DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

Module I: Introduction

Dr. Rahul Kumar

Associate Professor
Department of Computer Science & Engineering, ASET, Amity University, Gwalior, India

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Introduction to Data Communication
• Data communication refers to the exchange of data or information between two or more devices through a
communication medium such as wires, cables, or wireless channels. It plays a crucial role in modern technology,
enabling the transfer of data between computers, smartphones, servers, and various other devices. The
primary goal of data communication is to transmit information accurately and efficiently.
Components of Data Communication:
• Data: The raw information being transmitted, such as text, images, audio, or video.
• Sender: The device that initiates the transmission, like a computer or smartphone.
• Transmission Medium: The physical pathway through which data travels, such as cables, wires, or airwaves.
• Receiver: The device that receives the data, typically another computer or device.
• Protocols: A set of rules that govern how data is formatted, transmitted, and received.
• Software: Programs that implement the protocols and manage the communication process.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Networks-protocols, advantages, disadvantages & applications
• Networks:
A network is a collection of interconnected devices (computers, printers, etc.) that can share resources and
communicate with each other. These devices are connected using physical cables, wireless connections, or a
combination of both. Networks come in various sizes and types, ranging from a small home network to the vast
global network of the internet.
• Network protocols are a set of rules and conventions that govern how data is transmitted and received in a
network. They define the format, timing, sequencing, and error checking of data exchanged between devices.
Some common network protocols include:
A. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Ensures reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery of data over a
network. It is connection-oriented.
B. Internet Protocol (IP): Manages the addressing and routing of data packets between devices on a network. It
works in conjunction with TCP in the TCP/IP protocol suite.
C. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): Used for transferring hypertext documents on the World Wide Web. It
defines how web browsers and servers communicate.
D. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Allows the transfer of files between computers on a network.
E. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): Manages the sending of emails between servers.
F. Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): Similar to HTTP but adds a layer of security through encryption,
commonly used for secure communication over the internet.
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Networks-protocols, advantages, disadvantages & applications
Advantages of Networks:
• Resource Sharing: Networks enable the sharing of resources such as files, printers, and internet connections
among connected devices.
• Cost Efficiency: Shared resources lead to cost savings. For example, multiple users can share a single printer or
internet connection.
• Reliability: In a well-designed network, if one device fails, others can still operate. This enhances overall system
reliability.
• Communication: Networks facilitate communication through emails, instant messaging, video conferencing,
and other collaborative tools.
• Centralized Data Management: Centralized servers in a network allow efficient data management, backup, and
security implementation.
• Scalability: Networks can be easily expanded to accommodate more devices or increased data traffic.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Networks-protocols, advantages, disadvantages & applications
Disadvantages of Networks:
• Security Concerns: Networks can be vulnerable to security threats such as hacking, viruses, and unauthorized
access. Implementing robust security measures is crucial.
• Complexity: Designing and maintaining a network can be complex and may require specialized knowledge.
Troubleshooting network issues can also be challenging.
• Cost of Implementation: Setting up a network involves initial costs for hardware, software, and infrastructure.
Small businesses or individuals may find it expensive.
• Maintenance: Networks require ongoing maintenance, updates, and troubleshooting. This demands skilled
personnel and may incur additional costs.
• Dependence on Infrastructure: Network performance can be affected by the quality and reliability of the
underlying infrastructure, such as cables and routers.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Networks-protocols, advantages, disadvantages & applications
• Applications of Networks:
• Internet and World Wide Web (WWW): The global network that connects millions of computers, facilitating
access to information, communication, and online services.
• Intranets and Extranets: Internal networks within organizations (intranets) and networks that connect different
organizations (extranets) for collaborative work.
• Email and Messaging: Networks enable the exchange of emails and instant messages, supporting efficient
communication.
• File Sharing and Collaboration: Networks allow users to share and collaborate on files and documents in real-
time.
• Online Banking and E-Commerce: Secure networks facilitate online financial transactions and e-commerce
activities.
• Social Media: Social networks connect individuals globally, allowing them to share information, photos, and
updates.
• Cloud Computing: Networks are integral to cloud computing, providing access to remote servers and storage
for applications and data.
• Telecommuting: Networks enable remote work by connecting employees to company resources and facilitating
virtual collaboration.

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Line Configuration
A network is two or more devices connected through a link. A link is a communication pathway that
transfers data from one device to another. Devices can be a computer, printer, or any other device that is
capable to send and receive data. For visualization purposes, imagine any link as a line drawn between
two points.
• For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the same
time. There are two possible types of connections:
• Point-to-Point Connection
• Multipoint Connection
Point-to-Point Connection:
• A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.
• The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
• Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but
other options such as microwave or satellite links are also possible.
• Point to point network topology is considered to be one of the easiest and most conventional networks
topologies.
• It is also the simplest to establish and understand.
• Point-to-Point :( Features)
• Uses a dedicated link to connect two devices
• Simple and easy to set up
• Limited to two devices only
• Does not require a network interface card (NIC) or a hub/switch
• Can become complex and difficult to manage as the network grows
Multipoint Connection:
• It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this connection, two or more devices share a single link.
• If more than two devices share the link then the channel is considered a ‘shared channel’. With shared
capacity, there can be two possibilities in a Multipoint Line configuration:
• Multipoint (Features)
• Uses a single link to connect three or more devices
• More complex than point-to-point configuration
• Can be more efficient and cost-effective for larger networks
• Devices share the same link, which can lead to collisions and lower performance
• Commonly used in LANs and MANs
Topology
• It defines the Physical (or) Logical arrangement of Links in a Network.
• Topology refers to the layout of connected devices in a network.
• The Topology of the Network is Geometric Representation of the relationship between all
Communication links.
• Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to each other
Types of Topology
i) Mesh Topology
ii) Star Topology
iii) Tree Topology
iv) Bus Topology
v) Ring Topology
vi) Hybrid Topology
Mesh Topology
• Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which
computers are interconnected with each other through
various redundant connections.
• There are multiple paths from one computer to another
computer.
• It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer
which acts as a central point of communication.
• The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations
where communication failures are a critical concern.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
• Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

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Mesh Topology
Advantages of Mesh topology:
1. Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not affect the
communication between connected computers.
2. Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
3. Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between other
devices.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
1. Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and more
transmission media than other topologies.
2. Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and manage. If the
network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes undetected.
3. Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of the network.

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Star Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link between only a central controller or “HUB”.
• The devices are not directly linked to some other devices.
• If one device wants to send data to another device, it sends to the central controller and the Central controller
send to other device.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Star Topology
• Advantages :
• Less expensive than Mess topology.
• Less number of cables to be used.
• It is robustness
Disadvantages:
• Each device must connected to controller.
• It require more installation process.
• If central controller failure means devices should be failed.

Note:- Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Tree Topology
• Tree topology has some variation from star topology.
• The nodes in the tree are linked to the
central controller.
• The primary HUB in the tree is
represented by “Active Hub”.
• The secondary HUB in the tree is represented by
“Passive Hub”.
• Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus
topology and star topology.
• A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the
computers are connected with each other in hierarchical
fashion.
• The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root
node, and all other nodes are the descendants of the root
node.

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Tree Topology
Advantages of Tree Topology
• It allows more devices to be attached to a single
central hub thus it decreases the distance that is
traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
• It allows the network to get isolated and also
prioritize from different computers.
• We can add new devices to the existing network.
• Error detection and error correction are very easy in
a tree topology.
Drawbacks of Tree Topology
• If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
• The cost is high because of the cabling.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Bus Topology
• The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the
stations are connected through a single cable known as a
backbone cable.
• Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop
cable or directly connected to the backbone cable.
• When a node wants to send a message over the network, it
puts a message over the network. All the stations available in
the network will receive the message whether it has been
addressed or not.
• The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as
compared to other topologies.
• The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through
which the message is broadcast to all the stations.
• The most common access method of the bus topologies
is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Bus Topology
Advantages of Bus topology:
• Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without passing through a hub.
Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
• Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support upto 10
Mbps.
• Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and troubleshooting techniques are
well known, and hardware components are easily available.
• Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
Disadvantages of Bus topology:
• Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in
the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
• Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of both the nodes collide with
each other.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
• Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters are used to regenerate the
signal.
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Ring Topology
• Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected
ends.
• The node that receives the message from the previous
computer will retransmit to the next node.
• The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
• The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an
endless loop.
• It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to
other node and having no termination point.
• The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
• The most common access method of the ring topology
is token passing.
– Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is
passed from one node to another node.
– Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Ring Topology
Advantages of Ring topology:
• Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without bringing the network down.
• Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and monitoring are available.
• Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation cost is very low.
• Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not dependent on the single host
computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs
in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
• Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
• Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new devices increases the
communication delay.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Hybrid Topology
• The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.
• A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.
• This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have studied above.
Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these can be individuals such as
Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies seen above. Each individual
topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Hybrid Topology
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
• Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the rest of the network.
• Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without affecting the functionality
of the existing network.
• Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements of the organization.
• Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the strength of the network is
maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology
• Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid network. It is very
difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
• Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are different from usual
Hubs used in other topologies.
• Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling, network
devices, etc.

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 Transmission mode
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or
full-duplex as shown in Figure.
1. Simplex
• In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-
way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the
other can only receive (Figure a). Keyboards and traditional monitors
are examples of simplex devices.
2. Half-Duplex
• In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but
not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only
receive, and vice versa (Figure b). Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens
band) radios are both half- duplex systems.
3. Full-Duplex
• In full-duplex, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously
(Figure c). One common example of full-duplex communication is the
telephone network. When two people are communicating by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. The full-
duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is
required all the time.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Classification of networks
• A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to communicate
with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.
• A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four types:

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LAN - Local Area Network
• Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as building, office.
• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium such as twisted
pair, coaxial cable, etc.
• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and ethernet cables.
• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
• Local Area Network provides higher security.

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LAN - Local Area Network
Advantages:
• High Speed: LANs typically offer high data transfer rates within a limited geographic area.
• Low Cost: Setting up LANs is relatively cost-effective, especially when compared to larger network types.
• Ease of Maintenance: Local networks are easier to maintain and troubleshoot due to their smaller scale.
• Resource Sharing: LANs facilitate the sharing of resources such as printers, files, and internet connections
among connected devices.
Disadvantages:
• Limited Geographic Scope: LANs are confined to a specific geographic area, limiting connectivity over longer
distances.
• Scalability Issues: Expanding a LAN beyond a certain size can lead to congestion and reduced performance.
• Security Concerns: Security risks can arise in LANs, and unauthorized access becomes a potential threat if not
properly managed.

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MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger
geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a
larger network.
• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and
private industries.
• In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a
telephone exchange line.
• The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay,
ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
• It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
• MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
• It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
• It can be used in a college within a city.
• It can also be used for communication in the military.

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MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
Advantages:
• Wider Coverage: MANs cover a larger geographic area than LANs, making them suitable for connecting
multiple LANs within a city.
• Improved Scalability: MANs can scale better than LANs and handle a larger number of connected devices.
• High Data Transfer Rates: MANs generally provide high data transfer rates, ensuring efficient communication
within the metropolitan area.
Disadvantages:
• Cost: Setting up and maintaining MANs can be more expensive than LANs due to the need for more extensive
infrastructure.
• Complexity: MANs involve more complex network architecture, which can increase the complexity of
management and troubleshooting.

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WAN(Wide Area Network)
• A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or countries.
• A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical area through a
telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.
• Examples Of Wide Area Network:
• Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
• Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers in hundreds of cities
by connecting their home with fiber.
• Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This network is made by
using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.

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WAN(Wide Area Network)
Advantages:
• Vast Coverage: WANs cover a broad geographic area, enabling
connectivity between devices or networks across cities, countries,
or continents.
• Global Communication: WANs facilitate global communication,
allowing organizations to connect remote offices and branches.
• Centralized Data Management: WANs often involve centralized
data management, making it easier to control and distribute
resources.
Disadvantages:
• High Cost: Establishing and maintaining WANs can be expensive
due to the need for long-distance communication infrastructure.
• Complexity: WANs are complex systems that require careful design
and management, adding to operational complexity.
• Lower Data Transfer Rates: WANs may have lower data transfer
rates compared to LANs, especially over longer distances.

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PAN(Personal Area Network)
• Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a range of 10
meters.
• Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is known as Personal Area
Network.
• Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area Network.
• Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
• Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the laptop, mobile phones,
media player and play stations.

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PAN(Personal Area Network)
1. Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply using wireless
technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.
2. Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.
Examples Of Personal Area Network:
• Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For example, a mobile
network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network connection and then creates a
connection with another device to share the information.
• Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known as a home network. A
home network is designed to integrate the devices such as printers, computer, television but they are not
connected to the internet.
• Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a corporate network using a
VPN

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PAN(Personal Area Network)
Advantages:
• Personal Connectivity: PANs are designed for personal devices, enabling seamless communication between
devices like smartphones, laptops, and wearable gadgets.
• Low Power Consumption: PANs often operate with low-power wireless technologies, conserving the energy of
connected devices.
Disadvantages:
• Limited Range: PANs have a very short range, typically within a few meters, restricting the distance over which
devices can communicate.
• Limited Scalability: PANs are not intended for connecting large numbers of devices, limiting their scalability.
• Security Concerns: Due to the short-range nature, security concerns may arise when devices are in close
proximity, making them susceptible to unauthorized access.

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OSI & TCP/IP reference models
• OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection
• Created by International Standards
Organization (ISO)
• Was created as a framework and reference
model to explain how different networking
technologies work together and interact
• It is not a standard that networking protocols
must follow Each layer has specific functions
it is responsible for
• All layers work together in the correct order to
move data around a network

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OSI & TCP/IP reference models
• The interaction between layers in the OSI model

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OSI & TCP/IP reference models
Layers are classified into 3 sub layers
• 1. network support layer
• 2. transport layer
• 3. user support layer
Layers 1,2,3- physical, data link and network are network support layers.
Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two subgroups.
Layers 5,6,7- session,presentation,and application are user support layers.

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Physical Layer
❖ Physical layer is the bottom(layer 1) of OSI model.
❖ It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
❖ The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one node to next.

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Physical Layer
The physical layer is concerned with the following:
1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and media: It define the type of transmission media
2. Representation of the bits: the physical layer data consist of a stream of bits(0,1). The transmitted bits
must be encoded into signals – electrical or optical. The physical layer defines the type of encoding.
3. Data rate: The physical layer defines the transmission rate, the number of bits sent each second.
4. Line configuration: the physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the medium.
5. Physical topology – Ring, star
6. Transmission Mode -Simplex, Half duplex Full Duplex

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Data Link Layer
• The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one node to the next.

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Data Link Layer
• Functions of Data Link Layer
❖ Framing:- divides the data from N/W layer into frames.
❖ Physical Addressing:- Add a header to the frame to define the physical address of the source and the
destination machines.
❖ Flow Control:- It is the traffic regulatory mechanism implemented by Data Link layer that prevents the
fast sender from drowning the slow receiver.
❖ Error Control:- It provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and retransmits
damaged or lost frames.
❖ Feedback:- after transmitting the frames, the system waits for the feedback.

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Network Layer
• The Network layer is responsible for the source-to-
destination delivery of a packet possible across
multiple networks.
• It converts Frames into packets.
• If two systems are connected to the same link, there
is usually no need for a network layer. However, if the
two systems are attached to different networks, there is
often a need for the network layer to accomplish source-
to-destination delivery.
• Functions of Network layer
❖ It is responsible for the source to destination delivery
of a packets across multiple networks.
❖ Routing:-Provide mechanism to transmit data over
independent networks that are linked together.
❖ Logical addressing:- Adds Logical addresses of sender
and Receiver.

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Transport Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process or end-end delivery of the entire message.
• The network layer oversees host-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize any
relationship between those packets.
• The transport layer ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control and
flow control at the process-to-process level.

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Transport Layer
Transport layer provides two types of services:
• 1) Connection Oriented Transmission: In this type of transmission the receiving device sends an acknowledgment
back to the source after a packet or group of packet is received.
• 2) Connectionless Transmission: In this type of transmission the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a
packet.
Functions of Transport Layer
Segmentation and Reassembly: Divide the message received from Session layer into Segments and number them
to make a sequence for reassembly at the receiving side.
 Service point addressing: Transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process on
destination machine.
Error Control: Make sure that the entire message arrives without errors else retransmit.
Flow Control: Transport layer makes sure that the sender

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
 Session Layer
• It is responsible for beginning, maintaining
& ending the communication between two
devices, which is called session.
• Functions of Session Layer
❖ Establishment, maintaining and ending a session:
❖ Sends SYN packet – establish request
❖ Receives ACK & SYN- established
❖ To end – Sender sends ACK
❖ Dialog Control: The session layer allows two
systems to enter into a dialog.
❖ Synchronization: Allows a process to add
checkpoints to a stream of data.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
 Presentation Layer
• This layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two systems.
• Functions of Presentation Layer
❖ Data Translation: Encoding and Decoding Sender to
Common format on Sending side Common to Receiving format
on Receiver side
❖ Data Encryption: For security and privacy purpose.
❖ Data Compression: Data compression reduces the number
of bits contained in the information.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Application Layer

• Provides User interfaces and support for Services, like e- mail, file transfer.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Application Layer

• Functions of Application Layer

❖ Network Virtual terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
❖ File Transfer Access, and Management: This application allows a user to access files in a remote host.
• ❖ Mail Services: This application provides various e-mail services.
❖ Directory Services: This application provides the distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

• A protocol suite is a large number

of related protocols that work
together to allow networked
computers to communicate.
❖ The TCP/IP protocol suite was
defined as having four layers:
❖ Host-to-network
❖ Internet
❖ Transport
❖ Application

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Parallel & Serial Transmissions
• Data transmission refers to the process of sending data from one point to another. This can be done in two
main ways: parallel transmission and serial transmission.
1. Parallel Transmission:
• Concept: In parallel transmission, multiple bits of data are sent simultaneously over multiple
channels. Imagine a highway with multiple lanes. Each lane can carry a car (a bit of data) at the same
time, resulting in faster overall transmission.
• Advantages:
– Faster speed: Parallel transmission is faster than serial transmission because multiple bits are sent at the
same time.
– Simpler circuitry: The circuitry for parallel transmission is simpler than for serial transmission.
• Disadvantages:
– Higher cost: Parallel transmission requires more wires or cables than serial transmission, which makes it
more expensive.
– Susceptibility to noise: Parallel transmission is more susceptible to noise and interference than serial
transmission because the signals are traveling on multiple channels.
– Limited distance: Parallel transmission signals can only travel short distances without becoming too weak
or garbled.
Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Parallel & Serial Transmissions
1. Parallel Transmission:

2. Serial Transmission:

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Parallel & Serial Transmissions
• Data transmission refers to the process of sending data from one point to another. This can be done in two
main ways: parallel transmission and serial transmission.
2. Serial Transmission:
• Concept: In serial transmission, bits of data are sent one at a time over a single channel. Imagine a single-lane
road where cars (bits of data) have to take turns going through. While slower, it's like a well-organized queue.
• Advantages:
– Lower cost: Serial transmission requires fewer wires or cables than parallel transmission, which makes it
less expensive.
– Less susceptible to noise: Serial transmission is less susceptible to noise and interference than parallel
transmission because the signal is traveling on a single channel.
– Longer distance: Serial transmission signals can travel longer distances than parallel transmission signals
without becoming too weak or garbled.
• Disadvantages:
– Slower speed: Serial transmission is slower than parallel transmission because only one bit of data is sent
at a time.
– More complex circuitry: The circuitry for serial transmission is more complex than for parallel
transmission.
Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
 Difference between Serial and Parallel Transmission:
[Link] Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission

In this type, a single communication link is used to transfer data

1. In this type, multiple parallels links used to transmit the data
from one end to another

2. In serial transmission, data(bit) flows in bi-direction. In Parallel Transmission, data flows in multiple lines.

3. Serial Transmission is cost-efficient. Parallel Transmission is not cost-efficient.

4. In serial transmission, one bit transferred at one clock pulse. In Parallel Transmission, eight bits transferred at one clock pulse.

Serial Transmission is slow in comparison of Parallel

5. Parallel Transmission is fast in comparison of Serial Transmission.
Transmission.

6. Generally, Serial Transmission is used for long-distance. Generally, Parallel Transmission is used for short distance.

7. The circuit used in Serial Transmission is simple. The circuit used in Parallel Transmission is relatively complex.

Serial Transmission is full duplex as sender can send as well as

8. Parallel Transmission is half-duplex since the data is either send or receive
receive the data

Converters are required in a serial transmission to convert the data

9. No converters are required in Parallel Transmission
between internal and parallel form

10. Serial transmission

Department is reliable
of Computer Science andAmity
& Engineering, straightforward. Parallel
School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, transmission
Madhya Pradesh, India is unreliable and complicated.
Analog & Digital Signals

• An electrical or electromagnetic quantity (current, voltage, radio wave, micro wave, etc.) that carries
data or information from one system (or network) to another is called a signal. Two basic types of
signals are used for carrying data, viz. analog signal and digital signal.
• A signal which is a continuous function of time and used to carry the information is known as an analog
signal. An analog signal represents a quantity analogous to another quantity
• A signal that is discrete function of time, i.e. which is not a continuous signal, is known as a digital
signal. The digital signals are represented in the binary form and consist of different values of voltage at
discrete instants of time.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Analog & Digital Signals

Analog Signals:
• Continuous and smooth: Think of an analog signal as a flowing river, constantly changing its height to represent
different levels of information. Examples include sound waves, temperature variations, and voltage fluctuations.
• Infinite values: An analog signal can take on an infinite number of values within its range. Imagine the height of
the river at any point, it can be any value between low and high water.
• Susceptible to noise: Analog signals are prone to interference and distortion, like ripples or debris interfering with
the flow of the river.
• Examples: Music recordings on vinyl records, traditional phone calls, analog clocks.
Digital Signals:
• Discrete and stepped: Think of a digital signal as a staircase, where information is represented by distinct steps or
levels. Imagine the river being blocked off into segments of different depths, each representing a specific value.
• Limited values: A digital signal can only take on a specific set of discrete values, often represented by binary "0"
and "1." Think of the staircase only having a few fixed heights for each step.
• Resistant to noise: Digital signals are less susceptible to interference and distortion because their discrete nature
makes them easier to amplify and regenerate. Imagine the steps of the staircase being much sturdier than the
flowing water, less likely to be disrupted.
• Examples: Music recordings on CDs and MP3s, digital images, computer data.
Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Difference between Analog and Digital Signal
Parameter Analog Signal Digital Signal
A signal for conveying information which is a continuous function of time is A signal which is a discrete function of time, i.e. non-continuous signal, is
Definition
known as analog signal. known as digital signal.
An analog signal is typically represented by a sine wave function. There are The typical representation of a signal is given by a square wave function.
Typical representation many more representations for the analog signals also.

Analog signals use a continuous range of values to represent the data and Digital signals use discrete values (or discontinuous values), i.e. discrete 0
Signal values information. and 1, to represent the data and information.

Signal bandwidth The bandwidth of an analog signal is low. The bandwidth of a digital signal is relatively high.
The analog signals are more suitable for transmission of audio, video and The digital signals are suitable for computing and digital electronic
Suitability other information through the communication channels. operations such as data storage, etc.

Analog signals get affected by the electronic noise easily. The digital signals are more stable and less susceptible to noise than the
Effect of electronic noise
analog signals.
Due to more susceptibility to the noise, the accuracy of analog signals is less. The digital signals have high accuracy because they are immune from the
Accuracy
noise.
Analog signals use more power for data transmission. Digital signals use less power than analog signals for conveying the same
Power consumption
amount of information.
Analog signals are processed by analog circuits whose major components are Digital circuits are required for processing of digital signals whose main
Circuit components resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc. circuit components are transistors, logic gates, ICs, etc.

Observational errors The analog signals give observational errors. The digital signals do not given observational errors.
The common examples of analog signals are temperature, current, voltage, The common example of digital signal is the data store in a computer
Examples
voice, pressure, speed, etc. memory.
The analog signals are used in land line phones, thermometer, electric fan, The digital signals are used in computers, keyboards, digital watches,
Applications
volume knob of a radio, etc. smartphones,
Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, Indiaetc.
Periodic & Aperiodic Signals

Periodic Signals:
• Repeating pattern: Imagine a merry-go-round, always displaying the same set of colorful horses as it circles. Periodic
signals exhibit a defined pattern that repeats itself at regular intervals called the period. Think of sine waves, square
waves, and sawtooth waves, each showcasing consistent repetition within their cycles.
• Constant frequency: The rate at which the pattern repeats defines the frequency of the signal. Like the constant
speed of the merry-go-round, periodic signals maintain a fixed frequency throughout their journey.
• Predictable behavior: Knowing the period and frequency allows for accurate prediction of the signal's future
values. It's like knowing the order and timing of the horses on the merry-go-round; you can anticipate their
reappearance.
• Examples: Electrical power supply, musical tones, radio waves.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Periodic & Aperiodic Signals

Aperiodic Signals:
• No repeating pattern: Unlike their predictable counterparts, aperiodic signals lack a defined pattern that repeats
consistently. Imagine a crowd cheering at a sporting event; the intensity and rhythm ebb and flow without a recurring
structure.
• Variable frequency: Since there's no fixed pattern, the frequency of an aperiodic signal also changes over time. The
cheers at the game may become louder and faster with excitement, then dip during calmer moments.
• Unpredictable behavior: Forecasting the future values of an aperiodic signal is like predicting the next cheer in the
crowd – it's a dynamic and unpredictable dance.
• Examples: Speech, earthquake tremors, stock market fluctuations.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Difference between Periodic and Aperiodic Real-time Tasks:

PERIODIC TASK APERIODIC TASK

It repeats itself after a certain time interval. It can occur at random instants.

These tasks are controlled by clock interrupts. These tasks are not controlled by clock interrupts.

The time interval between occurrence of two The time interval between occurrence of two
consecutive tasks can’t be zero. consecutive tasks can be zero.

Periodic tasks generally include soft and hard real- Aperodic tasks generally include soft real-time
time tasks both. tasks.

Deadline of all instances of periodic task can be To meet deadline of all instances of an aperodic
meet easily. task is quite difficult.

It includes vast majority of internal tasks. It includes interactive task with users.

Example: Taking information from sensor at a time

Example: Logging task in a distributed system.
interval.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Modulation & its Type

• The process by which data/information is converted into electrical/digital signals for transferring
that signal over a medium is called modulation. It increases strength for maximum reach of the
signals.
• The process of extracting information/data from the transmitted signal is called demodulation.
Types of modulation:
1. Amplitude modulation: It is a type of modulation in which only the amplitude of the carrier signal
is varied to represent the data being added to the signals whereas the phase and the frequency of
the signal are kept unchanged.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Modulation & its Type

2. Frequency modulation: It is a type of modulation in which only the frequency of the carrier signal
is varied to represent the frequency of the data whereas the phase and the amplitude of the signals
are kept unchanged.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Modulation & its Type

3. Phase modulation: It is a type of modulation in which the phase of the carrier signal is varied to
represent the data being added to the signal. Different information values are represented by
different phases. For example: ‘1’ may be represented by 0° while ‘0’ by 180°.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
 Modulation & its Type
4. Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) is a specific type of analog modulation technique
where the information we want to transmit is encoded onto the amplitude of a series of pulses.
In simpler terms, imagine a train of light bulbs flashing on and off. The brightness of each
flash (amplitude) can vary depending on the information we want to send.
How it works:
• Carrier signal: We start with a high-frequency carrier signal, typically a train of square or
rectangular pulses.
• Modulation signal: This is the signal containing the information we want to send, like
audio, video, or data.
• Modulation process: The amplitude of each pulse in the carrier signal is varied directly
according to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulation signal. Higher amplitudes in the
modulation signal lead to brighter pulses, while lower amplitudes lead to dimmer pulses.
• Transmission: The modulated carrier signal, with its varying pulse amplitudes, is then
transmitted through the communication channel.
• Demodulation: At the receiving end, a demodulator extracts the original modulation signal
from the variations in the pulse amplitudes, thus retrieving the information.

Principle of PAM: (1) original signal, (2) PAM

signal, (a) amplitude of signal, (b) time

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
 Modulation & its Type
5. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is a digital modulation technique used in the
encoding and transmission of analog signals, such as voice, audio, or video. PCM
converts an analog signal into a digital signal by sampling the amplitude of the analog
signal at regular intervals and quantizing each sample to a specific digital code. PCM
is widely used in telecommunications, audio recording, and other digital
communication systems.
How Pulse Code Modulation works:
• Sampling: The continuous analog signal is sampled at regular intervals. The rate at
which the signal is sampled is known as the sampling rate.
• Quantization: Each sample is assigned a specific amplitude value, and these values
are quantized to a discrete set of digital values. The number of bits used for
quantization determines the resolution and precision of the digital representation.
• Encoding: The quantized samples are then encoded into binary code. The binary
code represents the amplitude of each sample.
• Transmission: The resulting digital signal, consisting of the binary codes
representing the sampled amplitudes, is transmitted over the communication
channel.
• Decoding: At the receiving end, the digital signal is decoded to reconstruct the
original analog signal. This involves converting the binary codes back into discrete
amplitude values.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
 Modulation & its Type

Advantages of modulation:
• It reduces the size of the antenna.
• It reduces the cost of wires.
• It prohibits the mixing of signals.
• It increases the range of communication.
• It improves the reception quality.
• It easily multiplexes the signals.
• It also allows the adjustment of the bandwidth.
Disadvantages of modulation:
• The cost of the equipment is higher.
• The receiver and the transmitter are very complicated.
• For better communication, the antennas for the FM system must be kept closed.
• It is not efficient for large bandwidth.
• Power wastage takes place.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India