Text Books to study:

1. Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky, “Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory” McGraw

Hill Publication 2009

2. Thomas L. Floyd, “Digital Fundamentals” Pearson Education, 11thEdition, 2015.

Reference Books:

1. V K Mehta, “Principles of Electronics” S. Chand & Company, New Delhi, 12th Edition

2. P.C. Rakshit and D. Chattopadhyay, “Foundations of Electronics”, New age International

Publishers. (Not included in the syllabus)

3. “ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS Analysis and Design” by Donald A Neamen, McGraw Hill

Publication. (Not included in the syllabus)

4. M Moris Mano, Michael D. Ciletti, “Digital Design”, Pearson Education, 4th Edition, 201
Semiconductor Basics

If resistors are the most basic passive component in electrical or electronic circuits, then we have
to consider the Signal Diode as being the most basic active component.

However, unlike a resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage
as it has an exponential I-V relationship and therefore cannot be described simply by using
Ohm’s law as we do for resistors.
Diodes are basic unidirectional semiconductor devices that will only allow current to flow
through them in one direction only, acting more like a one way electrical valve, (Forward Biased
Condition). But, before we have a look at how signal or power diodes work we first need to
understand the semiconductors basic construction and concept.
Diodes are made from a single piece of Semiconductor material which has a positive “P-region”
at one end and a negative “N-region” at the other, and which has a resistivity value somewhere
between that of a conductor and an insulator. But what is a “Semiconductor” material, firstly
let’s look at what makes something either a Conductor or an Insulator.

Resistivity
The electrical Resistance of an electrical or electronic component or device is generally defined
as being the ratio of the voltage difference across it to the current flowing through it, basic
Ohm’s Law principals. The problem with using resistance as a measurement is that it depends
very much on the physical size of the material being measured as well as the material out of
which it is made. For example, if we were to increase the length of the material (making it
longer) its resistance would also increase proportionally.
Likewise, if we increased its diameter or size (making it thicker) its resistance value would
decrease. So we want to be able to define the material in such a way as to indicate its ability to
either conduct or oppose the flow of electrical current through it no matter what its size or shape
happens to be.
The quantity that is used to indicate this specific resistance is called Resistivity and is given the
Greek symbol of ρ, (Rho). Resistivity is measured in Ohm-metres, (Ω.m ). Resistivity is the
inverse to conductivity.
If the resistivity of various materials is compared, they can be classified into three main
groups, Conductors, Insulators and Semi-conductors as shown below.
Resistivity Chart

Notice that there is a very small margin

between the resistivity of the conductors
such as silver and gold, compared to a
much larger margin for the resistivity of
the insulators between glass and quartz.
This difference in resistivity is due in
part to their ambient temperature as
metals are much better conductors of
heat than are insulators.

Conductors
From above we now know that Conductors are materials that have very low values of
resistivity, usually in the micro-ohms per metre. This low value allows them to easily pass an
electrical current due to there being plenty of free electrons floating about within their basic atom
structure. But these electrons will only flow through a conductor if there is something to spur
their movement, and that something is an electrical voltage.
When a positive voltage potential is applied to the material these “free electrons” leave their
parent atom and travel together through the material forming an electron drift, more commonly
known as a current. How “freely” these electrons can move through a conductor depends on how
easily they can break free from their constituent atoms when a voltage is applied. Then the
amount of electrons that flow depends on the amount of resistivity the conductor has.
Examples of good conductors are generally metals such as Copper, Aluminium, Silver or non
metals such as Carbon because these materials have very few electrons in their outer “Valence
Shell” or ring, resulting in them being easily knocked out of the atom’s orbit.

An Electrical Cable uses Conductors and Insulators

This allows them to flow freely through the material until they join up with other atoms,
producing a “Domino Effect” through the material thereby creating an electrical current. Copper
and Aluminium is the main conductor used in electrical cables as shown.
Generally speaking, most metals are good conductors of electricity, as they have very small
resistance values, usually in the region of micro-ohms per metre, (μΩ.m).
While metals such as copper and aluminium are very good conducts of electricity, they still have
some resistance to the flow of electrons and consequently do not conduct perfectly.
The energy which is lost in the process of passing an electrical current, appears in the form of
heat which is why conductors and especially resistors become hot as the resistivity of conductors
increases with ambient temperature.

Insulators
Insulators on the other hand are the exact opposite of conductors. They are made of materials,
generally non-metals, that have very few or no “free electrons” floating about within their basic
atom structure because the electrons in the outer valence shell are strongly attracted by the
positively charged inner nucleus.
In other words, the electrons are stuck to the parent atom and can not move around freely so if a
potential voltage is applied to the material no current will flow as there are no “free electrons”
available to move and which gives these materials their insulating properties.
Insulators also have very high resistances, millions of ohms per metre, and are generally not
affected by normal temperature changes (although at very high temperatures wood becomes
charcoal and changes from an insulator to a conductor). Examples of good insulators are marble,
fused quartz, PVC plastics, rubber etc.
Insulators play a very important role within electrical and electronic circuits, because without
them electrical circuits would short together and not work. For example, insulators made of glass
or porcelain are used for insulating and supporting overhead transmission cables while epoxy-
glass resin materials are used to make printed circuit boards, PCB’s etc. while PVC is used to
insulate electrical cables as shown.

Semiconductor Basics
Semiconductors materials such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and gallium arsenide (GaAs),
have electrical properties somewhere in the middle, between those of a “conductor” and an
“insulator”. They are not good conductors nor good insulators (hence their name “semi”-
conductors). They have very few “free electrons” because their atoms are closely grouped
together in a crystalline pattern called a “crystal lattice” but electrons are still able to flow, but
only under special conditions.
The ability of semiconductors to conduct electricity can be greatly improved by replacing or
adding certain donor or acceptor atoms to this crystalline structure thereby, producing more free
electrons than holes or vice versa. That is by adding a small percentage of another element to the
base material, either silicon or germanium.
On their own Silicon and Germanium are classed as intrinsic semiconductors, that is they are
chemically pure, containing nothing but semi-conductive material. But by controlling the amount
of impurities added to this intrinsic semiconductor material it is possible to control its
conductivity. Various impurities called donors or acceptors can be added to this intrinsic material
to produce free electrons or holes respectively.
This process of adding donor or acceptor atoms to semiconductor atoms (the order of 1 impurity
atom per 10 million (or more) atoms of the semiconductor) is called Doping. As the doped
silicon is no longer pure, these donor and acceptor atoms are collectively referred to as
“impurities”, and by doping these, silicon material with a sufficient number of impurities, we can
turn it into an N-type or P-type semi-conductor material.
The most commonly used semiconductor basics material by far is silicon. Silicon has four
valence electrons in its outermost shell which it shares with its neighbouring silicon atoms to
form full orbital’s of eight electrons. The structure of the bond between the two silicon atoms is
such that each atom shares one electron with its neighbour making the bond very stable.
As there are very few free electrons available to move around the silicon crystal, crystals of pure
silicon (or germanium) are therefore good insulators, or at the very least very high value
resistors.
Silicon atoms are arranged in a definite symmetrical pattern making them a crystalline solid
structure. A crystal of pure silica (silicon dioxide or glass) is generally said to be an intrinsic
crystal (it has no impurities) and therefore has no free electrons.
But simply connecting a silicon crystal to a battery supply is not enough to extract an electric
current from it. To do that we need to create a “positive” and a “negative” pole within the silicon
allowing electrons and therefore electric current to flow out of the silicon. These poles are
created by doping the silicon with certain impurities.
A Silicon Atom Structure

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of a ‘normal’ pure crystal of Silicon.

N-type Semiconductor Basics

In order for our silicon crystal to conduct electricity, we need to introduce an impurity atom such
as Arsenic, Antimony or Phosphorus into the crystalline structure making it extrinsic (impurities
are added). These atoms have five outer electrons in their outermost orbital to share with
neighbouring atoms and are commonly called “Pentavalent” impurities.
This allows four out of the five orbital electrons to bond with its neighbouring silicon atoms
leaving one “free electron” to become mobile when an electrical voltage is applied (electron
flow). As each impurity atom “donates” one electron, pentavalent atoms are generally known as
“donors”.
Antimony (symbol Sb) as well as Phosphorus (symbol P), are frequently used as a pentavalent
additive to silicon. Antimony has 51 electrons arranged in five shells around its nucleus with the
outermost orbital having five electrons. The resulting semiconductor basics material has an
excess of current-carrying electrons, each with a negative charge, and is therefore referred to as
an N-type material with the electrons called “Majority Carriers” while the resulting holes are
called “Minority Carriers”.
When stimulated by an external power source, the electrons freed from the silicon atoms by this
stimulation are quickly replaced by the free electrons available from the doped Antimony atoms.
But this action still leaves an extra electron (the freed electron) floating around the doped crystal
making it negatively charged.
Then a semiconductor material is classed as N-type when its donor density is greater than its
acceptor density, in other words, it has more electrons than holes thereby creating a negative pole
as shown.
Antimony Atom and Doping

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the donor impurity atom Antimony.

P-Type Semiconductor Basics

If we go the other way, and introduce a “Trivalent” (3-electron) impurity into the crystalline
structure, such as Aluminum, Boron or Indium, which have only three valence electrons
available in their outermost orbital, the fourth closed bond cannot be formed. Therefore, a
complete connection is not possible, giving the semiconductor material an abundance of
positively charged carriers known as holes in the structure of the crystal where electrons are
effectively missing.
As there is now a hole in the silicon crystal, a neighboring electron is attracted to it and will try
to move into the hole to fill it. However, the electron filling the hole leaves another hole behind it
as it moves. This in turn attracts another electron which in turn creates another hole behind it,
and so forth giving the appearance that the holes are moving as a positive charge through the
crystal structure (conventional current flow).
This movement of holes results in a shortage of electrons in the silicon turning the entire doped
crystal into a positive pole. As each impurity atom generates a hole, trivalent impurities are
generally known as “Acceptors” as they are continually “accepting” extra or free electrons.
Boron (symbol B) is commonly used as a trivalent additive as it has only five electrons arranged
in three shells around its nucleus with the outermost orbital having only three electrons. The
doping of Boron atoms causes conduction to consist mainly of positive charge carriers resulting
in a P-type material with the positive holes being called “Majority Carriers” while the free
electrons are called “Minority Carriers”.
Then a semiconductor basics material is classed as P-type when its acceptor density is greater
than its donor density. Therefore, a P-type semiconductor has more holes than electrons.
Boron Atom and Doping

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the acceptor impurity atom Boron.

Semiconductor Basics Summary

N-type (e.g. doped with Antimony)

These are materials which have Pentavalent impurity atoms (Donors) added and conduct by
“electron” movement and are therefore called, N-type Semiconductors.
In N-type semiconductors there are:
• 1. The Donors are positively charged.
• 2. There are a large number of free electrons.
• 3. A small number of holes in relation to the number of free electrons.
• 4. Doping gives:
o positively charged donors.
o negatively charged free electrons.
• 5. Supply of energy gives:
o negatively charged free electrons.
o positively charged holes.

P-type (e.g. doped with Boron)

These are materials which have Trivalent impurity atoms (Acceptors) added and conduct by
“hole” movement and are therefore called, P-type Semiconductors.
In these types of materials are:
• 1. The Acceptors are negatively charged.
• 2. There are a large number of holes.
• 3. A small number of free electrons in relation to the number of holes.
• 4. Doping gives:
o negatively charged acceptors.
o positively charged holes.
• 5. Supply of energy gives:
o positively charged holes.
o negatively charged free electrons.
and both P and N-types as a whole, are electrically neutral on their own.
Antimony (Sb) and Boron (B) are two of the most commonly used doping agents as they are
more feely available compared to other types of materials. They are also classed as “metalloids”.
However, the periodic table groups together a number of other different chemical elements all
with either three, or five electrons in their outermost orbital shell making them suitable as a
doping material.
These other chemical elements can also be used as doping agents to a base material of either
Silicon (Si) or Germanium (Ge) to produce different types of basic semiconductor materials for
use in electronic semiconductor components, microprocessor and solar cell applications. These
additional semiconductor materials are given below.

PN Junction Theory

A PN-junction is formed when an N-type material is fused together with a P-type material
creating a semiconductor diode

In the previous tutorial we saw how to make an N-type semiconductor material by doping a
silicon atom with small amounts of Antimony and also how to make a P-type semiconductor
material by doping another silicon atom with Boron.
This is all well and good, but these newly doped N-type and P-type semiconductor materials do
very little on their own as they are electrically neutral. However, if we join (or fuse) these two
semiconductor materials together they behave in a very different way merging together and
producing what is generally known as a “PN Junction”.
When the N-type semiconductor and P-type semiconductor materials are first joined together a
very large density gradient exists between both sides of the PN junction. The result is that some
of the free electrons from the donor impurity atoms begin to migrate across this newly formed
junction to fill up the holes in the P-type material producing negative ions.
However, because the electrons have moved across the PN junction from the N-type silicon to
the P-type silicon, they leave behind positively charged donor ions ( ND ) on the negative side
and now the holes from the acceptor impurity migrate across the junction in the opposite
direction into the region where there are large numbers of free electrons.
As a result, the charge density of the P-type along the junction is filled with negatively charged
acceptor ions ( NA ), and the charge density of the N-type along the junction becomes positive.
This charge transfer of electrons and holes across the PN junction is known as diffusion. The
width of these P and N layers depends on how heavily each side is doped with acceptor
density NA, and donor density ND, respectively.
This process continues back and forth until the number of electrons which have crossed the
junction have a large enough electrical charge to repel or prevent any more charge carriers from
crossing over the junction. Eventually a state of equilibrium (electrically neutral situation) will
occur producing a “potential barrier” zone around the area of the junction as the donor atoms
repel the holes and the acceptor atoms repel the electrons.
Since no free charge carriers can rest in a position where there is a potential barrier, the regions
on either sides of the junction now become completely depleted of any more free carriers in
comparison to the N and P type materials further away from the junction. This area around
the PN Junction is now called the Depletion Layer.
The PN junction

The total charge on each side of a PN Junction must be equal and opposite to maintain a neutral
charge condition around the junction. If the depletion layer region has a distance D, it therefore
must therefore penetrate into the silicon by a distance of Dp for the positive side, and a distance
of Dn for the negative side giving a relationship between the two of: Dp*NA = Dn*ND in order
to maintain charge neutrality also called equilibrium.

PN Junction Distance

As the N-type material has lost electrons and the P-type has lost holes, the N-type material has
become positive with respect to the P-type. Then the presence of impurity ions on both sides of
the junction cause an electric field to be established across this region with the N-side at a
positive voltage relative to the P-side. The problem now is that a free charge requires some extra
energy to overcome the barrier that now exists for it to be able to cross the depletion region
junction.
This electric field created by the diffusion process has created a “built-in potential difference”
across the junction with an open-circuit (zero bias) potential of:

Where: Eo is the zero bias junction voltage, VT the thermal voltage of 26mV at room
temperature, ND and NA are the impurity concentrations and ni is the intrinsic concentration.
A suitable positive voltage (forward bias) applied between the two ends of the PN junction can
supply the free electrons and holes with the extra energy. The external voltage required to
overcome this potential barrier that now exists is very much dependent upon the type of
semiconductor material used and its actual temperature.
Typically at room temperature the voltage across the depletion layer for silicon is about 0.6 – 0.7
volts and for germanium is about 0.3 – 0.35 volts. This potential barrier will always exist even if
the device is not connected to any external power source, as seen in diodes.
The significance of this built-in potential across the junction, is that it opposes both the flow of
holes and electrons across the junction and is why it is called the potential barrier. In practice,
a PN junction is formed within a single crystal of material rather than just simply joining or
fusing together two separate pieces.
The result of this process is that the PN junction has rectifying current–voltage (IV or I–V)
characteristics. Electrical contacts are fused onto either side of the semiconductor to enable an
electrical connection to be made to an external circuit. The resulting electronic device that has
been made is commonly called a PN junction Diode or simply Signal Diode.
Then we have seen here that a PN junction can be made by joining or diffusing together
differently doped semiconductor materials to produce an electronic device called a diode which
can be used as the basic semiconductor structure of rectifiers, all types of transistors, LED’s,
solar cells, and many more such solid state devices.
In the next tutorial about the PN junction, we will look at one of the most interesting applications
of the PN junction is its use in circuits as a diode. By adding connections to each end of the P-
type and the N-type materials we can produce a two terminal device called a PN Junction Diode
which can be biased by an external voltage to either block or allow the flow of current through it.
PN Junction Diode

A PN-junction diode is formed when a p-type semiconductor is fused to an n-type semiconductor

creating a potential barrier voltage across the diode junction

The effect described in the previous tutorial is achieved without any external voltage being
applied to the actual PN junction resulting in the junction being in a state of equilibrium.

However, if we were to make electrical connections at the ends of both the N-type and the P-type
materials and then connect them to a battery source, an additional energy source now exists to
overcome the potential barrier.

The effect of adding this additional energy source results in the free electrons being able to cross
the depletion region from one side to the other. The behaviour of the PN junction with regards to
the potential barrier’s width produces an asymmetrical conducting two terminal device, better
known as the PN Junction Diode.

A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which has the
characteristic of passing current in only one direction only. However, unlike a resistor, a diode
does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as the diode has an exponential
current-voltage ( I-V ) relationship and therefore we can not described its operation by simply
using an equation such as Ohm’s law.
If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN junction, it
can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to cross the junction as the
width of the depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased.
By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled away from
the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This has the effect of
increasing or decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself allowing or blocking the
flow of current through the diodes pn-junction.
Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse voltage and
narrows with an increase in the application of a forward voltage. This is due to the differences in
the electrical properties on the two sides of the PN junction resulting in physical changes taking
place. One of the results produces rectification as seen in the PN junction diodes static I-V
(current-voltage) characteristics. Rectification is shown by an asymmetrical current flow when
the polarity of bias voltage is altered as shown below.

Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics

But before we can use the PN junction as a practical device or as a rectifying device we need to
firstly bias the junction, that is connect a voltage potential across it. On the voltage axis above,
“Reverse Bias” refers to an external voltage potential which increases the potential barrier. An
external voltage which decreases the potential barrier is said to act in the “Forward Bias”
direction.
There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the
standard Junction Diode and these are:
• 1. Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.
• 2. Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type material
and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect
of Decreasing the PN junction diodes width
• 3. Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type material
and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect
of Increasing the PN junction diode’s width.

Zero Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is applied to
the PN junction. However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few holes (majority
carriers) in the P-type material with enough energy to overcome the potential barrier will move
across the junction against this barrier potential. This is known as the “Forward Current” and is
referenced as IF
Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find this situation
favourable and move across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as the “Reverse
Current” and is referenced as IR. This transfer of electrons and holes back and forth across the
PN junction is known as diffusion, as shown below.

Zero Biased PN Junction Diode

The potential barrier that now exists discourages the diffusion of any more majority carriers
across the junction. However, the potential barrier helps minority carriers (few free electrons in
the P-region and few holes in the N-region) to drift across the junction.
Then an “Equilibrium” or balance will be established when the majority carriers are equal and
both moving in opposite directions, so that the net result is zero current flowing in the circuit.
When this occurs the junction is said to be in a state of “Dynamic Equilibrium“.
The minority carriers are constantly generated due to thermal energy so this state of equilibrium
can be broken by raising the temperature of the PN junction causing an increase in the generation
of minority carriers, thereby resulting in an increase in leakage current but an electric current
cannot flow since no circuit has been connected to the PN junction.

Forward Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-
type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this external voltage
becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts
for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current will start to flow.
This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving them
the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction
towards the junction by the positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current
flowing up to this voltage point, called the “knee” on the static curves and then a high current
flow through the diode with little increase in the external voltage as shown below.

Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer
becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction
thereby allowing high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase in current takes
place is represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above as the “knee” point.
Reduction in the Depletion Layer due to Forward Bias

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very large
currents to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The actual potential
difference across the junction or diode is kept constant by the action of the depletion layer at
approximately 0.3v for germanium and approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes.
Since the diode can conduct “infinite” current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a
short circuit, therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its current flow.
Exceeding its maximum forward current specification causes the device to dissipate more power
in the form of heat than it was designed for resulting in a very quick failure of the device.

Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-
type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material.
The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive
electrode and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away
from the junction towards the negative electrode.
The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and
presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator and a high potential barrier is created across
the junction thus preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor material.
Increase in the Depletion Layer due to Reverse Bias

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current
flows through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small reverse
leakage current does flow through the junction which can normally be measured in micro-
amperes, ( μA ).
One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently
high enough value, it will cause the diode’s PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche
effect around the junction. This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the
flow of maximum circuit current, and this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static
characteristics curve below.

Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilising circuits where a
series limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown current to a preset
maximum value thereby producing a fixed voltage output across the diode. These types of diodes
are commonly known as Zener Diodes and are discussed in a later tutorial.

Junction Diode Summary

The PN junction region of a Junction Diode has the following important characteristics:
• Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge carriers, “Holes” and “Electrons”.
• The holes are positively charged while the electrons negatively charged.
• A semiconductor may be doped with donor impurities such as Antimony (N-type doping),
so that it contains mobile charges which are primarily electrons.
• A semiconductor may be doped with acceptor impurities such as Boron (P-type doping),
so that it contains mobile charges which are mainly holes.
• The junction region itself has no charge carriers and is known as the depletion region.
• The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that varies with the applied
voltage.
• When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is applied and a natural Potential
Barrier is developed across a depletion layer which is approximately 0.5 to 0.7v for
silicon diodes and approximately 0.3 of a volt for germanium diodes.
• When a junction diode is Forward Biased the thickness of the depletion region reduces
and the diode acts like a short circuit allowing full circuit current to flow.
• When a junction diode is Reverse Biased the thickness of the depletion region increases
and the diode acts like an open circuit blocking any current flow, (only a very small
leakage current will flow).
We have also seen above that the diode is two terminal non-linear device whose I-V
characteristic are polarity dependent as depending upon the polarity of the applied
voltage, VD the diode is either Forward Biased, VD > 0 or Reverse Biased, VD < 0. Either way
we can model these current-voltage characteristics for both an ideal diode and for a real silicon
diode as shown:

Diode Rectifier
Power diodes can be used individually as above or connected together to produce a variety of
rectifier circuits such as “Half-Wave”, “Full-Wave” or as “Bridge Rectifiers”. Each type of
rectifier circuit can be classed as either uncontrolled, half-controlled or fully controlled where an
uncontrolled rectifier uses only power diodes, a fully controlled rectifier uses thyristors (SCRs)
and a half-controlled rectifier is a mixture of both diodes and thyristors.
The most commonly used individual power diode for basic electronics applications is the general
purpose 1N400x Series Glass Passivated type rectifying diode with standard ratings of
continuous forward rectified current of about 1.0 ampere and reverse blocking voltage ratings
from 50v for the 1N4001 up to 1000v for the 1N4007, with the small 1N4007GP being the most
popular for general purpose mains voltage rectification.

Half Wave Rectification

A rectifier is a circuit which converts the Alternating Current (AC) input power into a Direct
Current (DC) output power. The input power supply may be either a single-phase or a multi-
phase supply with the simplest of all the rectifier circuits being that of the Half Wave Rectifier.
The power diode in a half wave rectifier circuit passes just one half of each complete sine wave
of the AC supply in order to convert it into a DC supply. Then this type of circuit is called a
“half-wave” rectifier because it passes only half of the incoming AC power supply as shown
below.

Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

During each “positive” half cycle of the AC sine wave, the diode is forward biased as the anode
is positive with respect to the cathode resulting in current flowing through the diode.
Since the DC load is resistive (resistor, R), the current flowing in the load resistor is therefore
proportional to the voltage (Ohm´s Law), and the voltage across the load resistor will therefore
be the same as the supply voltage, Vs (minus Vƒ), that is the “DC” voltage across the load is
sinusoidal for the first half cycle only so Vout = Vs.
During each “negative” half cycle of the AC sinusoidal input waveform, the diode is reverse
biased as the anode is negative with respect to the cathode. Therefore, NO current flows through
the diode or circuit. Then in the negative half cycle of the supply, no current flows in the load
resistor as no voltage appears across it so therefore, Vout = 0.

Power Diode Example No1

Calculate the voltage drop VDC and current IDC flowing through a 100Ω resistor connected to a
240 Vrms single phase half-wave rectifier as shown above. Also calculate the average DC power
consumed by the load.

During the rectification process the resultant output DC voltage and current are therefore both
“ON” and “OFF” during every cycle. As the voltage across the load resistor is only present
during the positive half of the cycle (50% of the input waveform), this results in a low average
DC value being supplied to the load.
The variation of the rectified output waveform between this “ON” and “OFF” condition
produces a waveform which has large amounts of “ripple” which is an undesirable feature. The
resultant DC ripple has a frequency that is equal to that of the AC supply frequency.
Very often when rectifying an alternating voltage we wish to produce a “steady” and continuous
DC voltage free from any voltage variations or ripple. One way of doing this is to connect a large
value Capacitor across the output voltage terminals in parallel with the load resistor as shown
below. This type of capacitor is known commonly as a “Reservoir” or Smoothing Capacitor.
Half-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor

When rectification is used to provide a direct voltage (DC) power supply from an alternating
(AC) source, the amount of ripple voltage can be further reduced by using larger value capacitors
but there are limits both on cost and size to the types of smoothing capacitors used.
For a given capacitor value, a greater load current (smaller load resistance) will discharge the
capacitor more quickly ( RC Time Constant ) and so increases the ripple obtained. Then for
single phase, half-wave rectifier circuit using a power diode it is not very practical to try and
reduce the ripple voltage by capacitor smoothing alone. In this instance it would be more
practical to use “Full-wave Rectification” instead.
In practice, the half-wave rectifier is used most often in low-power applications because of their
major disadvantages being. The output amplitude is less than the input amplitude, there is no
output during the negative half cycle so half the power is wasted and the output is pulsed DC
resulting in excessive ripple.
To overcome these disadvantages a number of Power Diode are connected together to produce a
Full Wave Rectifier as discussed in the next tutorial.

Full Wave Rectifier

Power Diodes can be connected together to form a full wave rectifier that convert AC voltage
into pulsating DC voltage for use in power supplies

In the previous Power Diodes tutorial we discussed ways of reducing the ripple or voltage
variations on a direct DC voltage by connecting smoothing capacitors across the load resistance.
While this method may be suitable for low power applications it is unsuitable to applications
which need a “steady and smooth” DC supply voltage. One method to improve on this is to use
every half-cycle of the input voltage instead of every other half-cycle. The circuit which allows
us to do this is called a Full Wave Rectifier.
Like the half wave circuit, a full wave rectifier circuit produces an output voltage or current
which is purely DC or has some specified DC component. Full wave rectifiers have some
fundamental advantages over their half wave rectifier counterparts. The average (DC) output
voltage is higher than for half wave, the output of the full wave rectifier has much less ripple
than that of the half wave rectifier producing a smoother output waveform.
In a Full Wave Rectifier circuit two diodes are now used, one for each half of the cycle. A
multiple winding transformer is used whose secondary winding is split equally into two halves
with a common centre tapped connection, (C). This configuration results in each diode
conducting in turn when its anode terminal is positive with respect to the transformer centre
point C producing an output during both half-cycles, twice that for the half wave rectifier so it is
100% efficient as shown below.

Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load resistance
(RL) with each diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load. When point A of the
transformer is positive with respect to point C, diode D1 conducts in the forward direction as
indicated by the arrows.
When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point C,
diode D2 conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing through resistor R is in the
same direction for both half-cycles. As the output voltage across the resistor R is the phasor sum
of the two waveforms combined, this type of full wave rectifier circuit is also known as a “bi-
phase” circuit.
The peak voltage of the output waveform is the same as before for the half-wave rectifier
provided each half of the transformer windings have the same rms voltage value. To obtain a
different DC voltage output different transformer ratio can be used.
The main disadvantage of this type of full wave rectifier circuit is that a larger transformer for a
given power output is required with two separate but identical secondary windings making this
type of full wave rectifying circuit costly compared to the “Full Wave Bridge Rectifier” circuit
equivalent.

The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit
above, is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four
individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop “bridge” configuration to produce the
desired output.
The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special centre tapped
transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one
side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.

The Diode Bridge Rectifier

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two diodes conducting
current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply,
diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current
flows through the load as shown below.
The Positive Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but
diodes D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the
load is the same direction as before.

The Negative Half-cycle

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the
load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore
the average DC voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax.
Typical Bridge Rectifier
However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows through two diodes instead of just
one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2*0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the
input VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a
50Hz supply or 120Hz for a 60Hz supply.)
Although we can use four individual power diodes to make a full wave bridge rectifier, pre-made
bridge rectifier components are available “off-the-shelf” in a range of different voltage and
current sizes that can be soldered directly into a PCB circuit board or be connected by spade
connectors.
The image to the right shows a typical single phase bridge rectifier with one corner cut off. This
cut-off corner indicates that the terminal nearest to the corner is the positive or +ve output
terminal or lead with the opposite (diagonal) lead being the negative or -ve output lead. The
other two connecting leads are for the input alternating voltage from a transformer secondary
winding.

The Smoothing Capacitor

We saw in the previous section that the single phase half-wave rectifier produces an output wave
every half cycle and that it was not practical to use this type of circuit to produce a steady DC
supply. The full-wave bridge rectifier however, gives us a greater mean DC value (0.637 Vmax)
with less superimposed ripple while the output waveform is twice that of the frequency of the
input supply frequency.
We can improve the average DC output of the rectifier while at the same time reducing the AC
variation of the rectified output by using smoothing capacitors to filter the output waveform.
Smoothing or reservoir capacitors connected in parallel with the load across the output of the full
wave bridge rectifier circuit increases the average DC output level even higher as the capacitor
acts like a storage device as shown below.

Full-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor

The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a more smooth
DC output voltage.
The maximum ripple voltage present for a Full Wave Rectifier circuit is not only determined by
the value of the smoothing capacitor but by the frequency and load current, and is calculated as:
Bridge Rectifier Ripple Voltage

Where: I is the DC load current in amps, ƒ is the frequency of the ripple or twice the input
frequency in Hertz, and C is the capacitance in Farads.
The main advantages of a full-wave bridge rectifier is that it has a smaller AC ripple value for a
given load and a smaller reservoir or smoothing capacitor than an equivalent half-wave rectifier.
Therefore, the fundamental frequency of the ripple voltage is twice that of the AC supply
frequency (100Hz) where for the half-wave rectifier it is exactly equal to the supply frequency
(50Hz).
The amount of ripple voltage that is superimposed on top of the DC supply voltage by the diodes
can be virtually eliminated by adding a much improved π-filter (pi-filter) to the output terminals
of the bridge rectifier. This type of low-pass filter consists of two smoothing capacitors, usually
of the same value and a choke or inductance across them to introduce a high impedance path to
the alternating ripple component

The Zener Diode

A Semiconductor Diode blocks current in the reverse direction, but will suffer from premature
breakdown or damage if the reverse voltage applied across becomes too high
However, the Zener Diode or “Breakdown Diode”, as they are sometimes referred too, are
basically the same as the standard PN junction diode but they are specially designed to have a
low and specified Reverse Breakdown Voltage which takes advantage of any reverse voltage
applied to it.
The Zener diode behaves just like a normal general-purpose diode consisting of a silicon PN
junction and when biased in the forward direction, that is Anode positive with respect to its
Cathode, it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated current.
However, unlike a conventional diode that blocks any flow of current through itself when reverse
biased, that is the Cathode becomes more positive than the Anode, as soon as the reverse voltage
reaches a pre-determined value, the zener diode begins to conduct in the reverse direction.
This is because when the reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the rated voltage
of the device a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor depletion layer
and a current starts to flow through the diode to limit this increase in voltage.
The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum circuit
value (which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once achieved, this reverse saturation
current remains fairly constant over a wide range of reverse voltages. The voltage point at which
the voltage across the zener diode becomes stable is called the “zener voltage”, ( Vz ) and for
zener diodes this voltage can range from less than one volt to a few hundred volts.
The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode can be very
accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes semiconductor
construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, ( Vz ) for example, 4.3V or
7.5V. This zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical straight line.
Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

The Zener Diode is used in its “reverse bias” or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes anode
connects to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the
zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage
regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode.
This voltage remains almost constant even with large changes in current providing the zener
diodes current remains between the breakdown current IZ(min) and its maximum current
rating IZ(max).
This ability of the zener diode to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilise a
voltage source against supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the
breakdown region is almost constant turns out to be an important characteristic of the zener
diode as it can be used in the simplest types of voltage regulator applications.
The function of a voltage regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in
parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or variations in the load current. A
zener diode will continue to regulate its voltage until the diodes holding current falls below the
minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region.

The Zener Diode Regulator

Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilised voltage output with low ripple under varying
load current conditions. By passing a small current through the diode from a voltage source, via a
suitable current limiting resistor (RS), the zener diode will conduct sufficient current to maintain
a voltage drop of Vout.
We remember from the previous tutorials that the DC output voltage from the half or full-wave
rectifiers contains ripple superimposed onto the DC voltage and that as the load value changes so
to does the average output voltage. By connecting a simple zener stabiliser circuit as shown
below across the output of the rectifier, a more stable output voltage can be produced.

Zener Diode Regulator

Resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode to limit the current flow through the
diode with the voltage source, VS being connected across the combination. The stabilised output
voltage Vout is taken from across the zener diode.
The zener diode is connected with its cathode terminal connected to the positive rail of the DC
supply so it is reverse biased and will be operating in its breakdown condition. Resistor RS is
selected so to limit the maximum current flowing in the circuit.
With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, ( IL = 0 ), and all the circuit
current passes through the zener diode which in turn dissipates its maximum power. Also a small
value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater diode current when the load resistance RL is
connected and large as this will increase the power dissipation requirement of the diode so care
must be taken when selecting the appropriate value of series resistance so that the zener’s
maximum power rating is not exceeded under this no-load or high-impedance condition.
The load is connected in parallel with the zener diode, so the voltage across RL is always the
same as the zener voltage, ( VR = VZ ). There is a minimum zener current for which the
stabilization of the voltage is effective and the zener current must stay above this value operating
under load within its breakdown region at all times. The upper limit of current is of course
dependent upon the power rating of the device. The supply voltage VS must be greater than VZ.
Then to summaries a little, a zener diode is always operated in its reverse biased condition. As
such a simple voltage regulator circuit can be designed using a zener diode to maintain a constant
DC output voltage across the load in spite of variations in the input voltage or changes in the
load current.
The zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting resistor RS connected in series with the
input voltage VS with the zener diode connected in parallel with the load RL in this reverse
biased condition. The stabilized output voltage is always selected to be the same as the
breakdown voltage VZ of the diode.

Zener Diode Example No1

A 5.0V stabilized power supply is required to be produced from a 12V DC power supply input
source. The maximum power rating PZ of the zener diode is 2W. Using the zener regulator
circuit above calculate:
a). The maximum current flowing through the zener diode.

b). The minimum value of the series resistor, RS

c). The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the zener diode.

d). The zener current IZ at full load.

Diode Clipping Circuits

The Diode Clipper, also known as a Diode Limiter, is a wave shaping circuit that takes an input
waveform and clips or cuts off its top half, bottom half or both halves together.
This clipping of the input signal produces an output waveform that resembles a flattened version
of the input. For example, the half-wave rectifier is a clipper circuit, since all voltages below
zero are eliminated.
But Diode Clipping Circuits can be used a variety of applications to modify an input waveform
using signal and Schottky diodes or to provide over-voltage protection using zener diodes to
ensure that the output voltage never exceeds a certain level protecting the circuit from high
voltage spikes. Then diode clipping circuits can be used in voltage limiting applications.
We saw in the Signal Diodes tutorial that when a diode is forward biased it allows current to pass
through itself clamping the voltage. When the diode is reverse biased, no current flows through it
and the voltage across its terminals is unaffected, and this is the basic operation of the diode
clipping circuit.
Although the input voltage to diode clipping circuits can have any waveform shape, we will
assume here that the input voltage is sinusoidal. Consider the circuits below.

Positive Diode Clipping Circuits

In this diode clipping circuit, the diode is forward biased (anode more positive than cathode)
during the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input waveform. For the diode to become forward
biased, it must have the input voltage magnitude greater than +0.7 volts (0.3 volts for a
germanium diode).
When this happens the diodes begins to conduct and holds the voltage across itself constant at
0.7V until the sinusoidal waveform falls below this value. Thus the output voltage which is taken
across the diode can never exceed 0.7 volts during the positive half cycle.
During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased (cathode more positive than anode)
blocking current flow through itself and as a result has no effect on the negative half of the
sinusoidal voltage which passes to the load unaltered. Thus the diode limits the positive half of
the input waveform and is known as a positive clipper circuit.

Negative Diode Clipping Circuits

Here the reverse is true. The diode is forward biased during the negative half cycle of the
sinusoidal waveform and limits or clips it to –0.7 volts while allowing the positive half cycle to
pass unaltered when reverse biased. As the diode limits the negative half cycle of the input
voltage it is therefore called a negative clipper circuit.

Biased Diode Clipping Circuits

To produce diode clipping circuits for voltage waveforms at different levels, a bias
voltage, VBIAS is added in series with the diode to produce a combination clipper as shown. The
voltage across the series combination must be greater than VBIAS + 0.7V before the diode
becomes sufficiently forward biased to conduct. For example, if the VBIAS level is set at 4.0 volts,
then the sinusoidal voltage at the diode’s anode terminal must be greater than 4.0 + 0.7 = 4.7
volts for it to become forward biased. Any anode voltage levels above this bias point are clipped
off.

Positive Bias Diode Clipping

Likewise, by reversing the diode and the battery bias voltage, when a diode conducts the
negative half cycle of the output waveform is held to a level –VBIAS – 0.7V as shown.

Negative Bias Diode Clipping

A variable diode clipping or diode limiting level can be achieved by varying the bias voltage of
the diodes. If both the positive and the negative half cycles are to be clipped, then two biased
clipping diodes are used. But for both positive and negative diode clipping, the bias voltage need
not be the same. The positive bias voltage could be at one level, for example 4 volts, and the
negative bias voltage at another, for example 6 volts as shown.

Diode Clampers
Clampers can also be referred as DC restorers. Clamping circuits are designed to shift the input
waveform either above or below a DC reference level without altering the shape of the
waveform. This shifting of the waveform results in a change in the DC average voltage of the
input waveform. The levels of peaks in the signal can be shifted using the clamper circuit, hence
clampers can also be referred as level shifters.

Clampers can be broadly classified into two types. They are:

• Positive Clampers
• Negative Clampers
Positive Clamper: This type of clamping circuit shifts the input waveform in a positive
direction, as a result the waveform lies above a DC reference voltage.

Negative Clamper: This type of clamping circuit shifts the input waveform in a negative
direction, as a result the waveform lies below a DC reference voltage.

The direction of the diode in the clamping circuit determines the type of clamper circuit. The
operation of a clamping circuit is mainly based on the switching time constants of a capacitor,
which charges through the diode and discharges through the load.

Types of Clamper Circuits

Positive Clamper
The circuit of a Positive Clamper is shown in the following circuit. Here, the circuit consists of
three main elements:

• Capacitor
• Diode
• Load
The diode is connected in parallel to the load in such a way that the cathode of the diode is
connected to the capacitor and anode to the ground.

Let us analyze the circuit starting with a negative cycle after startup. During the first negative
cycle, the diode is forward biased and acts as a closed switch. As a result, the capacitor charges
to the peak input voltage, which we will call as VC.

In the next positive and negative cycles, the capacitor doesn’t lose much charge due to the RC
Time Constant. As a result, the diode pretty much stays reverse biased.

Hence, the output voltage is the sum of applied input voltage and the charge stored at capacitor.
 VOUT = VIN + VC

where VC is the peak of the input voltage.

From the above equation, it is clear that the above circuit adds a positive DC Shift to the input
voltage.

Negative Clamper
The Negative Clamping circuit consists of a diode connected in parallel with the load. The
capacitor used in the clamping circuit can be chosen such that it must charge very quickly and it
should not discharge very drastically. The anode of the diode is connected to the capacitor and
cathode to the ground.

During the first positive half cycle of the input, the diode is in forward bias and as the diode
conducts the capacitor charges very quickly to the peak of the input VP.

During the subsequent negative and positive half cycles of the input, the diode will be in reverse
bias and the diode will not conduct. The output voltage will be equal to the sum of the applied
input voltage and the charge stored in the capacitor. The output waveform is same as input
waveform, but shifted below 0 volts by VP.
Applications of Clippers
1. Used for generating new waveforms and/or shaping the existing older waveforms.
2. Clippers can be used as freewheeling diodes in protecting the transistors from transient
effects by connecting the diodes in parallel with the inductive load.
3. Commonly used in power supplies.
4. In the separation of synchronizing signals existing from the composite color picture
signals.
5. Frequently used in FM transmitters for removing the excess ripples in the signals above a
certain noise level.

Applications of Clampers
1. Clampers can be frequently used in removing the distortions and identification of polarity
of the circuits.
2. For improving the reverse recovery time, clampers are used.
3. Clamping circuits can be used as voltage doublers and for modelling the existing
waveforms to a required shape and range.
4. Clampers are widely used in test equipment and other sonar systems.