Class 2.

Insecta
(Gk. entos = within; gnathos = Jaw)
Characters:
e 1. Includes all hexapods that are
successful
in terrestrial and freshwater habitats.
2. Body is divided into head, thorax and
abdomen.
3. Head is formed by the fusion of six
segments and its appendages are a single
pair of antennae, a pair of mandibles and
twopairs of maxillae.
4. Compound eyes and ocelli usually are
present.
5. In adults, the thorax includes 3 segments
prothorax,mesothorax and metathorax and
 Animal Diversity (GE,)
160
sunk into a pouch.
walking 5. Mouth parts are not
each segment bears one pair of 6. Presence of compound eyes. from
legs.
and 7. Presence of an ovipositor derived the
7. In winged insects, the mesothorax segments.
eighth and ninth abdominal
metathorax bear a pair of wings in cach
8. Malpighian tubules are present.
segment.
D. Most insects possess a pair of salivary or Ex. Machilis, Petrobius.
labial glands. Order i. Zygentoma
Kespiratory organs are in the form of Characters:
tracheae which is extensively developed.
malpighian I. Apterygote. Mandibular articulation is
0. The chief excretory organs are
tubules. dicondylic.
end ofthe 2. The last segment or anal segment has two
doioducts open at the posterior cerci.
abdomen. or three many jointed anal
usually passes through 3. Rudimentary appendags may occur in
l. Development some abdominal segments.
complicated metamorphosis but in some
cases it may be direct. 4. Malpighian tubules and compound eyes are
usually present.
Sub-class 1. Pterygota 5. Require moist environments beneath bark.
(Gk. pterygotos = winged) stones, in leaf litter. Some occur inside
Characters: books.
1. Adults possess wings which may be [Link] (silver fish), Nicoletia.
secondarily lost. Order i. Ephemeroptera
2. Mouth parts are endognathous. Characters:
3. Excepting cerci, other appendages are 1. The members of this order are called the
absent in the abdomen.
mayflies.
4. Malpighian tubules are present. 2. Adults are delicate aerial flying insect but
5. Metamorphosis is either partial or complete larvae are aquatic.
with a pupal stage. Wings appear in the last immature stage
[Link], Grasshoppers, Termites, Lice, 3.
Cockroach, Beetles, Butterflies, Moths. and are followed by ecdysis.
4. Terminal part of the abdomen bears two
It includes the following orders: elongated cerci and a median filament.
Order i. Archaeognatha 5. Mouth parts are degenerated in adults.
Characters: [Link] do not feed and are short lived,
1. Cylindrical scale covered body. [Link], Hexagenia.
Apterygote. Order [Link]
2. Abdomen has three terminal processes. (Gk. Odous = tooth) Dragon flies and Damsel
3. Require moist environments beneath bark, flies
stones, in leaf litter. Characters:
4. Jump when disturbed, hence calledjumping 1. They are large sized insects.
bristletails. 2. Two pairs of almost equal wings present.
Arthropoda

restthe wings are either held unfolded 4.

: rAl
extended laterally, Compound cyes are small, ocelli absent.
Mouthparts are adapted for biting. [Link].
54Theeyes are very large and conspicuous. Order vii. Mantophasmatodea
Larvaeare fully aquatic. Characters:
ELtna, Calopteryx, Gomphus and|Lestes. 1. Adults are secondarily wing less.
2. Body usually
order v. Orthoptera 3. elongated and slender trunk.
orthos =straight, pteron = wing)
Raptorial forelegs, carnivorous.
(G
Characters:
[Link], Raptophasma (Extinct).
insects. Order ix. Dermaptera
LRelatively large (Gk. derma =
2 Large
pronotumand large compound eye Characters: skin)
present.
1. Body elongated and depressed.
3. Legs of the metathoracic segment are 2. Anterior wings are short.
adapted for jumping. 3. Posterior wings are papery and have
A A
well-developed ovipositor ispresent in radially arranged veins on its surface.
females. 4. Mouth parts are adapted for
Structure of head resembles that of 5. Anal cerci are like forceps. biting.
cockroach.
[Link], Labia.
6. Mouth parts are of biting type. Order x. Plecoptera
7. Most are herbivores.
Characters:
ExLocusta, Gryllotalpa (mole cricket),. 1. The order includes the stone flies.
Gryllus, Scudderia. 2. Aerial adults and aquatic nymphs. Nymphal
tracheal gills.
Order vi. Phasmida 3. Antenna is long. Caudal Cerci are distinct.
Characters: 4. Larva is aquatic. In course of development
1. Allthemembers exhibit structural features a terrestrial stage appears which contains,
tomimic leaves or branches of the tree. only wing buds.
2. Body elongate, cylindrical and stick like. 5. Winged forms develop from this stage and
3. Some are wingless, whereas others may become aerial.
have wings. [Link], Peltoperla, Isoperla.
4. Compound eyes are small. Order xi. Embioptera
5. Mouth parts areof biting typc. Characters:
6. Slow moving and nonjumping type. 1. The members are the web-spinners.
[Link] (stick insect), Phvllium (leaf- 2. Size is small. Feed on plants.
insect). 3. Live in silk tunnels. Many individuals live
Order vii. Grylloblattaria together in conncctes tunnels.
4. Tarsiare three-jointed.
Characters:
1. Body elongated. 5. Possess silk glands to form silken tunnels
.Wings absent, mouth parts biting type. for living.
3. [Link], Oligembia, Anisembia.
Antennae long and many segmented.
 62
Animal Diversity (GE)
Order xv. Zoraptera
Order xii. Isoptera Characters:
(Gk. ises =equal pteren wing) I. Minute winged or wingless insects
Characters:
white ants in colonies. Resemble tiny termites, Live
1. The order is exenylitied bythe 2. Compound cyes and ocell1 are
or termites.
in 3. Mouth parts are of biting type.
present.
2 They exhibit polymorphism Iiving 4. Males are usually without wings.
colonies under a caste system
They exhibit polymorphism,
3. A colony may contain both winged and 5. 6. Cercishort and unsegmented.
wingless sexual individuals and wingless
sterile workers and soldiers. [Link].
4. Fenales have much enlarged abdomen. Order xvi. Psocoptera
5. In winged forms, the wings are of same Characters:
sizes and can be separated at wil. 1. Book lice are the members of this order
6. Each wing has a longitudinalvenation and 2. Size is extremely small. Live under bark
chitinised network in between.
infoliage and under stones.
7. Mouth parts are adapted for biting and 3. Wings may or may not occur.
chewing. 4. When present, the anterior pair is larger
[Link], Zootermopsis. and both are membranous.
Order xii. Mantodea 5. Hypopharynx can extract water from
Characters: atmosphere.
1. Medium tolarge sized nsects. 6. Cerci are absent.
2. Head small, triangular and freely movable. 7. Mouth parts are built up for biting and
3. Relatively slow moving. chewing.
4. Mouth parts are of primitivecondition and [Link], Liposcelis.
used for biting. Order xvi. Phthiraptera
5. Prothorax greatly elongated. Characters:
6. Forelegs modified for capturing and holdng 1. Ectoparasites of bird and mammal.
the prey. 2. The order includes the sucking lice.
7. Well developed eyes and ocelli. 3. Body depressed. Legs adapted for clinging.
[Link], Tenodera.
4. Mouth parts are adapted for piercing and
Order xiv. Blattaria sucking. Wings are absent.
Characters: 5. Entire lifecycle are spent on the host.
1. Medium to large sized nsects. 6. Transfer from host to host requires physical
2. Omnivorous, nocturnal and run fast. contact of the hosts.
3. Cerci are segmented. [Link] capitis (Human head louse),
4. Mouth parts are of biting and chewing type. Pediculus humanus (Human body louse)
5, Antennae long and many segmented.
6. Eggs remain within a capsule called Order xvii. Hemiptera
ootheca. Characters:
[Link], Blatta. 1. Dorsoventrally flattened body.
Arthropoda
163

) Mouth parts are adapted for sucking. Diet, 5. Posterior pair of wing is nembranous.
cither animal or plant is liquid. 6. Prothorax is freely movable.
1 They are vectors of plant and animal 7. Well developed jaws are built up for biting
diseases. and chewing.
4 Two pairs of wings. Wings are 8. Metanorphosis is complete.
membranous and during rest are held in 9. Larvae may be maggot like or caterpillar
roof like fashion. like.
5. Eyes large with or without ocelli. [Link], Copris, Popillia, Rodolia.
6. Pronotum is large or rudimentary. Cerci
absent. Order xxi. Neuroptera
7. It includes two sub orders: Heteroptera and Characters:
Homoptera. 1. Mostly terrestrial insects.
8. Heteroptera includes squash bugs, water 2. Head bears large and widely separated
striders stink bugs, whereas Homoptera 3. Two compound eyes.
includes aphids, cicads treehoppers, pair of wings, similar in shape, sIZe
and venation.
leafhoppers.
[Link], Corixa, Triatoma 4. Mouth parts adapted for biting in the adult
but sucking in the larva.
(Heteroptera) and Aphis, Cicada and [Link], Mantispa, Myrmeleon
Tachardia (Lac insect) as Homopterans. (Antlion).
Order xix. Thysanoptera
(Gk. thysanos = fringe; pteron = wing) Order xxii. Megaloptera
Characters:
Characters:
1. Minute, terrestrial, slender insect. 1. Large insects.
2. Mouth parts are adapted for biting and
2. Wings may or may not be present.
chewing. Antennae long.
3. When present the wings are slender and 3. Two pairs of
similar membranous wings
with elongated setae at the margin. present.
4. Mouth parts are adapted for sucking.
5. All areplant pests.
4. Atthe margin of the wing, the longitudinal
veins exhibit sign of bifurcation.
[Link], Heliothrips, Merothrips. 5. Compound eyes are well developed.
Order xx. Coleoptera 6. Metamorphosis is complete and the larvae
(Gk. Koleos = sheath; pteron = wing) are aquatic having tracheate gills.
Characters: [Link] (Alder-flies), Corydalus (Dobson
1. Includes minute to large insects. Almost flies).
allare terrestrial, a few live in fresh water. Order xxii. Raphidioptera
2. The members of this order include the
beetles. Characters:
1. Elongated terrestrial insect.
3. Wings two pairs, forewings are elytra and 2. Two pairs of similar wings.
useless in flight.
4. Anterior pair of wing is stiff and covers 3. Elongated head and prothorax is long.
4. Mouth parts are adapted for biting.
the folded posterior wing during rest.
 Animal Diversity (GE.)
164 8. Caddis flies are the common represe.

iscomplete. ntatives of the order.

5. Metamorphosis
predaceous, terrestrial iving 9. Larvae are aquatic and produce silk case
6. Larvae are
under the bark of conifers. within which they reside.
[Link], Polycentropus, Beraea.
[Link].
Order xxiv. Hymenoptera
wing) Order xxvi. Lepidoptera
=
(Gk. hymen = membranc: pteron (Gk. lepis= scale; pteron= wing)
Characters: Characters:
1. Wings are membranous. Flying terrestrial insect.
mnembranous transparent 1.
2. Two pairs of
hooks onthe 2. Broad and well developed wings are
wingsremain interlocked by enclosed by scales.
anterior border of hindwing. with variod
mouth are 3. Wings are generally oriented
3. The appendages around specks of colours.
arranged for biting, chewing, licking and 4, Maxillae in adults are modified into a
sucking. spirally coiled sucking tube.
4. Allthe thoracic segments are united. 5. Mouth parts of larvae are modified
for
5. In females the ovipositor may be a sting.
biting
6. Larvae maggot like, with chewing mouth 6. First two divisions of the thorax are fused
parts. Metamorphosis is complete.
7. Adults are found near flowers feeding on 7. in
nectar and honeydew. 8. Larvae possess three thoracic feet and
8. Metamorphosis is complete. some cases several abdominal legs may
be present.
9. Development is complicated and lar-vae
are helpless. 9. Pupa is always covered with a case.
10. Pupa is covered by a cocoon. 10. All the butterflies and moths belong to this
order.
[Link] (Honey bee), Vespa (Wasp), and [Link], Heliothis, Venesa, Melittia,
Formica (Ant).
Papilio, and Bombyx.
Order xxv. Trichoptera
(Gk. thrix = hair; pteron = wing) Order xxvii. Mecoptera
(Gk. mekos = a length; pteron = wing)
Characters:
1. Medium sized moth like insect. Characters:
2. Antennae long filiform and many 1. Head usually elongated and vertical.
segmented. 2. Head bears a beak-like prolongation and
3. Compound eyes are well developed with mouth parts are present at the tip of this
or without ocelli. beak.
4. Mouth parts are specialised for licking. 3. Abdomen in male is curved upwards.
5. Wings are hairy, membranous and are of 4. Wings are membranous and all alike.
dissimilar sizes. 5. Compound eyes are large and widely
6. At rest the wings remain as a roof like separated with or without ocelli.
peak. 6. Antennae long, filiform and many
7. Mandibles are generally absent. segmented.
Arthropoda
165

1 The members of the order are the 5. Mouth partsare modified for biting.
Scorpion-flies. 6. Adult males are short lived, nonparasitic
[Link], Boreus. and do not feed.
Order xxvii. Siphonaptera 7. Male's compound eyes are large and
(Gk. siphon = sucker, a = without; pteron protruding.
= wing) 8. Antennae short have processes extending
Characters: from flagellum.
1. Small sized insects. 9. Metamorphosis is complete.
2. External parasites on warm-blooded like [Link], Eoxenos.
birds and mammalsanimals. Order xxx. Diptera
3. Wings are absent in adults. (Gk. dis = two)
4. Body laterally compressed. Characters:
5. Coxae of the legs are exceedingly large. 1. Flies and mosquitoes belong to this order.
6. Legs adapted for jumping. 2. Compound eyes are large and wellI
7. Mouth parts are adapted for piercing and developed.
sucking. 3. Metathoracic wings are modified as the
8. Metamorphosis is complete. halteres, which act as balancers.
[Link], Ctenocephalides, etc. 4. Mesothoracic wings are well developed
Order xxix. Strepsiptera but with sparse venation.
Characters: 5. Mouth parts may be adapted for piercing
1. Tiny insect that parasitize on a variety of and sucking or only sucking.
other inseccts. 6. Almost all adult flies feed on plant or
animal fluids.
2. Wingless and degenerated females are 7. Adults are vectors of human and animal
endoparasites but the males are free living discases.
and winged. Metamorphosis is complete.
3. Anterior wings in males are small and work 8.9. Larvae are maggots and found in wet
as halters. substrata.
4. At rest the hind wings of male remain
folded like fan.
ExAnopheles, Aedes, Culex, Musca, etc.
Arthropoda 175

CHAPTER-3

VISION IN ARTHROPODA
INTRODUCTION
Arhropods possess various kinds of sensory structures, sensitive to different kinds
f stimuli. These structures called sensilla either protrude from the cuticle, or lie within
The sensilla contain sensory neurons and are sensitive to environmental information.
The sensilla may be in the form of hair, bristles, setae, slits, pegs, pits etc. Someof the
receptors present in the arthropod body are as follows.
a) Chemoreceptors: sensitive to chemical stimulus
b) Mechanoreceptors: sensitive to movement
c) Tactoreceptors:sensitive to touch
d) Olfactoreceptors: sensitive to smell
e) Audioreceptors: sensitive to sound
) Photoreceptors: sensitive to light
Most of the arthropods possess eyes,which are photoreceptors and sensitive to light.
The eyes of arthropods may vary in number, structure and complexity. The arthropods ancestrally
possessed compound eyes, but the type varies between groups, and some taxa have secondarily
developed simple eyes. Arthropods may possess simple as well as compoundeyes. Insects
that possess both types of eyes are considered to be the most successful animals on earth.
SIMPLE EYES IN ARTHROPODS)
Scorpion belongs to the class Arachaida and possesses only simple eyes or ocelli.
The word ocelli is derived from the Latin word ocellus which means little eye. Ocelli are
comprised of single lens for collecting and focusing light. Two distinct ocellus types exist:
dorsal ocelli (or simply "ocelli"), found in most insects, and lateral ocelli (or stemmata), which
are found in the larvae of some insect orders.
a) Dorsal ocelli: The term "ocellus" (plural ocelli) is derived from the Latin oculus (eye),
and literally means "little eye". Dorsal ocelli are light-sensitive organs found on the dorsal
surface or frontal surface of the head of many insects,e.g. Hymenoptera (bees, ants,wasps),
Diptera (flies), Odonata (dragonflies )and Orthoptera (grasshoppers, locusts). The ocelli coexist
with the compound eyes.
The number, forms, and functions of the dorsal ocelli vary throughout insect orders.
They tend to be larger and more expresed in flying insects (particularly bes, wasps, dragonflies
and locusts), where they are foundas a triplet.
Adorsal ocellus consists of a lens element (cornea) and a layer of photoreceptors (rod
cells), each ending in a nerve fibre which leads to the brain. The cuticle covering the
photoreceptor cells forms a thick, biconvex, transparent cornea or lens. The ocellar lens may
be curved in bes, locusts and dragonflies: or flat as in cockroaches. The photoreceptor layer
may (eg. locusts) or may not (e.g. blowflies, dragonflies) be separated from the lens by a clear
 176 Animal Diversity (GE)
of
zone (vitreous humour). The vitreous body nourishes the lens. The number
may number in hundreds or thousands for well developed ocelli. plotorecepors
The photoreceptor cell transmit nerve impulses lo the optic nerve and then to the
brain. Real function of ocelli is not clearly known. Probably it is sensitive to a wide range of
wavelengths and shows quick response to changes in light intensity. It cannot form an mage
and is unable to recognize the object. Given with, wide fields of view, and high
light-collecting
ability, the ocelli are superbly adapted for measuring changes in the perceived brightness of the
external world.
Recent studies have shown the ocelli of some insects (dragonlly, some wasps) are
capable of forming vision, as the lens forms an image close to, the photoreceptor layer. Dragonfly
ocelli are especially highly developed and specialised visual organs, which may support the
exceptional acrobatic abilities of these animals.
b) Lateral Ocelli (Stemmata): Stemmata (singular stemma) are a class of simple eyes.
They are the only eyes in the larvae of holometabolous and certain adult insects such as spring
tails,silver fish, fleas and stylops. Lateral eyes are small in size, 3 pairs and located on the
lateral sides of prosoma. They are structurally similar to dorsalocelli except that they have a
biconvex lens. Behind each lens of a typical, functional stemma, lies asingle cluster of
photoreceptor cells, termed a retinula. The epidermis forms a thinner vitreous body under
the lens. Inside the eye cup are several rhabdomes which point directly towards the source
of light. Each rhabdome is connected on the posterior end to a sensory retinal cellthat is
connected to the nerve.
These ocelli are sensitive tolight intensity and thus capable of detecting movement of
nearby objects and organisms. The lateral eyes are also used to provide vision in day time or
in bright light.
COMPOUND EYES IN ARTHROPODS
A number of arthropods possess eyes which are made up of a large number of long,
cylindrical photoreceptor units called ommaidia which are connected to the optic nerve.
Such eyes are termed as compound eyes. The eye is covered with a transparent chitinous
covering of cuticle forming a cornea. The cornea is divided into a large number of square
facets placed in juxtaposition. Each unit or facet called an ommatidium is capable of forming
aseparate image, independent of other ommatidium. Thus, image formed is a combination of
inputs from a number of ommatidia. Allommatidia are simple and are arranged radially lying
side by side and separated by dark pigment cells.
Structure of an 0mmatidium
Each ommatidium is composed of a number of cells arranged end to end along a
central axis. An ommatidium is divisible into the outer dioptrical region for receiving and
focusing light rays and the inner sensory region for perceiving light and sending the nerve
impulse to the brain, which analyses the impulses as image of the object.
It consists of the following parts:
a) Cornea: The outermost layer of an eye is covered by the transparent cuticle. It forms the
cornea and functions as a biconvex lens. The external surface of cornea is generally hexagonal
Arthropoda 177

but somctimes square in shape and is called a corneal facet. Larpe number of facets yives an
interesting appearance to the conpound eyes, which oflen looks like a graph paper. Cornea,
beingcuticular in nature, sheds during cach moult. New comea is secreted by the underlying
corneagen cells present beneath each facet.
Corneagencells: Below the cornea, is present a pair of mod1fied epidermal cells called
corneagen cells. These cells secretes fresh cornea in case of wear and tear.
c) Crystalline Cone: The corneagen cells are followed by along. cylindrical or tapering.
ransparent erystalline cone. The crystalline cone is surrounded by 4-6 clongated cone cells
ar Vitrellae, with long and tapering ends. The cone cells serve to provide nourishment to
he crvstalline cone. Crystalline cone functions as the second lens and helps to focus light
unon the photoreceptors present in the ommatidium. The region of cach ommatidium, from
pomea till the end of cone cells, is termed as dioptrical region.
à Retinal cells: The cone cells are followed by a group of seven elongated cells forming
the proximal part of the axis of an ommatidium. These retinal cells that surround the
rhabdome and encircle it, provide it nutrition and protection.
e) Photoreceptor Unit: Basal end of cone cells of the ommatidium lie upon an clongated
translucent cylinder, called rhabdome. Rhabdome receives light and functions as a single
photoreceptor unit forming an image. Rhabdome is surrounded by 7-8 light-sensitive photoreceplor
cells, retinular cells.
0omea
DBasement membrane: It is the innermost layer that coneagon cells
marks the internal boundary of the ommatidia in a crystalline cone

compound eye. Each retinula cell rests upon a basement B

membrane and extends into an axon. The bundle of 7-8
axons leaving each ommatidium is further connected to dioptrical -cone cells or
vitrellae
the neurons of optic ganglion which is connected to the egion
brain through optic nerve. Rhabdome and retinular cells
collectively form the receptor region of the eye.
)Pigment Cells: Chromatophores are pigment cells iis pigment

which are responsible for separating one ommatidium retinal cells

from the other so that they remain as independent units. D

They are located around the cone cells and retinal cells.
The primary pigment, iris, is present in the proximal region rhabdomes

of the ommatidium surrounding the tapering ends of the receplor retinal pgment
cone cells. The secondary pigment, retinal pigment, region
-basal membrane

surrounds the rhabdome and retinal cells in the distal region nerve fibres
of the ommatidium. These pigments can shrink or expand >optie ganglsa
to increase or decrease the intensity of light entering -opttc neve
the eye. A

WORKING OF COMPOUND EYE Fig. 3.1 A-Three ommatidia in L.S., B-T.S.

of an ommatidium through cone cells,
C-TS.
Compound eyes form image with the help of inputs nal through basal end, D-TS. throuh reti
cells and rhabdome.
received from ommatidia. Each ommatidium is capable
 Animal Diversity (G E)

independent image ofasmall part of the object seen and not the entire
of producing an combined in the braintoform a complete image ol the
object AII these snmall images are yise
is made of small dots or mosaic of dots and hence il is called mosaie
object that ofimage depernd1ng onthe intensity of light
Conpound eyes of arthropods s can form two kinds
a) Apposition inage
b) Superpos ition image
Formation of Apposition Image
bright light. In bright light, pigment
The compound eyes form apposition image in the completely
dioptrical
the other. and sensory regions spread and separate the ommatidia
from incach
cells The spread of the pigment acts as a screen to prevent light rays from passing
the axial region of the
from one ommatidium to another. The light rays rennain restricted to le nses
crystall1ne cone and rhabdomes. As a result, only
those rays which fall perpendicularly on the cornea prmy pgme
Crystre
Cones

and pass through rhabdome form the point of an

image. The rays which fall obliquely on the cornea
are absorbed by the pigment and do not produce any
Visualeftect. Thus. each ommatidium responds to a retinula celts

patch of light from the visual field and overlaps litle rhabdom
with the neighbouring ommatidia forming a point of sècondary pkment
cels
an image. AX ons

The final image is formed by combining all Fig. 3.2 L.S. of Compound eye
these points formed by the stimulated [Link]
image formed in brain is a mosaic of several dots, each one of which is formed by an
ommatidium. Each ommatidium uses only a tiny portion of the total field of vision and then
in brain these tiny images are grouped together to form a single image of the object. Since
each dot is clearly separated from the other, it is called mosaic or apposition image. The
sharpness of the image depends on the number of ommatidia and their isolation from one
another. An eye adapted for mosaic vision functions best at short distances only. It is therefore
most of the arthropods are short-sighted.
Formation of Superposition Image
The superposition image is formed in the dim light in nocturnal arthropods. In weak
light, both proximal and distal pigments cells shrink to allow more light into the eye. The
ommatidia do not remain optically isolated from one another, and the light rays can pass from
one ommatidium to another. As aresult, the oblique rays as well those which fall perpendicularly
on the cornea and pass through rhabdome form the point of an image.
Thus, each ommatidium responds to the light rays which had entered through different
corneal facets. This results in overlapping of the adjacent blotches of images formed by
different ommatidia. This is called superposition image because overlapping images are
formed in the brain. This image is not sharp but hazy because of overlapping images. In
superposition image the vision is not distinct but the animal is able to have some sort of idea
about its surrounding objects, specially of their movements.
Arthropoda
179

VISION IN INSECTA- Simple as well as Compound Eyes

Insects possess one pair of X
compound eyes and 1-3 simple eyes
or ocelli on top of the head. In -light rays
cockroach the ocelli are
rudimentary. cornea

The Insect Compound Eyes: The

corneagen cells
compound eyes are sessile in the
form of convex brownish-black, pigment
kidney-shaped structures on the -rhabdomes
lateral sides of head. Each eye
contains about 2,000 ommatidia, A
similar in structure to those already Fig. 3.3 Diagrammatic representation of image formation by a compound
described earlier. eye. A-Apposition image, B- Superposition image.

The pigments separating ommatidia are not retractable in the eyes of cockroach
since the animal is nocturnal and spends daytime in dark places. But the eye
produces
mosaic vision similar to the crustaceans. Compound eyes are specially adapted to
movements of objects. The insect compound eye is advanced structure because theperceive
number
of ommatidia in insect eyes increases giving the eye sharpness of vision. Also the
of vision increases in predatory insects and fast flying insects. distance
The Insect Ocelli: Ocelli are simple eyes, more or less similar to the simple
arachnids and provide the eye with distant vision. Ocelli alsogive nocturnal vision toeyes of
flying insects, which find their way by aligning them at an angle with the moon or [Link]
By
possessing both types of eyes, insects enjoy both types of visions, namely detection of
movement with compound eyes and distant vision with simple eyes or ocelli.
Apposition Eye Vs Superposition Eye : The compound eyes of many arthropods are able
to adapt both bright and weak light, such as in prawn. These
species thus can see in daylight as
well as in night. However, in several arthropods, the eyes are adapted and fixed for working
under onlyone condition. Therefore, compound eyes can be classified as
superposition eye.
apposition eye and
Advantages and Disadvantages of Compound Eyes
Compound eyes have many advantages and disadvantages over human eyes.
Advantages
(a) The compound eyes have a convex corneal surface which results in a wide visual
In crustaceans, eyes can cover an arc of 180° or even more.
field.
(b) Compound eyescan detect even movements very casily. Aslight
of light results in the corresponding shift in the ommatidia.
movement in the point
(c) Eyes of many diurnalarthropods possess high flicker fusion frequency because of
which
they perceive an object as a succession of separate images, instead ofa single image.
This helps them to detect motion readily.
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Animal Diversity (GE)
Disadvantages
(a) The image formed by the compound eyes is very crude. An insect could
see aroW of
closely spaced bar as a continuous horizontal bar.
(b) The compound eyes do not provide good visual effect in distance vision.
(c) Compound eyes possess p0or resolving power because of the small ssizzed
lenses. Therefore, they cannot pick up details of an object as human eyes cannumer
do.
ous
For
example, when a human eye can make out full details of a human hand. a
can only make out an outline of the hand. compound eye
Difference between Apposition Eye and Superposition Exe
Features Apposition Eye Superposition Eye
Light intensity Stimulated by strong Stimulated by low
light intensity intensity of light
Screening pigment Well developed Present but may be reduced
or absent in some

Length of crystalline coneApproximately cqual Twice as long as the focal

to the focal length length
Space between cone Absent, both contiguous Considerable space permitting
and upper end of abdomen light rays to cross from
crystalline cone of one
ommatidium to rhabdome of
another

Retinular cells Long extending till the Shorter restricted to the

basal membrane of retina base of ommatidium

Light rays Enter through single ommati- Enter through several

-dium through axial region ommatidia through all regions
Examples Diurnal species, such as Nocturnal species, such as
butterfly cockroaches, moths

EXERCISE
1. Enumerate the structure and working of compound eye in arthropods.
2. Write an essay on vision in insects.
3 Write short notes on:
a) Structure of ommatidium.
b) Apposition image.
c) Superposition image.