OBH 412 MANAGEMENT TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT

Lesson No. 5

LEARNING PROCESS
Au thor : Dr . T ejinder Sh arma
Dept. of Commerce,
K.U., Kuruks hetr a
Structure

5.0 Objective

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Learning: definition and theories

5.2.2 Connectionist theories

5.2.3 Cognitist theories

5.3 Doctrines of learning

5.4 Learning curve

5.5 Types of management development

5.6 Virtuous Learning Circle

5.7 Principles Of Learning

5.8 Summary
5.9 Key Words
5.11 Key Words
5.12 Self Assessment Questions
5.13 Suggested Readings

5.0 Objective

This lesson shall familiarize you with:

• The basic concept of learning

• Theories and doctrines of learning

• Learning curve and virtuous learning circle

5.1 Introduction
In most general words, training can be perceived as a
process by which people learn knowledge and acquire skills,
which they need for a definite purpose. Training is deeply
rooted in the learning process. Learning and training are
inseparable and in order to design the training programmes,
it is important to know the basic nature of learning, its
principles and its process.

5.2 Learning: definition and theories

Breach has defined training as a human process by which
skills knowledge, habits and attitudes are acquired and
utilized is such a way that behaviour is modified. Learning
manifests itself by the changed behaviour of the trainees.
A lot of research has been done on learning and a number of
theories have been proposed to explain the same. Various
theories of learning can be classified into two main
categories as:
5.2.1 Connectionist theories
5.2.2 Cognitist theories

5.2.1 Connectionist theories

The connectionist theories believe primarily in the stimulus
response approach. These theories involve the operation of
laws of association, such as assimilation, frequency,
contiguity, intensity, duration, context, acquaintance,
composition, individual differences and cause and effect. The
basic theme of these theories is that when an act produces
satisfaction, it will be associated with a particular situation
and probably will be repeated when the situation arises
again. If an act produces a psychological or physical

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discomfort, a person will tend to avoid that behaviour in a
similar situation. These theories observe that a teacher can
increase the amount of learning in a training situation
significantly by reinforcing the correct responses rather than
by giving some form of punishment when a task is performed
incorrectly.

5.2.2 Cognitist theories

These theories believe that all learning leads towards a goal
i.e. all human behaviour has a purpose. These theories
believe in latent or collateral learning i.e. the formulation of
enduring attitudes, likes and dislikes, in addition to learning
in order to acquire a particular skill. These theories also
suggest that training is goal oriented and it must take into
consideration the goals of both the organization as well as
the trainee. The role of a teacher and trainee is to structure
the learning situation so that the relationship among the
stimuli, responses and the individual goals (i.e. the
motivation to learn) are emphasized.
In all theories, three basic concepts have been studied:
(i) Stimulus
Stimulus is something that initiates action. An action
occurring as a consequence of the stimulus is called
response. For example, in Pavlov’s experiment, when a bell
rings, it is a stimulus. As a result of the food being offered to
the dog on ringing of the bell, the dog salivates, which is a
response.
(ii) Reinforcement
It is an action that causes a learner to repeat (or to avoid)
his/her behaviour. In Pavlov’s experiment, when a dog is
offered food repeated on ringing of the bell, it reinforces its

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behaviour i.e. it salivates automatically on the ringing of bell,
in anticipation of getting the food.
(iii) Motivation
It is the drive that maintains the process of reinforcement. In
Pavlov’s experiment, offering food causes a dog to salivate
immediately as it is likely to get food as an incentive.
Motivation guides a learner to completion of learning for
better employment; say higher salary, promotion or a path to
some desired goal.

5.3 Doctrines of learning

Some general doctrines of learning can be stated, on the
basis of the research done in the field of psychology and
education. These can be stated as under:

1. Every human being is capable of learning as each

one of us has a capacity and ability to learn. People
do differ in learning capacities and the pace of
learning, but there is nobody who cannot learn at all.
2. Trainees learn when they see that training is
meaningful to them.
3. Learning improves significantly if the trainers have
planned it properly. They must start with defining the
learning objectives and then all the details of its each
aspect such pedagogy, facility planning etc.
4. Learning has different levels and may involve
awareness, change in behaviour and attitudes. It may
also involve mental processes or just physical
strength. Each level of training would require
different time, methods and resources.

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 5. Since the trainees as well as the organization where
they work are always goal oriented, the objectives of
training must match with their goals as well as the
organization’s goals.
6. Learning is an active process and not passive.
Hence, all learning must ensure that the trainees
have a proper participation in the entire process.
7. Past experiences of the trainees influence the
training. If a situation occurs when the trainees have
negative preconceived ideas about the training, then
adequate measures should be taken to remove the
interference of these predispositions.
8. Learning improves when people know about their
results. Hence, training must have a proper feedback
system.
9. Training is transferable, which can be achieved by
maximizing the similarity between the training
situation and the work situation, providing adequate
experience with tasks during the training i.e. giving
examples, identifying important features of the task
and ensuring that the trainee understands the
general principles.
10. Learning environment and climate setting can play a
very significant role in improving training
effectiveness.

5.4 Learning curve

Learning does not take place at a constant rate. It varies

according to a number of factors, such as the difficulty of
task and the ability of an individual to learn. The cumulative

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change of a specific criterion during a given period can be
shown in the form of the learning curves. The learning curves
are a graphical representation of learning and time. Various
criteria can be used for measuring learning. Some of the
criteria used for the same are – errors in each trial, time
taken per trial, responses learnt in each trial etc. The curves
for the individuals differ widely because of the varying
capacity of the individuals to learn. However, some
generalizations can be made regarding the same. A general
learning curve is shown in the following exhibit.

Stage III
Stage I Stage II

Exhibit 5.1
General learning curve

As shown by the above exhibit, three distinct stages can be

drawn in a learning curve. These are:

Stage I : Rapid initial learning

Stage II : Tapering of learning
Stage III : Fluctuating learning

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In the first stage, the trainees are enthusiastic about learning
and they imbibe the same rapidly. This is shown by a rapid
change in their desired behaviour. However, as learning
progresses, trainees tend to lose interest in the same. The
monotony sets in, which can slow down the process of
learning. As the training progresses further, learning tends to
fluctuate because the trainees behave in a bargaining style.
Their learning shows a fluctuating behaviour, depending upon
the incentives offered for the same.
It must be noted that the learning curve does not remain the
same in all situations. There can be several plateaus in the
learning, indicating a hampered learning. These can arise
from various factors and the role of a trainer becomes very
crucial when they come in. The trainer has to provide a
stimulus variation in order to make the training more
meaningful and effective. Proper motivations have to be
planned at various stages of learning so that the tapering of
the learning curve does not set in too early.

In training, learning curve has the following application:

1. They provide a method for establishing training goals
and evaluate the performance towards these goals.
2. With the help of the learning curve, more efficient
production scheduling is possible when approximate
improvement in the trainees’ performance is
predictable.
3. Learning curve helps the hiring and termination of
employees over the contract period to be controlled
more efficiently.

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 4. Learning curves can serve as an alternative to hiring
and firing because the trainers would not rush up to
make preconceived ideas about the employees.

5.5 Types of management development

Management development, accruing as a consequence of

effective learning can be divided into three categories –
informal managerial processes, integrated managerial
processes and formal management development processes.
Learning occurs even without planning and also persists
amidst careful planning. Some of the characteristics and
development consequences of each type of management
development are as under:

Type 1: ‘Informal managerial’ – accidental processes

This type of management development process is
characterized with the following features:
• It occur within managerial activities
• It is explicit intention is task performance
• There are no clear development objectives
• It is unstructured in development terms
• It is not planned in advance
• It is owned by managers

The development consequences of this type of management

development is that learning is real, direct, unconscious and
insufficient

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Type 2: ‘Integrated managerial’ – opportunistic processes

This management development process has the following

characteristics:
• It occur within managerial activities
• There is an explicit intention both task
performance and development
• It has clear development objectives
• It is structured for development by boss and
subordinate
• It is planned beforehand or reviewed
subsequently as learning experiences
• It is owned by managers

The development consequence of this is that learning is real,

direct, conscious, more substantial

Type 3: ‘Formal management development’ – planned

processes
These processes have the following characteristics:
• They are often away from normal managerial
activities
• There is an explicit intention is development
• There are clear development objectives
• They are structured for development by
developers
• They are planned beforehand and reviewed
subsequently as learning experiences
• These are owned more by developers than
managers

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The development consequences of these are that learning
may be real (through a job) or detached (through a course)
and is more likely to be conscious, relatively infrequent

5.6 Virtuous Learning Circle

A properly planned and designed training process can create

the potential for a virtuous learning circle, as shown in
Exhibit 5.2.

Effectiveness
focus

Enthusiasm for
further learning

Perceived
relevance

Rewards from
application

Immediate
application

Exhibit 5.2

The virtuous learning circle

As shown in the first exhibit, perceived relevance of the

training programme is the starting point of any training
programme. The trainees shall be willing to learn only if they
feel that the skills acquired as a result of the training shall be
of use to them. The organization would devote the resources

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to training programme only if it would perceive certain
benefits resulting out of it. Next in the process are the
immediate advantages resulting out of the training. Long-term
benefits are too abstract and difficult to measure. Immediate
manifestation of the changed behaviour and the skills are of
great advantage to the trainees as well as the trainers. These
can be reinforced by the rewards and incentives to learn. The
trainees would be motivated to put the newly learnt skills
these into practice, which would provide them with further
enthusiasm for learning. This would result into learning
effectiveness, which would further improve the perceived
benefits of a training programme.
The vicarious learning sequence can be shown in the form of
the following sequence.

Generalized knowledge/skills

Transfer to own situation

Difficultly in application

Absence of rewards for

learned processes

Full Stop

The starting point of vicarious learning is generalized

knowledge and skills, that are required for undertaking a job.
These generalized skills have to be transferred according to
the job-specific situation. For example, in an MBA

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programme, the candidates acquire various types of skills
and knowledge. However, when they join any organization,
these skills have to be re-learnt to suit the specific
requirements of the nature of the job that one is required to
do. However, difficulties in application and absence of
rewards for learned processes can virtually stop the entire
learning process. It must be noted that vicarious learning
process is just the reverse of virtuous learning cycle, as
shown in Exhibit 5.2. While in the former, training reinforced
learning, in this the whole learning exercise can become a
futile effort. The role of trainer becomes very crucial in this
because he can make or mar the entire process. If he
performs his job effectively, he can convert the learning into
a virtuous activity, where each process reinforces the
advantages. If he is not very careful while doing his job, he
can create a situation where there is a complete cession of
the learning exercise.

If a training programme is developed carefully, it reduces the

undue emphasis on evaluation aspect to more action-based
learning. The whole shift of emphasis to action-based
learning helps to remove one of the foremost traditional
problems of management education and training. Various
managers and tutors have complained that an undue
emphasis on structured off-the-job learning experiences have
created more problems of transfer of learning. Off-the job
training creates an environment of artificiality and can even
hamper with the learning, which the managers might have
acquired while on-the job.
Modern motivational theories have established that behaviour
that is not rewarded is not willingly engaged upon again.

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Some managers who undergo training or educational
experiences they consider as useful or interesting or
stimulating, they shall be willing to return to similar
experiences subsequently. Others, who do not consider
training as being useful to them, are relatively unwilling to
attend in the first place and/or experience nothing like
stimulation or utility during the course. All too often this can
be traced back to the failure of courses to deal with the
issues of what managers really do, and to deal with them in
the ways most related to their normal managerial work
processes.
If trainers plan various aspects of evaluation carefully, then
corrective steps can be taken easily to improve the results.
The training programmes could have been designed to
achieve better effectiveness and addressed to broader issues
of knowledge or skill in a more effective way. However,
emphasis given to effectiveness issues makes the evaluation
process more difficult because the learning is built into the
action and is difficult to separate for evaluation purposes.
Emphasis on effectiveness and reality do not in themselves
completely overcome the need for careful choice of effective
learning processes. Management Development has been far
too subject to short-lived approaches, each of them claiming
to be uniquely appropriate to developing managers. Over the
years, T-groups, grid training, coaching, self-development,
action learning and now outdoor training are the most
preferred techniques for training and learning. However,
adoption of any single technique as the predominant answer
to those problems is lazy and incompetent. Nor is the answer
in a further proliferation of management development
processes. Thus, the supposedly well-designed course will

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include role-plays, films, case studies, lectures, and an
afternoon in the resource center etc.
The phrase ‘continuous learning’ is now becoming popular. It
will be no more than a promotional phrase if the learning
processes necessary to secure it are not provided. For
learning to be continuous, rather than simply a series of
events, tutors need to equip people to learn effectively
outside and around those events. They need to do so for the
absolutely obvious reason that for most managers most
learning will occur or not occur ‘on-the-job’.

5.7 Principles Of Learning

Learning has occurred when people demonstrate a difference

in behaviour or ability to perform a task. The following
principles are important for the development of any training
programme:

(1) Trainee must be Motivated to Learn.

An employee must see a purpose in learning the information

presented and have a clear understanding of what is
presented. If these two factors are considered, there will be a
greater chance of satisfaction. A good trainee perceives an
opportunity of real satisfaction from training.

(2) Information must be Meaningful.

The training material must relate to the purpose of the

training programme or it will stop being a motivator. The
material must be presented in a sequential manner, from the

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simple to the more complex. Further training should provide
variety to prevent boredom and fatigue. Materials can be
presented through case studies, lectures, films, discussions,
or simulated computer games.

(3) Learning must be Reinforced.

New ideas and skills need to be practised as soon as they
are learnt. Unfortunately as humans we tend to forget 50 per
cent of what we learn within the first forty-eight hours unless
the learning is reinforced. One time exposure to any learning
is unlikely to make a permanent change in the behaviour and
skills of the trainees.
When on the job, both positive and negative reinforcements
should be used. If behaviour is undesirable, then negative
reinforcement such as denial of a pay raise, promotion, or
transfer can be effective. However, during the orientation and
training period, positive reinforcement is more effective than
negative reinforcement. According to Behaviour Modification
Model developed by B.F. Skinner, the more a desired activity
or new knowledge is repeated and rewarded with verbal
praise, physical rewards, or income, the more it will be
remembered and become a part of a person’s behaviour.
In on-the-job training, the three steps concept can be used:
(1) Tell,
(2) Demonstrate, and
(3) Have the employee try it.
Repeating the process as many times as necessary until the
new employee can do the task on his own provides the
opportunity to reinforce individual steps as often as
necessary. Also it gives the trainer the opportunity to use
behaviour modification techniques when the employee tries

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the task. Practice and repetition are almost synonymous with
learning.

(4) Organization of Material.

The trainer must remember that well organized material will

help the trainees to remember the things taught to him.
Presenting an overview of the material in a logical order will
help the employee understand everything. Further, the
sequence can affect how well the person can remember the
material presented. The training section may prepare the
training material to be used for different jobs with the help of
line supervisors. A complete outline of the whole course
should be made with the main topics included under each
heading. The training material should be distributed among
the trainees well in advance so that they may come prepared
in the lecture class and may be able to understand the
operations quickly and may remove their doubts by asking
questions from the instructor.

(5) Distribution of Learning Periods.

The instructor must remember that learning takes time. And

teaching in segments, over a time span, rather than all at
once may be desirable. An employee must learn, reinforce,
and review. Every employee may be bombarded with facts
from other employees, the supervisor, the family, television
and friends-so much so that there is a natural “forgetting
factor” to everything he hears. Therefore, many short
sessions spread over a long period, with opportunity to
review, are sometimes better than two long sessions held

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over a short period. Learning a policy remembering it, and
establishing it as apart of an everyday function may take
some time. Too many supervisors expect their workers to
adopt the “company attitude” and to put it into practice in a
very short while. This should be avoided.

(6) Feedback on Learning.

People like to know how much they have learnt or how well
they are doing. The sooner employees know the results of a
quiz or test, the sooner they can assess their progress. The
sooner employees receive positive feedback from the trainer,
the less time they will waste in learning.
Self-graded tests and programmed learning kits provide the
necessary feedback to a person on his progress on a
particular subject. This principle does not necessarily mean
frequent testing, but the more immediate the feedback on
learning the more motivating it is likely to be.

5.8 Summary
Learning begins when a man takes birth on this earth and
remains with him throughout his life. In profession,
continuous updation of skills and relearning the newer
challenges remains the key to competitiveness.
Learning manifests itself by the changed behaviour of the
trainees. A lot of research has been done on learning and a
number of theories have been proposed to explain the same.
Various theories of learning can be classified into two main
categories connectionist theories and cognitist theories. The
connectionist theories believe primarily in the stimulus
response approach. These theories involve the operation of
laws of association, such as assimilation, frequency,

17
contiguity, intensity, duration, context, acquaintance,
composition, individual differences and cause and effect.
Cognitist theories believe that all learning leads towards a
goal i.e. all human behaviour has a purpose. These theories
believe in latent or collateral learning i.e. the formulation of
enduring attitudes, likes and dislikes, in addition to learning
in order to acquire a particular skill. Learning does not take
place at a constant rate. It varies according to a number of
factors, such as the difficulty of task and the ability of an
individual to learn. The cumulative change of a specific
criterion during a given period can be shown in the form of
the learning curves. Three distinct stages can be drawn in a
learning curve – the rapid initial learning, tapering of learning
and fluctuating learning. Management development, accruing
as a consequence of effective learning can be divided into
three categories – informal managerial processes, integrated
managerial processes and formal management development
processes. Learning occurs even without planning and also
persists amidst careful planning. A properly planned and
designed training process can create the potential for a
virtuous learning circle. The general principles of learning are
that the trainee must be motivated to learn, the information
must be meaningful, and learning must be reinforced. The
material distribution of learning must be well organized and
there must exist proper feedback on learning. The
organizations are under tremendous pressure to perform
better, which is not possible without properly trained human
resources. A learning organization shall invariably comprise
of the learning individuals within the organization. So, the
theoretical basis for learning must be put into practice to

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derive long-term benefits out of the same. Continuous
learning is the answer to the changing times of today.

5.10 Key Words

Connectionist theories
Connectionist theories are the class of learning theories,
which believe primarily in the stimulus response approach.
These theories involve the operation of laws of association,
such as assimilation, frequency, contiguity, intensity,
duration, context, acquaintance, composition, individual
differences and cause and effect.

Cognitist theories
Cognitist theories comprise of those theories which believe
that all learning leads towards a goal i.e. all human
behaviour has a purpose. These theories believe in latent or
collateral learning i.e. the formulation of enduring attitudes,
likes and dislikes, in addition to learning in order to acquire a
particular skill.

Learning Curve
Learning curve is the cumulative change of a specific
criterion during a given period.

5.11 Self Assessment Questions

1. Define learning. Why is it important for the

individuals as well as the organizations?

2. Briefly discuss various theories of learning.

3. Explain various doctrines of learning.

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 4. Differentiate between virtuous learning and
vicarious learning. Discuss the role of a trainer in
each of these situations.

5. What are various principles of learning?

5.12 References/ Suggested Reading

1. Training for Organizational Transformation, Part-2

(2000), Roy P. Lynton & Udai Pareek, Sage
Publication, N.D.

2. Udai Pareek (1997) Training Instruments for HRD,

Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi.

3. Management Development and Training

Handbook, (1975), Ed. by B. Tayler & G.L. Lippit,
McGraw Hill.

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