, testing a system with time-ordered behavior
should involve normal cases and border cases. Border cases speci�cally test unusual situations,
like all inputs changing from 0s to 1s simultaneously, or an input changing back and forth from 0 to
1 repeatedly.

When testing an SM, test vectors should ensure that each state and each transition is executed at
least once. Furthermore, if a state's action code has branches, then test vectors should also ensure

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that every statement is executed at least once. Even more ideally, every path through the SM would
also be tested, but achieving complete path coverage is hard because huge numbers of paths may
exist.

In testing terminology, black-box testing refers to checking for correct outputs only, as in checking
the value of B0 in the above example. In white-box testing, internal values of the system are also
checked, such as the current state. One can see the advantage of white-box testing in the above
example, where the output was correct but the state was not. Further©zyBooks 11/05/21
black-box 13:38
testing 231883
might
Lawrence Nderu
discover the above problem too, but white-box is more likely to detect problems. Of course, white-
Ak78Fta73x
box testing is harder because a mechanism is necessary to access internal values.

Designing good test vectors can take much effort, both to formulate the scenarios, and to properly
create the test vectors. Testing is as important as capturing the SM. Good practice is to plan to
spend nearly as much time for testing a system as for designing a system. New programmers
rarely follow this practice, believing testing is just a "sanity check" step at the end of design.

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.8.1: Creating test vectors for the emergency door system.

Match the test vectors with the desired test scenario for the above emergency door
system. Assume each set of test vectors is applied immediately after starting the system,
so the starting state is always Unarmed. Each vector is for A1A0, so 01 means A1 is 0 and
A0 is 1.

01, 00, 10 01, 11, 01, 11 01, 10 01, 00, 01, 00

Arm the system, open the door,

close the door, open the door.

Arm the system, disarm, arm,

disarm.

Arm the system, disarm the system,

open the door.
©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
Arm the system, then Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x
simultaneously open the door and
disarm the system.

Reset

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3.9 Capture/convert process

The above sections described a two-step process that is common in disciplined embedded
programming. The �rst step is to capture the desired behavior using a computation model
appropriate for the desired system behavior, such as SMs. The second step is to convert that
©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
captured behavior into an implementation, such as C that will run on a microprocessor.
Lawrence NderuThe
Ak78Fta73x
conversion is typically very structured and automatable. The capture/convert process will be used
in subsequent chapters for more complex behavior and can result in code that is more likely to be
correct, that is more maintainable, and that has many other bene�ts compared to behavior that is
captured directly in C's sequential instruction model. The capture/convert design process is perhaps
one of the most important concepts in disciplined programming of embedded systems.

Figure 3.9.1: Capture, convert.

Even in the absence of a tool like RIBS, programmers can (and should) capture time-ordered
behavior as an SM, typically drawing the SM on paper �rst, and then converting to C. All
modi�cations are done by changing the SM (capture), and then updating the C code (convert). An
experienced programmer can work with SMs in C without always having to see a state diagram,
and can see or draw a state diagram from C code.

The concept of thinking of program behavior as state machines, even though the actual code is in C,
is the most important concept in this book. ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
Lawrence Nderu
Ak78Fta73x

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Figure 3.9.2: Thinking in state machines.

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Try 3.9.1: Reverse engineering C code to an SM.

For the below C code, draw the corresponding SM state diagram.

#include "RIMS.h"
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unsigned char x; Lawrence Nderu
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enum EX_States { EX_SMStart, EX_S0, EX_S2, EX_S1 } EX_State;

void TickFct_Example() {
switch(EX_State) { // Transitions
case EX_SMStart:
EX_State = EX_S0;
break;
case EX_S0:
if (1) {
EX_State = EX_S1;
}
break;
case EX_S2:
if (A3) {
EX_State = EX_S2;
}
else if (!A3) {
EX_State = EX_S1;
}
break;
case EX_S1:
if (!A3) {
EX_State = EX_S1;
}
else if (A3) {
EX_State = EX_S2;
x = A & 0x07;
B = x;
}
break;
default:
EX_State = EX_SMStart;
break;
}

switch(EX_State) { // State actions

case EX_S0:
x = 0;
B = x;
break;
case EX_S2:
break; ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
case EX_S1: Lawrence Nderu
break;
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default:
break;
}
}

void main() {
EX_State = EX_SMStart; // Initial state
B = 0; // Init outputs
while(1) {
TickFct_Example();
}

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Note that the RIBS tool does not run a C compiler on the C code in actions/conditions/declarations,
but rather just generates a new C program that contains that code. Any syntax errors will only be
determined upon running a C compiler on that program, requiring a RIBS user to correlate the error
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message to the SM code. Lawrence Nderu
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Try 3.9.2: C syntax error in RIBS.

For any working example in RIBS having an action in a state, introduce a C syntax error by
removing the semicolon after an action. Save, generate C, then press "RIMS Simulation".
Note the error message that is generated, and strive to correlate that with the RIBS SM. Fix
the error and this time introduce an error by adding a semicolon after a transition
condition, and try running again.

The SM model in this chapter is a basic state machine model speci�cally intended to aid the
capture of time-ordered behavior and for conversion to C. Many other state machine models exist,
such as UML state machines. Some state machine models have a more formal mathematical
basis, but translation to C is more cumbersome and the code harder to maintain. Another common
category of computation model involves data�ow models, which are well suited to digital signal
processing applications but are beyond our scope.

PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 3.9.1: Capture/convert process.

1) "Capture" refers to describing desired

system behavior in the most
appropriate computation model.
True
False
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2) "Convert" refers to describing desired Lawrence Nderu
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system behavior directly in C.
True
False

3) A system has two 4-bit inputs, and

continually sets a 5-bit output to their

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average. The system is best captured

as an SM, then converted to C.
True
False

4) Because an SM can be converted to

C, then C directly supports the SM
computation model. ©zyBooks 11/05/21 13:38 231883
Lawrence Nderu
True Ak78Fta73x

False

Exploring further:

• Wikipedia: UML state machine

• [Link]
• Wikipedia: Kahn process networks

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