Steel: Properties, Different

Types and Applications

What is Steel?
Steel is an alloy typically consisting of iron and carbon along with small amounts of
manganese, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, and oxygen. The amount of carbon content present
ranges from 0.02% to 2.14% and the presence of manganese is around 1%. Other than
these, the common alloying elements include manganese, cobalt, boron, nickel, chromium,
molybdenum, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, and niobium.

The density of steel is in the range between 7,700 and 8,050 kg/m3. The presence of
carbon creates a strong molecular structure. It can take two crystalline forms, body-centered
cubic, and face-centered cubic depending on the temperature. Pure iron is often ductile, soft,
or easily formed due to the iron atoms in the crystal structure slipping past one another. Here
the presence of carbon and other elements act as hardening agents which prevent the
dislocation of atoms. As a result, the amount of carbon and other elements present in the
alloy makes up for the final physical qualities of the alloy.
 These qualities include quenching behavior, need for annealing, tempering behavior,
hardness, tensile strength, and yield strength. Evident production of steel dates back to the
sixth century BC, produced in South India known as Wootz steel.

Steel Overview
Modern evolution led to the use of blast furnaces which was followed by the use of
electric furnaces for processing steel. Steel making process consists of a primary process
that involves the production of pig iron. It is melted iron, from iron ore which contains more
carbon than optimum for steel.
An oxidization process is used to remove excess carbon and also to vaporize or bind
impurities made of elements like silicon, phosphorus, and manganese. The secondary steel-
making process involves refining and alloying the steel. It can either initialize with the use of
scrap steel or be a continuation of the primary process. This is among the world’s most
important engineering and construction materials as it is used in every aspect of our lives.
Cars and construction products, refrigerators and washing machines, cargo ships,
and surgical scalpels require steel for manufacturing. It can be recycled over and over again
without loss of properties. World crude steel production is estimated to reach 1,990 million
tonnes (Mt) in the year 2022. Ideally, steel is magnetic except for stainless steel (chromium
alloyed steel). Ferromagnetism is dependent on the alloying element in this case.
Completely recyclable and durable compared to other materials, it requires relatively low
amounts of energy to produce. It is among the most recycled materials in the world with a
recycling rate of over 60%. China, Japan, Russia, and the US respectively are the largest
producers of steel worldwide.

Properties of Steel
#1. Tensile Strength
The tensile strength of a material is defined as the amount of stress that the element
can undergo before deforming structurally. The tensile strength of steel is comparatively
high, thus making it highly resistant to fracture or breakage.
#2. Ductility
Ductility is the mechanical property, which describes the ability of an element to change
its shape upon application of force to it without resulting in fracture. Steel is highly
ductile and is used in producing different shapes and structures ranging from thin wires
or large automotive parts and panels.
#3. Durability
Since steel has high hardenability due to the presence of carbon, it reflects its ability to
resist strain. It is highly resistant to external wear and tear which makes steel a highly
durable material.
#4. Malleability
Malleability is the ability of an element to be compressed into thin sheets and allows the
steel to be deformed under compression. Steel can be converted into sheets of variable
thicknesses, often created by hammering or rolling.
#5. Conductivity
Steel is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. As a result, it is a preferred choice
in the household cookware industry along with the electrical wiring industry.

What are the Different Types or Classification of Steel?

Various different types of Steel are manufactured with variable carbon content from 0.2 to
2.1 percent by weight, classification depending upon the composition and their physical
properties. Even though the major element in steel is carbon, other alloying elements i.e.
tungsten, chromium, vanadium, and magnesium, and a small amount of sulfur, silicon,
phosphorus, and oxygen are also present. The amount of alloying materials and their form of
presence in iron decides important properties of steel like ductility, hardness, and tensile
strength. For example, increasing the amount of carbon makes the steel hardened and
strong, but less ductile.
Classification of Steel is much more complicated due to its many properties and
applications. Then too, comprehensive grading systems have been developed to accurately
identify a particular type of steel within groups and subgroups.

The major types of steel are explained in detail below:

1. Carbon steel
Carbon steel generally consists of less than 2 % carbon along with traces of
manganese, sulfur, silicon, and phosphorus. The characteristics of carbon steel are mainly
influenced by the carbon content in steel and alloying elements cause only negligible
changes. Plain carbon steel can be further classified into four categories depending on the
amount of carbon present.
The detailed classification is as follows:
a. Low Carbon Steel
In low-carbon steel types of steel, the amount of carbon is limited to 0.30. It is the most
commonly used grade. This type can be machined and welded easily. It also has ductility
higher than high-carbon steel. These are used in pipes, bolts, and wires.
b. Medium Carbon Steel
In medium carbon steel, the amount of carbon content present is between 0.30 to 0.45 %.
The increase in the amount of carbon content indicates an increase in hardness and
tensile strength and a decrease in ductility. But, because of the higher carbon content, its
machining and welding properties become lower than low-carbon steel due to the
increased hardness. These are found in gears and railroad tracks.
c. High Carbon Steel
High carbon steel contains 0.45 to 0.75%. These types of steel have complicated welding
and machining properties. So, for any type of molding work heat treatment is necessary
to produce acceptable welds. It is also used to control the mechanical properties of steel
after welding.
d. Very High Carbon Steel
In very high-carbon steel, the amount of carbon content present is above 0.61% and goes
up to 1.50%. To deal with the high carbon content present in the steel, it requires heat
treatment before, during, and after welding to manipulate its mechanical properties. This
high carbon type is used to manufacture hard steel products such as truck springs and
metal cutting tools. These do not contain more than 2% carbon.
2. Alloy Steel
Alloy steel is a type of carbon steel, which consists of one or more elements other
than carbon, added to produce the desired characteristic. Each added element contributes
its separate attribute to the final product. Generally, elements such as silicon, boron,
chromium-molybdenum, manganese, nickel, and vanadium are added as external elements.
There are two types of alloy steel, namely low alloy steel and high alloy steel. The detailed
explanation is as follows,
a. Low alloy steel
In low alloy steel, the amount of carbon content present is generally between 0.15%
to 0.25 %, suitable for welding purposes. Some of the alloying elements used are
manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, silicon, vanadium, and boron and the less
common alloying elements are aluminum, cobalt, copper, titanium, tungsten, tin, and
zirconium. Low alloy steel is most preferably used to achieve better hardenability and
increased corrosion resistance in certain environments. Difficulty to weld is a certain
drawback for these types of steel.
If the carbon content is decreased up to 0.10 percent, along with other alloying
materials, the strength of the material can be increased. The versatility of these makes them
hem essential in modern industrial development. Common applications include electrical
wiring, heat exchanger, anti-drill plates, high-strength safes, pipelines, electrical
transformers, and permanent magnets.
b. High alloy steel
Generally, steel having other elements more than 8% of total weight other than
carbon and iron is known as high alloy steel. High alloy steel essentially has two chemical
elements, one is carbon and the other is the added element. The properties of these types of
steel depend on the percentage of the chemical elements present in it. One of its major
advantages is that it offers high corrosion resistance along with high reliability.
These types of high-carbon steel are extensively used in driers, pipelines, couplings,
valves, bolts, salt manufacturing, nuclear power plants, heat exchangers, centrifugal
separators, exhaust gas desulfurized, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, and semiconductor
cleaning equipment.
3. Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is a type of steel that is corrosion and rust-resistant. Invented in
England in 1913 by Harry Brearley, it was announced to the world in 1915. Chromium is the
element that sets it apart, which is responsible for the materials’ luster. But it is more than
just a cosmetic addiction, as chromium is oxidation resistant and thus the antirust has a
direct relation with materials’ increased longevity.
Stainless steel has a chromium content of more than 10.5% and can go up to 30% in
some applications. Chromium content is directly professional to the gloss when polished and
the corrosion resistance. It has almost 150 types of grades, but only 15 are used commonly.
It is commonly known for its role in medical equipment and appliance manufacturing, also
with kitchen appliances. Stainless steel can act differently when chromium is electroplated
onto another metal and produce a tough, polished coating.
This is classified into four categories, with each serving a different purpose.
a. Martensitic Alloys
Martensitic alloys are extremely tough but prove to be corrosive. These are formed by a
rapid cooling process, ideal for heat treatment, and are found in cutlery, medical
instruments, and pliers.
b. Ferritic Alloys
 Ferritic alloys contain low amounts of carbon and nickel. These are less expensive and
are extensively used in the automotive industry because of their chromium-induced
strength and sheen.
c. Austenitic Alloys
These consist of higher chromium and nickel content, which helps to improve the
corrosion resistance and become nonmagnetic. Most commonly used in the commercial
kitchen industry because of its durability and ability to be cleaned easily.
d. Duplex Alloys
Duplex alloys are a mixture of austenitic and terrific alloys which results in the doubling
of strength while also inheriting the properties of both. Due to the presence of high
chromium content, these are highly resistant to corrosion and are known for their
ductility.
4. Tool and Die Steel
Tool and die steel ideally has a carbon content range between 0.7% to 1.5%. These
are manufactured in carefully controlled conditions to produce the desired quality of steel.
Tool steels are heat treatable and are very high carbon steels (either carbon or alloy)
possessing high hardness, strength, and wear resistance. Elements forming hard and stable
carbides are added to the composition to increase the hardness of the steel tool. Processes
such as tempering, adding high heat, cooling quickly and heating make the tool steel
extremely hard and heat-resistant. These are extensively used in high-impact environments
and are very abrasive.
These are mainly used for making hummers, drills, cutters, shear blades, chisels,
forging dies, drills, and razors. Tool and die steels can be classified depending on their use,
composition, mechanical properties, and method of heat treatment. A variety of grades of
tool and die steel are available for different application purposes. The added element plays a
role in determining the particular application it’s suited for.
Air Hardening
This steel can be exposed to high temperatures without distorting due to the presence of
high carbon content in this.
Water Hardening
This tool is water quenched during use and is the most affordable tooling type.
Extensively used to make common tools.
Oil Hardening
This type of tool is oil-quenched during use and is exceptionally wear-resistant from
slipping. It is commonly used to produce knives and shears.
High-Speed Steel
 As the name suggests, these are made for extensive high-impact use and are extremely
abrasive. It’s generally used in power saws and drill bits.
Hot Working
The ability to withstand extreme heat is a unique feature of this steel. It is used in forging
and casting.
Shock Resistant
Carbon, silicon, and molybdenum are added in small amounts to harden this steel and
make it suitable for punches and riveting tools.
Application or Uses of Steel:
#1. Building and infrastructure (51%)
Around half of the steel produced annually is utilized to construct buildings and
infrastructure such as bridges. It is mostly found in reinforcing bars, and sheet products
used in roofs, internal walls, ceilings, and structural sections. It is also found in HVAC
systems and items such as stairs, rails, and shelving. Moreover, applications of steel in
transportation-related infrastructure include tunnels, rail tracks fueling stations, train
stations, ports, and airports.
#2. Mechanical equipment(15%)
The application in mechanical equipment involves machinery that makes car parts,
cranes, and hand tools such as hammers and shovels along with tractors and
bulldozers.
#3. Automotive (12%)
Around 2,000 pounds, or 900 kilograms, of steel, is used to make a car. About a third of
that is utilized in the body structure and exterior and 23% is in the drive train, also with
12% in the suspension. A modern-day car structure contains around 60% steel of total
body weight, even though the steel used is advanced high strength which is stronger
and lighter.
#4. Domestic and electrical appliances (6%)
Varying amounts of steel are present in washers and dryers, microwave ovens,
dishwashers, and refrigerators. Moreover, applications in the production and distribution
of electricity include transformers, which have a magnetic steel core, generators, electric
motors, pylons, and steel-reinforced cables.