Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development...

Non-Governmental Organizations and Development Service Provision: A Conceptual and

Empirical Review
Daniel Odoom Joseph Obeng-Baah Lawrencia Agyepong

Abstract

Globally, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are seen as a significant driving force behind
delivering development services. There is universal consensus within the development
community that development service delivery will be incomplete without the involvement of
NGOs. Thus, many NGOs across the globe complement governments' efforts in development
service delivery, a situation that has occasioned a rapid rise in both the volume and scale of
operations of NGOs. Nonetheless, there is a growing debate regarding the conceptual intentions
of NGOs. While some scholars believe that NGOs effectively provide development services,
others have suggested that development service delivery does not constitute a critical component
of NGOs' agenda. There is also the issue of whether or not the approaches NGOs employ in
development services are participatory enough. While some scholars opine that participatory
development communication approaches characterize NGOs' development services, others
maintain that participation is merely rhetoric value within the NGO sector. These contending
views risk an obliteration of the continuing relevance of NGOs in development discourse. This
paper seeks to contribute to the debate on the place of NGOs in development services and the
approaches NGOs employ in contemporary development practice. The authors posit that NGOs
occupy a central place in development service provision but concede that NGO operations in
development services are not without challenges. The authors argue further tha
development services can better be appreciated based on a thorough understanding of the role of
participatory development communication in development service provisions. The paper presents
a review of the relevant conceptual and empirical literature on NGOs' activities in development
services and concludes by identifying lessons that should engage the attention of key
stakeholders.
Keywords: Development, NGO interventions, Participatory Development Communication,
Service Provision, Programs
Introduction
Development is about bringing quality changes in the lives of the citizenry. Its outcomes go
beyond growth in the traditional economic sense to include all other human well-being aspects
(Sen, 2012; Todaro & Smith, 2006). Nations across the globe strive to put in place measures to
bring about quality changes in the lives of their citizens. However, it is widely acknowledged
that in many developing nations, the state cannot independently provide essential social goods
and services that would ensure a progressive poverty reduction and guarantee sustainable

Ghana Institute of Journalism, Accra, Ghana. Email: ankahodoom@[Link]

Ghana Institute of Journalism, Accra, Ghana
Ghana Institute of Journalism, Accra, Ghana
 PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022

development (Okorley & Nkrumah, 2012). When the state cannot provide sufficient goods and
services or the enabling environment to improve the lives of its citizens, alternative channels of
service provision become critical. NGO interventions have constituted one such form of
alternative development strategies since the 1980s (Banks & Hulme, 2012; Brass, 2010; Odoom,
Yeboah, Opoku & Osei-Wusu, 2018; Odoom, 2021). In this context, the alternative development
theory solidifies the apparent relevance of NGOs as frontline agents of development (Odoom,
2021).
NGO activities and services have a long history dating back into the late 1940s, just after World
War II (Desai, 2002b; Winter, 2001). NGOs came into the development scene when civil society
organizations became increasingly convinced about what they could do to alleviate the suffering
of the many people and nations affected by the war. Indeed, World War II left many people in a
state of hopelessness, starvation, and destitution globally, with many countries also experiencing
a severe economic slowdown as a result of the war. Thus, NGOs around this period had
humanitarianism, welfare, and relief service as their central motivation in development service
delivery. However, NGOs' activities have outgrown welfare, relief, and humanitarianism over
the past few decades (Desai, 2002b, Francis, 2002; Long, 2001; Nelson, 2002). NGOs now
provide several services in almost all sectors of society beyond relief and humanitarian
considerations due to the increasing recognition of the inability of governments to single-
handedly improve the socio-economic conditions of people.

NGOs have and continue to play a vital role in delivering development services. The benevolent
role of NGOs for the past three decades served as a means to bridge the gap between the poor
and the rich. Consequently, NGOs are generally praised for their strengths as innovative
grassroots-driven agents for social change (Banks & Hulme, 2012). NGOs are seen to have the
willingness and capacity to pursue participatory and people-centered forms of development and
to fill gaps left by states, especially across the developing world, in addressing the myriad of
needs of their poorest populations (Banks & Hulme, 2012; Barr, Fafchamps & Trudy, 2005;
Odoom, 2021).

Even though global figures are uneasy about coming by owing mainly to the absence of
coordinating bodies, Epstein and Gang (2006) observed that, for all Development Assistance
Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development...

Countries, official development assistance (ODA) to NGOs rose from US$928 million to
US$1246 million between 1991 and 2002. This figure indicates about 34 percent rise in
development assistance to NGOs within this period. Similarly, around this period, international
NGOs grew by 19.3 percent. Additionally, there has been a corresponding expansion both in size
and the development of thematic areas of NGOs, thus, affirming a growing interest and centrality
of NGOs within the alternative development partner coincided with neoliberal tenets (Barr et al.,
2005; Edwards & Hulme, 1996; Odoom, 2021). In essence, there has been an overwhelming rise
in the number of NGOs in the face of the various development challenges manifesting across the
globe.

Several factors have contributed to the rising interest in the activities of NGOs around the world.
For example, continued donor distrust and frustrations with states fuelled an interest in NGOs as
viable and even desirable alternatives. Many people viewed NGOs favorably for their inclusive
representation of beneficiaries and their role as innovators of new technologies and participative
approaches to working with the poor (Barr et al., 2005; Lewis, 2005; Murray and Overton,
2011). Africa witnessed its NGO boom starting in the 1990s (Hearn, 2007). For example, Kenya
experienced a rapid increase in the number of registered NGOs from 400 in 1990 to over 6,000
in 2008 (Brass, 2011). Similarly, in Tanzania, the 41 registered NGOs in 1990 had increased to
over 10,000 by 2000 (Hearn, 2007). In places such as Uganda, the public reaction to the NGO
phenomenon has been characterized by mixed feelings, including a widespread suspicion that
beneath the provision of the public good lie other ulterior motivations (Barr et al., 2005).
However, NGOs provide a much-needed helping hand in development services in Ghana,
Nigeria, and Zimbabwe (Adjei, Agyemang & Afriyie, 2012; Chitongo; 2013; Enyioko, 2012). It
indicates that NGOs have played a critical role in the development of communities over the years
(Adjei et al., 2012; Banks & Hulme, 2012; Brass, 2010; Chitongo; 2013; Enyioko, 2012;
Omofonmwan & Odia, 2009).

The exertion of political influence has been suggested as a strong underlying motivation of
NGOs' presence in Africa, mainly driven by a desire to join dominant political patronage
networks (Brass, 2012). However, the good governance agenda, which embraces the language of
democracy, human rights, and public participation (Murray & Overton, 2011), consolidates
NGOs' centrality to national development (Odoom, 2021) in the Global South. As a result, the
architecture of aid has evolved beyond growth-focused neoliberalist experiments to a more
 PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022

meaningful consultation between donors and recipients and increased focus on poverty and the
responsibility of nation-states from the onset of the new millennium starting in 2000 (Barr et al.,
2005; Murray & Overton, 2011). This paper contributes to the debate around the contribution of
NGOs in development service provision through a review of selected literature. The rest of the
paper is written in four parts, with the first part focusing on the concept and typology of NGOs.
The second part looks at the role of NGOs in contemporary development service provision,
while the third part considers the empirical review. The final part concludes the paper based on
the emergent issues in the review.

Conceptual Review

The Concept and Typology of NGOs

NGOs have come to be accepted as significant actors in the development landscape. NGOs are
noted for delivering essential services to people in need and undertaking advocacy and public
campaigns for positive social change. Their activities also focus on community improvement,
poverty alleviation, capacity building, and community empowerment. NGOs also offer more
specialized services, including governance and democracy, human rights, emergency response,
cultural preservation, conflict resolution, environmental activism, policy analysis, research, and
information provision (Lane, 1995; Lewis & Kanji, 2009).

be felt almost everywhere in the developing world, the challenge

of understanding the phenomenon remains a startlingly difficult one. It can be attributable to
NGOs' being an extremely diverse group of development actors. NGOs undertake different
functions and take different shapes and forms within and across different countries and contexts.
Another explanation for the nebulousness of the phenomenon is that 'NGO' as an analytical
grouping is complex, often unclear, and difficult to grasp. Although NGOs are regarded in the
literature as independent organizations without the control and influence of government or driven
by the profit motive, some NGOs are regular recipients of huge funding from government
sources. Some NGOs bear striking semblances of highly professionalized private entities also
carrying a strong corporate identity (Lewis & Kanji, 2009).
Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development...

The term NGO is widely used to encapsulate a number of organizations. The term is often used
interchangeably with other names such as not-for-profit, voluntary, and civil society
organizations. Sometimes, these terms reflect the different kinds of NGOs in operation within a
given context (Lewis & Kanji, 2009; Moyo, 2000). Also, using these terms is a consequence of
different cultures and histories through which NGOs emerged. For instance, in places such as the

tradition of volunteering and voluntary work attributed to Christian values and the development
of charity law. A -
due to the increasing recognition of the market economy. The usage of the term in the United
States is also due to appreciation for the non-commercial and non-profit-making motives of the
operations of NGOs (Lewis & Kanji, 2009).

relief organizations to service provision. For example, Christian Aid, CARE International, Save
the Children, environmental conservations groups such as Friends of the Earth, wildlife
conservation groups, and self-help groups such as funeral associations, welfare organizations,

(Lane, 1995; Mawdsley, Townsend, Porter & Oakley, 2002; Moyo, 2000). The structure,
funding, and value sets also contribute to this mass classification of divergent organizations as
NGOs. NGOs may be large or small, formal or informal, bureaucratic or flexible based on their
structure. Concerning funding, some NGOs are externally funded, while others depend on locally
mobilized resources. Some NGOs may be well resourced and command extensive network
capabilities, while others may be poorly resourced. Some NGOs have the resources to engage the
services of highly experienced professionals, while others necessarily have to rely on the
goodwill of unpaid volunteers and supporters. From the perspective of the value, NGOs are
driven by a range of motivations which may be secular or faith-based (Lewis & Kanji, 2009).

The influence of NGOs can be traced back to the late 1940s, immediately after the Second World
War (Desai, 2002b; Winter, 2001). The evolution of NGOs came when some civil society
organizations (CSOs) saw that they could alleviate the suffering of those affected by the war in
Europe and other parts of the world and assist countries experiencing an economic slowdown as
a result of the war. Scholars such as Long (2001), Desai (2002b), Francis (2002), and Nelson
(2002) have argued that the activities of NGOs have grown beyond just welfare provisioning,
 PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022

especially since the late 1980s and early 1990s. In the developing world, areas where
government resources cannot reach due to inadequate revenue and donor support is not
forthcoming, assistance from NGOs has been extremely crucial.

NGOs are typically self-governing or voluntary development organizations that focus on

improving the lives of poor and vulnerable people or organizations not benefiting directly from
government development initiatives (Desai, 2002a; Long, 2002; Vakil, 1997). Their agenda is
based on the philosophical orientations that underpin the organization's establishment. In some
cases, they work on behalf of a government, even though not operate directly under the control
of any government department. In some instances, too, they become de facto providers of
essential public goods that governments are either unable or unwilling to provide. Long (2002)
identified some of the activities of NGOs, which include service delivery to poor individuals or
communities, empowerment support work such as capacity building, technical assistance and
funding to communities, advocating for the voiceless and the marginalized, and women's rights.

In some countries, some NGOs are working on behalf of governments in certain development
service delivery areas, while others may choose to distance themselves from the state by
implementing projects and activities that run parallel to similar interventions by the state (Clark,
2002; Desai, 2002b; Nelson, 2002; Thomas & Allen, 2000). However, some critics (Desai,
2002b; Francis, 2002) have argued that although NGOs are recognized as effective vehicles for
delivering public services, the operations of some of the risk further social and political
marginalization of beneficiary communities when such activities are deemed to be antithetical to

perception of NGOs is one of voluntary humanitarianism. Through this altruistic lens, NGOs are
seen as indispensable non-state actors whose aim is to provide services to improve the conditions
of vulnerable and disadvantaged groups or individuals in society.

Despite their contributions to development services, NGOs are not without challenges and
misgivings. NGOs are often accused of getting involved in national politics to the detriment of
their missions. It is widely contended that Local influential persons mainly lead NGOs with
political connections, which often impedes their ability to implement adequate democratic
management and decision-making structures (Andreasen, 2001). A clear case in point is what
Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development...

existed in Egypt a few years ago, where most NGOs were accused of elitism because they were
founded by professionals and the educated elite (Myllyla, 2001).

Again, scholars including Korten (1990) and Turner and Hulme (1997) described NGOs'
approach to promoting empowerment at the local level as a political activity. The authors further
downplayed the situation where NGOs claim they are non-political when they explicitly promote
empowerment at the grassroots level, which unavoidably makes them political entities. Besides,
Barr, Fafchamps, and Owens (2003) opine that NGOs are not entities whose operations can be
welcome in the realm of perfection. Barr et al. (2003) strengthen this position by submitting that
some NGOs are opportunistic and remote organizations, contributing very little to development

development services in places such as Uganda leaves much to be desired.

Forming typologies of NGOs

Several views have been expressed by scholars, researchers, and organizations regarding the
various ways of developing a typology of NGOs. For instance, Lane (1995) considered the types
of NGOs from four main angles. They are welfare and relief, modernization, community
development, and institution building NGOs. Relief and welfare NGOs channel their efforts to
assist people affected by complex humanitarian emergencies such as drought, earthquakes,
floods, and other natural disasters and conflicts. The remaining three categories have been
categorized under the term "Development NGOs". These NGOs mainly help promote and
improve people's lives through community and institutional development practices and
empowerment and capacity-building programs that enable people to fulfill their development
aspirations and attain sustainable livelihoods. One such NGO in Ghana, for example, is World
Vision International (Lane, 1995).

In the opinion of Cousins (1991), NGOs can be classified into two main categories based on their
orientation and level of operation. In terms of orientation, Cousins (1991) considered NGO types
based on the kind of activities they undertake. The activities may include human rights,

shows the scale at which it works. Some operate at the local, regional, national or international
level or a combination of these levels (Vakil, 1997). Also, based on the level of operation,
 PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022

Cousins (1991) identified the following categories: community-based, city-wide, national and

Furthermore, based on orientation, Cousins (1991) also identified four types of NGOs:
charitable, service, participatory, and empowering. Charitable NGOs' activities are directed
towards addressing the needs of the poor. They primarily involve distributing food, clothing, or
medicine, provision of housing, transport, and schools. Second, NGOs engage in service
orientation focused on the provisions of health, family planning, or education services. Third,
participatory NGOs are classified based on the self-help projects they provide to local
communities where people are actively involved in planning and implementing projects
(Cousins, 1991). The local people participate in the form of contributing cash, tools, land,
materials, and labor. Finally, empowering NGOs to seek to help poor people better understand
the social, political, and economic factors affecting their lives and reinforce their awareness of
their capacity to control their lives (Dugle, Akanbang & Salakpi, 2015).

In an effort to reinforce the debate on typologies of NGOs, Willetts (2002) agrees with Cousins
(1991) on the classification of operational NGOs. Willetts further explained operational NGOs as
organizations that seek to promote small-scale change mainly through projects. Unlike Cousins
(1991), Willetts (2002) believed that there are also advocacy NGOs that aim to achieve large-

categorization, it can be said that operational NGOs implement projects while advocacy NGOs
are concerned with holding demonstrations or campaigns to defend or promote a specific cause.
In support of Willetts (2002), Mostashari (2005) argued that the difference between operational
and advocacy NGOs lies between small-scale change achieved directly through projects and
large-scale change promoted indirectly through political systems and campaigns.

Other scholars have also categorized NGOs based on several factors and positions. For example,
as cited in Paul Dugle et al. (2015), Farrington and Lewis have characterized NGOs based on
factors such as autonomy, location, and scope of activities. Thus, the degree of autonomy,
location, and scope of activities of NGOs are crucial in the determination of NGO categorization.
Others have also classified NGOs based on their aims and functions, as in welfare NGOs,
development NGOs, service NGOs, environmental NGOs, advocacy NGOs, human rights
Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development...

status, NGOs have been put into four categories: unincorporated and voluntary association;
trusts, charities and foundations; not-for-profit companies; and entities registered under special
NGOs (Dugle et al., 2015; Stillman, 2007).

There are also international and local NGOs. The term "International Non-Governmental

multilateral, or private-sector donors (Gyamfi, 2010; Helen, Cunt & Sujata, 2005; Lewis &
Kanji, 2009). Chuku, as cited in Gyamfi (2010), defines International NGOs as NGOs whose
policies and systems are managed and controlled from their various headquarters, often outside
the country of operation. International NGOs are also sometimes referred to as Northern NGOs.
The term "Local Non-Governmental Organization (LNGO)" refers to local indigenous
organizations, including national NGOs, Faith-Based Organizations (FBOs), and Community-
Based Organizations (CBOs). These indigenous organizations provide interventions and
activities often within the functional categories of advocacy and service delivery (Helen et al.,
2005).

Local NGOs are owned, managed, and controlled by the nationals. They are formed based on the
initiatives of the local people rather than outside forces or donors. They are formed in response
to the myriad of development challenges confronting their country (Turary, 2002). Their primary
desire is to identify local needs or concerns and fashion out local solutions to them. They are
non-profit making, not affiliated to political parties, and generally concern themselves with
working to ensure the development and welfare of communities in their operational zones (Lewis
& Kanji, 2009; Turary, 2002).

It is believed that a reasonable number of NGOs do not have clear development objectives. It
raises doubts about their motivations and capacity in working to address the plights of the people
they claim to serve (Kamat, 2002; Mayo, 2000). Table 1 presents some of the categorizations of
NGOs by Hudock (1999) and Moyo (2000). Variations in community needs and diversity in
he paradoxes of NGOs operating in the world
today (Dugle et al., 2015; Turary, 2002). Despite these challenges and the complexity of
community needs and priorities, NGOs have and continue to demonstrate the ability to meet the
development needs of populations worldwide. In many instances, NGOs work assiduously to fill
 PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022

the gaps created by governments' inability to deliver development services, especially to the
disadvantaged persons in society (Brass, 2011).

Unlike Helen et al. (2005), Mayo (2000) and Hudock (1999) distinguish CBOs from southern
NGOs. While southern NGOs operate at the national and regional levels, CBOs operate at the
grassroots and village levels (Hudock, 1999; Mayo, 2000). Other NGOs focus on rural
community development. The preoccupation of these NGOs is promoting the development of
rural communities (Ellis, 2000). Other features that inform NGOs' categorization are cost-
effectiveness, adaptability to the local environment, innovativeness, and an understanding of the
local situation. As a result, government departments and international development institutions
often collaborate with NGOs by providing them the resources to deliver development initiatives
on their behalf (Desai, 2002b; Thomas & Allen, 2000). This form of trust strengthens the
synergy between northern NGOs and southern or community-based NGOs in the execution of
development programs and interventions.

Table 1: Typology of NGOs and their areas of operations

Type of NGO Origin and area of operation

Northern Mostly from the developed countries; render most of their services in the
developing world.
Southern These are NGOs that originate from developing countries. They are often
formed through local initiatives, and their operations are at the regional and
national levels. They may operate at the grassroots/village level and collaborate
with donor nations and northern NGOs to provide interventions.

Community- They are often promoted by government agencies, faith institutions, or

based/Indigenous community mobilization groups. They operate at the grassroots and mainly at
/Grassroots the village level.

Sources: Hudock (1999), Moyo (2000)

NGOs constitute an important vehicle through which development intervention policies are
implemented at the grassroots level (Farrington et al., 1993). The over-reliance of some
governments on NGOs to spend money on their behalf gives such NGOs influence on
government policy formulation and implementation. The flexible nature of the policies and
Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development...

programs of NGOs their ability to work directly with the rural poor and within rural and risky
conditions make them preferable to government agencies (Lane, 1995; Long, 2001). However,
critics have suggested that NGOs are just gap-filling organizations (Desai, 2002b; Thomas &
Allen, 2000) that sometimes operate using non-conventional policies. They often operate in areas
where most government departments find it difficult to operate. NGOs would not offer a quick
answer to a scale of global poverty or even alleviate it satisfactorily to ensure relative social
stability (Pearce, 2000; 2001).

Characteristics of NGOs are also examined from service provision, intermediary, advocacy, and
relief perspectives and their corresponding primary activities (Hudock, 1999; Mayo, 2000), as
shown in Table 2. In their conclusion, Thomas and Allen (2000) posit that despite the hype about
the work of NGOs towards the improvement of the lives of the rural poor and the neglected and
marginalized, NGOs can never change the world.

Table 2: Characteristics of NGOs and their performance

Characteristic of NGOs Activities

Service Providers They provide training services, capacity building, consultancy,

research, etc., at the community level; engage in service delivery for
the needy, such as refugees, flood victims, etc.

Intermediary They liaise with funding agencies and assist grassroots organizations
in securing funds and other assistance for development activities.

Advocacy They advocate for the underprivileged, disadvantaged, widows, street

children, etc.

Relief They provide relief supplies to communities or countries affected by

floods, earthquakes, famine, disease outbreaks, etc. They also offer
technical assistance on fundraising strategies, proposal writing, etc.,
to local organizations to make them self-reliant.

Source: Hudock (1999), Moyo (2000)

This conclusion raises questions on the views many people have about the activities and impacts
of NGOs as development partners.
 PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022

The Role of NGOs in Contemporary Development Service Provision: Key Issues and
Approaches
NGOs currently play diverse roles within the global contemporary development community.
NGOs' roles in the current development framework have been grouped mainly into service
delivery, catalysis, and partnership (Lewis & Kanji, 2009). These three leading roles inform the
approaches NGOs employ in undertaking development services. Although these roles are
distinct, one particular NGO can engage in thematic areas and activities that cut across these
individual dichotomies. A clear case is that an NGO may carry out service delivery to build trust
in a local community, which will, in turn, create a platform for community advocacy or
campaign. Also, an NGO may form a partnership with a corporation to advance its aims of
campaigning for ethical and socially responsible business (Lewis & Kanji, 2009). Service
delivery by NGOs, especially in developing countries, is important because many people face a
wide range of development services coupled with essential basic services being unavailable or of
poor quality (Carroll, 1992; Lewis & Kanji, 2009).

NGO service provision has seen a speedy growth due to the decreasing role of governments as
direct service providers within the neoliberal agenda (Lewis & Kanji, 2009). The incentive for an
NGO to actively provide services varies. For instance, sometimes, NGOs provide services to
meet previously unmet needs, while in other instances, they are contracted by state agencies or
donors to undertake the delivery of services that hitherto had been the direct responsibility of the
government. Indeed, not all NGOs are directly providing services to local communities. For
example, some NGOs aim to tackle poverty indirectly by providing other forms of services such
as building the technical capacity of other NGOs, government agencies, or the private sector or
carrying out commissioned action research (Lewis & Kanji, 2009).

Some donors have argued for a more substantial role for NGOs in service delivery work because
they are believed to possess a set of distinctive organizational capacities and comparative
advantages, such as flexibility, commitment, and cost-effectiveness. However, in practice, the
diversity in the NGOs community means that such generalizations are often difficult to sustain
(Zakaria, 2011). While some NGOs have proven to be effective service providers (Chitongo,
2013; Enyioko, 2012; Odoom, 2021) in specific sectors and contexts, others have been found
Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development...

wanting in their performance. NGO service provision is often associated with problems of
quality control, low sustainability, poor coordination, etc. (Robinson & White, 1997). Increasing
the role of NGOs in development services also raises several concerns ranging from the quality
of services and the impact of their interventions on beneficiaries (Lewis, 2005; Lewis & Kanji,
2009).

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, conservative governments in the United States, Britain, and
many other countries afterward reduced the role of government in direct service provision along
with the privatization of the public sector (Hulme & Edwards, 1997). It has not only led to
ethical benefits but also financial gains. Since NGOs promote and rely significantly on
volunteerism, their approaches can be more cost-effective than the approaches used by the
government. Increased government funding channeled through NGOs for the last two decades
may not be the only explanation for exponential growth in the number of NGOs, but it has
undoubtedly contributed to such manifestation, especially in the advanced economies. The
Global Water Initiative (GWI), for example, is an NGO that seeks to support the sustainable and
equitable delivery of potable water to vulnerable rural communities in the Upper West Region in
Ghana. They have invested heavily in Ghana in collaboration with other foundations and NGOs
in the country in the area of water and sanitation (Hulme & Edwards, 1997; Sarfo, 2013).

Another area of significant NGO commitment in Ghana is economic empowerment through

microfinance initiatives. NGOs are non-formal providers of microcredit loans to address poverty
and hunger (Adjei & Arun, 2009). Sinapi Aba Trust (SAT), for example, is one of the most
prominent NGOs providing such microfinance services in Ghana by giving opportunities for
enterprise development and income generation to economically disadvantaged groups in the
country. Services offered by SAT include loans, savings deposits, client welfare (insurance)
schemes, and non-financial services, including entrepreneurial skills, with women constituting
ase. However, these services do not always reach
the target people in society (Adjei & Arun, 2009; Egyir, 2013; Sono, 2013). Besides, through its
economic development and agricultural interventions, WVG improves people's livelihoods
through access to credit, markets, technology, and information. The Organization also provides
people with microcredit training and skill development (Egyir, 2013; WVG, 2017).
 PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022

An important factor in NGOs' service delivery role is participation. While scholars (Bessette,
2000; Cousins, 1991) believe that NGOs generally adopt participatory approaches in delivering
their development services, Streeten (1997) and Dempsey (2009) maintain that participation does
rticipation is, at best,
a slogan and not a thought-out strategy within the NGO sector. Dempsey (2009) argues that no
actual democratic value such as participation manifests within the NGO sector. As cited in
Odoom et al. (2018), Lugar extends the discussion by submitting that some
generally limit the participation of community members during the delivery of development
services. Such NGOs only talk about participation in terms of informing community members to
provide cheap manual labor to support the delivery of development services (Lugar, cited in
Odoom et al., 2018). Behera (2006) states that the rhetoric of participation in the NGO sector is
because of the influences from the international headquarters of NGOs and other organizations.

In essence, though service delivery is generally critical on the agenda of NGOs, there are
concerns regarding the nature of participatory approaches that inform the delivery of
development services. According to Bessette (2000), NGOs are better placed to use participatory
approaches in undertaking their development services. A critical element of meaningful
participation is participatory communication, which is at the heart of effective development
communication. Bessette (2000) argues that participatory communication should be embedded in
NGO operations. Bessette (2000) adds that participatory communication is a viable
communication strategy NGOs need to rely on in their development services. Bessette (2000),
therefore, calls for the need to support NGOs to pursue and reinforce participatory development
practices within the local communities they operate in. Bessette (2000) further explains the
importance of participatory communication by arguing that training should be organized for
NGO workers in participatory development communication to prepare NGOs to develop and
implement participatory approaches appropriately during the delivery of development services.
Servaes, as cited by Odoom et al. (2021), argues that development communication practice is
only effective when it considers the interests, needs, and capacities of all stakeholders concerned.
In effect, NGOs can complement awareness creation, advocacy, and behavior change
communication which they commonly use when undertaking development services with
Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development...

participatory communication, scholarly communication, and social mobilization strategies to

achieve their set goals (Dzisah, 2019; Odoom, 2021).

NGOs' second key role in development practice is serving as a catalyst. A catalyst is an agent
that causes change. From the agent standpoint, NGOs aim to bring about change through
advocacy and seeking influence and innovative ways to find new solutions to development
problems (Lewis & Kanji, 2009). As cited in Lewis and Kanji (2009), Jenkins defines advocacy
as any attempt that seeks to influence the decisions of any institutional elite in the collective
interest of society. Lindenberg and Bryant (2001) assert that advocacy work involves going
beyond implementing programs to help those in need to take up and defend the causes of others

communication approach to target leadership and the powers that be to take actions to support
program objectives. Leadership includes political, business, and social leaders at national and
local levels. NGOs seek to inform and motivate leaders through advocacy communication to
create a supportive environment for their programs (Mostashari, 2005; Willetts, 2002). Effective
advocacy communication requires changing policies, allocating resources, speaking out on
critical issues, and initiating public discussion (Odoom, 2020; Servaes, 2000). Lindenberg and
Bryant explained further that in the performance of duties by NGOs, advocacy focuses on clearly
speaking up for policy change and action that will address the core causes of development and
relief problems confronting society.

policymaking in innovative ways to support development objectives (Najam, 1999). Najam

conceptualizes the policy process as one involving agenda setting, policy development, and
policy implementation. Agenda setting occurs when the issues and priorities for action are agreed
upon by stakeholders, whereas policy development concerns the choices among possible
alternatives and the options that are made. Finally, at the level of policy implementation, specific
actions are undertaken to translate policies into practice. Najam believes that NGOs are adept at
influencing decisions and events within the policy formulation processes at any of these stages.
Undoubtedly, NGO advocacy is not limited to influencing government and donor policies;
increasingly, it is also concerned about influencing the private sector (Lewis and Kanji, 2009).
Advocacy by development NGOs may entail the use of routine political channels or more
confrontational acts of protests and demonstrations. It may also involve organized meetings,
 PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022

public hearings, legal action, petitions, public statements, organizing seminars, monitoring, etc.
(Park, 2002). An example of an NGO which uses advocacy communication is Survival
International, an international NGO based in the United Kingdom that supported the Basarwa in
Botswana in their resistance to protect their right to the Central Kgalagadi Game Reserve
(Lekorwe & Mpabanga, 2007). Also, the Ghana Coalition of NGOs in Water and Sanitation,
together with Water Aid, used advocacy communication to facilitate the creation of a national
water policy for the country (Lane, 2005). Thus, advocacy communication has been a vital
approach NGOs resort in their operations. In effect, advocacy communication has become a vital
approach NGOs use in contemporary development practice. However, Edwards (1993) points
out that the results of NGO advocacy communication can be very disappointing. It is attributable
mainly to factors such as the lack of a clear strategy, a failure to build strong alliances, an
inability to develop alternative measures, and the dilemmas that often characterize NGO-donor
relationships.

Another example of the NGO catalyst role is that of innovation. An ability to innovate is often
claimed as a special quality, or even as an area of competitive advantage of NGOs over other
institutions concerned with development, especially government agencies (Bebbington et al.,
cited in Lewis & Kanji, 2009). Though not all NGOs are into innovations, the idea that NGOs
contribute new approaches to poverty reduction is not in doubt. In support of this position, Clark
(1991) found evidence that NGOs' staff considerably experiment, adapt, and try new approaches
to problem-solving in communities. NGOs also encourage individuals to develop their ideas,
experiment and take risks to address their own needs. It is argued that NGO capacities to
innovate are outcomes of the quality of the relationships that an NGO can construct (Biggs &
Chambers, cited in Lewis & Kanji, 2009).

Non-governmental organizations also perform the critical function of the watchdogs to monitor
organizations in order to evaluate which ones honestly abide by their policies (Najam, 1999).
NGOs play this role through whistle-blower networks to unearth the failure and shortcomings of
institutions that may not be abiding by either the commitment to implementation or poor
execution of policies. The watchdog role may also involve an environmental scanning of the
policy horizon for events and activities that have the potential to obstruct future policy
Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development...

formulation and implementation. Lodge and Wilson (2006) contend that NGOs act as powerful
watchdogs even though they lack formal mandate or legal backing. In essence, NGOs tend to act
as watchdogs of the state by ensuring that state actors work to fulfill public interests.

A critical aspect of contemporary development policy is the creation of partnerships aimed at

engendering the efficient use of scarce resources, increasing institutional sustainability, and
improving the quality of an NGO's interactions with stakeholders and actors in the development
context. A partnership is generally defined as a relationship based on mutually defined sets of
links between two or more agencies within a development project or program. It often involves
the division of roles and responsibilities, sharing risks, and pursuing joint objectives (Lewis &
Kanji, 2009). It is also seen as an arrangement that draws together the resources of specified
partners to create capacity and act based on a defined set of goals (Kamando, 2014). Clear roles
help to ensure effective partnerships (Lewis & Kanji, 2009).

Some NGOs enter into organizational relationships to gain access to external resources that are
conditionally based on partnerships. Others may enter into partnerships without careful
consideration of the broader implications. For instance, new roles for NGO staff may have to be
created to actualize the demands of the partnership realistically. Management systems may also
be required to monitor the progress of new activities within the partnership (Farrington &
Bebbington, cited in Lewis & Kanji, 2009). For example, in a study of partnerships within an
aquaculture project in Bangladesh, Lewis, as cited in Lewis & Kanji (2009), found that the
supposed partnerships defined in the project documents occurred between NGOs and
government agencies primarily to gain access to external resources. Indeed, the partnership was
not based on any kind of complementarity or functional arrangements. Although there may be a
consensus among the partners in such scenarios, the lack of clearly defined roles and
responsibilities can often create conflicts (Lewis, 2005; Lewis & Kanji, 2009). Partners may also
incur additional costs such as new lines of communications, logistical burdens, new
responsibilities for individual staff, and the need to share information with other agencies

Additionally, NGOs need to reconsider their communication approaches to achieve their

missions seriously. In support of this position, Dzisah (2019) contends that a time has come for
NGOs to look for appropriate communication strategies to generate adequate resources to
 PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022

undertake development services. Dzisah (2019) adds that communication approaches such as
awareness creation, behavior change communication, and social mobilization can adequately be
used by NGOs for mobilizing resources for development services. The importance of behavior

established by Odoom (2021).

Empirical Review

This section reviews relevant studies on NGOs' development service delivery. It generally looks
at the research aims, the methodological issues, and key findings of these empirical studies. We
begin this review of the literature with the assessment of Islam (2015) on the contributions of
NGOs to community development in Bangladesh in a qualitative research approach using a
multi-method data collection procedure. The findings showed that NGOs play crucial roles in
community development and encourage community participation in development processes. In
this regard, again, in Bangladesh, Kabeer et al. (2008) found that Nijera Kori (NK), a
Bangladesh-based NGO, offered development services aimed primarily at improving the
livelihoods of communities. Another study conducted by Desai (2005) revealed that NGO
interventions play a critical role in empowering women, men, and households to meet their basic
needs. Other roles and functions of NGOs, including counseling and support service, awareness-
raising and advocacy, legal aid, and microfinance services, help build community empowerment
(Desai, 2005).

Additionally, a similar study was conducted in the Central Region of Uganda to study the
relevance of NGOs concerning the health, education, and agriculture sectors (Nalere, Yago &
Oriel, 2015). In this case study, 87 respondents were selected using a stratified sampling
technique. Using a triangulated method involving questionnaires, focus group discussions
(FGDs), and interviews, key informants and documentary review were used to gather data. The
researcher used the probit regression model for analysis (Nalere et al., 2015). The study showed
that NGOs contributed to improvements in the health, education, agriculture, and rural industry
sectors in the development of the rural areas of Uganda.
Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development...

Omofonmwan and Odia (2009) examined some of the community interventions of NGOs in
Nigeria using purposive sampling, interviews, and observations. The authors found that NGOs in
Nigeria provide development interventions in essential areas such as environment, health and
sanitation sensitization and awareness, and advocacy for child rights. Similarly, a study
conducted by Brass (2010) sought to examine service provision in education, healthcare,

es, and other information the researcher

sample of governmental and non-governmental services providers, government officials, and

ordinary Kenyans. Brass (2010) found that healthcare, education, and agriculture interventions
were central to the social contract between the Kenyan state and its citizens.

A study conducted in Nigeria by Enyioko (2012) to investigate the impact of NGOs on

sustainable agriculture and awareness creation in rural areas involved a sample size of 180
participants selected randomly from beneficiaries, non-beneficiaries, and employees of
development agencies. Basic statistical tools such as frequencies and percentages were used to
analyze data. The study revealed that NGOs are very effective in sustainable rural development
activities in education, health, agriculture, energy, environment and waste management,
empowerment, and poverty alleviation. Matsvai (2018) also evaluated the impact of various
NGO interventions on communities in Zimbabwe using primary data and descriptive statistical
analysis. His results showed that NGOs play a critical role in agriculture productivity and growth
in income, improved sustainability of livelihoods, and general rural development. In a similar
study in Zimbabwe, Chitongo (2013) conducted a study on the impact of the development
interventions implemented by the Catholic Relief Services (CRS) on beneficiaries. It was
observed that CRS's programs improved productivity in livestock farming and water and
sanitation in the country.

Nalubiri (2010) has explored how local NGOs and community groups act towards sustaining
NGO social interventions at the community level. Using an exploratory design, Nalubiri sought
to investigate why it is so difficult to sustain benefits that accrue from NGO's work. The study
found that local participation, empowerment, ownership, multiple benefits, and coordination
among development actors positively affect the sustainability of NGO development
 PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022

interventions. (2017) have also examined the contribution of NGOs towards

sustainable community development. Their study focused on NGOs' roles, functions, and
programs, such as microfinance, capacity building, and self-reliance. found
that NGOs' interventions improve the economic well-being of communities through job creation
and income generation. It leads to economic empowerment for sustainable community
development.

Restoring Coastal Livelihoods Project (2010-2015)

in South Sulawesi, Indonesia, as a case study. The project promoted gender equality through
group economic empowerment. The researcher adopted the qualitative approach using an
ethnographic design. Interviews, observation, and documentary reviews were used as
instruments for data collection. Thematic analysis was used for the study. The study found that
women beneficiaries perceived empowerment mostly based on their experiences with the project.
The study found that the degree of empowerment depended on the nature of activities and the
general understanding of gender relations.

Quaicoo (2006) conducted a study to examine World Vision Ghana's (WVG) contributions to the
development of basic education in the Twifo Hemang-Lower Denkyira District in the Central
Region of Ghana. The study involved 469 respondents using a mixed-method that included a
survey using questionnaires, interviews, FGDs, and observation as the instruments for data
collection. The study found that although WVG had contributed to improvement in educational
facilities, community members believed it could have done far better than performed in terms of
providing development services. Another study was conducted by Dangah (2012) on the role of
ProNet, an NGO based in Northern Ghana, in providing water and sanitation for the people of
the Nadowli District. The study used primary and secondary data and involved 189 respondents
from five communities. The respondents were chosen using simple random and purposive
sampling techniques with structured interviews and focus group discussion as data collection
instruments. The study found that ProNet activities in education, water, and sanitation
significantly improved the communities.
Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development...

education in the Awutu-Senya District of Ghana using a qualitative research approach. The semi-
structured interviews and FGDs were used to get the perspectives of officials of the NGO and 23
members of the beneficiary communities, including school children, parents, and teachers. The

improvements in the quality of their educational experience, especially in the area of the learning
environment and service delivery. However, problems like high expectations from the NGO and
apathy from some community members became manifest in this study.

In the context of sustainability of development interventions, however, the contribution of NGOs

has been met with mixed reactions. F
community development in Vietnam, Hibbard and Tang (2004) concluded that sustainable rural
development is process-oriented and requires extensive community participation that relies on
networking to share resources and knowledge, and expertise. Contrary to the Hibbard and Tang
(2004) findings, Zakaria (2011) observed that many of the development services undertaken by
NGOs in places such as Savelugu-Nantong District in northern Ghana often are unsustainable.

questionnaires, FGDs, and observation guides as data collection instruments. It was concluded
that NGOs in the district did not exhibit enough commitment to ensuring their interventions'
sustainability.

Adjei et al. (2012) studied the impact of NGO-led interventions in the Tain District of Ghana
using a mixed-method approach. The research involved 198 respondents using the purposive
sampling technique, beneficiaries of four main NGOs: Plan Ghana, ActionAid Ghana, Rural
Action Alliance Program, and Social Development and Improvement Agency. Adjei et al. found
that although the NGOs were involved in providing social services for the rural communities,
they had invested much of their funding into livelihood programs to increase productivity and
household income. The authors concluded that the role of NGOs in the development service
provisions
development interventions on the livelihood of farmers in the Yilo Krobo area in the Eastern
Region of Ghana using a mixed-method approach. This study relied on purposive and simple
random sampling techniques to select 150 respondents using a cross-sectional design, while
interviews and questionnaires were used for data collection. The study found that ADRA's
 PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022

intervention contributed positively to an increase in farm sizes, rising mango output, higher
incomes, and improved livelihoods of most farmers.

Odoom (2021) investigated the contributions of World Vision Ghana to community development
in rural Ghana. The study focused on the Cocoa Life Project interventions implemented by
World Vision Ghana in the Wassa East District. The study population consisted of mostly
farmers, gari processors, soap makers, and members of village savings and loans associations
from beneficiary communities were considered in a sequential-dependence mixed-method
research approach. 406 sample size was chosen for the study using the stratified, simple random
and convenience sampling methods, with interview schedule and focus group discussion guide as
the instruments for data collection. For quantitative analysis, means and standard deviation were
used, whereas the qualitative data were analyzed thematically. The study found that WVG's
interventions under the Cocoa Life Project were highly relevant to education, business
development, financial literacy, microcredit facilities, agriculture, and livelihood diversification
within beneficiary communities. Besides, awareness creation and behavior change
communication were some of the strategies WVG relied upon to promote community
development in beneficiary communities. Although the interventions helped to promote behavior
change, there were concerns regarding the overall change in behavior within the communities.
Odoom (2021) concluded that for NGOs to have a fuller understanding of the development
problems of communities they operate in, they should pay attention to appropriate development
communication strategies and approaches in their operations.

Key Insights and Gaps in the Selected Literature

NGOs are important stakeholders in terms of development service provisions. Their services
help to improve the lives of poor and vulnerable people in many parts of the developing world,
including Ghana. NGOs are credited for their advocacy and public campaign efforts to bring
about positive social transformation. NGO activities, among others, also help to ensure
community improvement, poverty alleviation, capacity building, community empowerment,
good governance, and environmental activism (Lane, 1995; Lewis & Kanji, 2009). As an
umbrella terminology, NGO generally encompasses numerous types of organizations with a
multiplicity of interests, orientation, and functional foci. NGO is also often used interchangeably
Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development...

with terms such as not-for-profit, voluntary organizations, charity organizations, and civil society
organizations (CSOs). These different terms used to describe NGOs reflect the different forms of
NGOs operating in a given setting (Lewis & Kanji, 2009; Moyo, 2000). Again, these different
terms result from the different cultures and histories that have underpinned the emergence of
NGOs. NGOs predominantly operate without the influence and dictates of the state. They are
not-for-profit entities that provide voluntary, charity, and altruistic services to improve the
vulnerable, marginalized, and less privileged lives.

In the context of constructing a typology for NGOs, it is evident from the literature review that
no unified consensus exists amongst scholars and researchers, owing mainly to the vastly
divergent positions from which NGOs are theorized and conceptualized. For instance, Lane
(1995) sees the types of NGOs in terms of welfare and relief, modernization, community
development, and institution building; Cousins (1991) and Willetts (2002) categorize NGOs
based on their orientation, level of operation, and advocacy; while others classify NGOs based
on autonomy, location, and scope of activities (Gyamfi, 2010; Helen, Cunt and Sujata, 2005;
Farrington, Lewis, and Paul, cited in Dugle et al., 2015; Turary, 2002), and their legal status
(Dugle et al., 2015; Stillman, 2007). While Cousins (1991) and Willetts (2002) appear silent on
the difference between operational and advocacy NGOs, Mostashari (2005) maintains that the
distinction between operational and advocacy NGOs manifests mainly in the choice between
small-scale change and large-scale change. Despite the differences in typologies, these authors
generally agree that the over-arching aim of NGOs is to improve the lives of their constituents.
Kamat (2002) and Mayo (2000) acknowledge that NGOs need to have clearly defined
development objectives in order to make their activities and motivations relevant to the very
people they wish to serve. Also, it should be pointed out that improving people's lives can only
be done effectively through a conscious understanding of the philosophical orientations
underpinning the work of every NGO. These orientations form the foundational basis for the
approaches used to typify NGOs. Indeed, a clear typology of NGO is useful since it helps to
appropriately delineate the limits from the objectives and intentions of NGO operations.

Moreover, it is evident from the review that the role of NGOs in contemporary development
practice can be categorized mainly into three: service delivery, catalyst, and partnership (Lewis
& Kanji, 2009). NGOs deliver services in many parts of the world where people lack access to
several vital basic services or where such services are of poor quality, which is often the case in
 PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022

many areas (Carroll, 1992; Lewis & Kanji, 2009). As catalysts, NGOs bring about change
throug
catalysts in development services is manifested in how they innovate and creatively apply
modern techniques and strategies to solve development problems (Lewis & Kanji, 2009).
Finally, NGOs form a partnership with a plethora of organizations in order to achieve mutually
beneficial goals.

The empirical review of the literature in this paper reveals that several studies have been
conducted on NGO activities and services in the development arena using different research
approaches and with varying results. Using a mixed-method research approach, Islam (2015)
found that NGOs play a crucial role in community development and participation in Bangladesh.
The findings of Islam (2015) are in line with Omofonmwan and Odia (2009), who observed,
through qualitative research, that NGOs provide several community development interventions
in Nigeria. Specifically, Omofonmwan and Odia (2009) found that NGOs in Nigeria provide
community development services in essential areas, including environment, health; sanitation
Nalere
et al. (2015) in Uganda revealed that NGOs' services are relevant in health, education,
agriculture, and improving the industry. In a mixed-method study in Ghana, Quaicoo (2006) also
found that NGO activities are critical to developing education in the Central Region of the
country.

The gaps in the studies conducted by Islam (2015) and Nalere et al. (2015) potentially present
challenges to a better understanding of the methodological logic that informed their studies.
However, unlike Omofonmwan and Odia (2009), it is difficult to grasp the specific mixed
methods design adopted in the study conducted by Islam (2015). Thus, the apparent gap in

the research. Again, the deficiency in the study conducted by Nalere et al. (2015) in Uganda lies
in the over-reliance on only quantitative tools for data analysis, given the mixed method nature
of the research. The use of only quantitative analytical tools in the study is problematic simply
because mixed methods studies are characterized by analytical techniques that suit both
Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development...

quantitative and qualitative research. Thus, it is unacceptable for researchers to undertake mixed
methods studies when they intend to do only quantitative analysis.

vital to the operations of NGOs. The failure to interrogate other aspects of development
undertaken by NGOs hinders a broader approach to bridging the gap in theory and practice in

study manifests in his apparent failure to clearly explain the specific mixed-method research
design employed for the research. In short, there are theoretical, conceptual, and methodological

Omofonmwan and Odia (2009), Islam (2015), and Nalere et al. (2015) corroborate the position
that NGOs play a crucial role in development services.

On the issue of sustainability of development interventions, a study by Enyioko (2012) in

Nigeria showed that NGOs promote sustainable agriculture and awareness creation in rural areas
of the country. The study further found that NGOs effectively promote sustainable rural
development activities in several sectors of the economy, including education, health,
agriculture, energy, environment and waste, and community empowerment and poverty
alleviation. Using an exploratory design, Nalubiri (2010) also found that local participation,
empowerment, ownership, multiple benefits, and coordination, among others, positively affect
the sustainability of NGO development interventions. Furthermore, (2017)
established that NGOs ensure sustainable community development through job creation and
income generation, whereas in Vietnam, Hibbard and Tang (2004) found that NGOs promote
sustainable rural development.

Contrary to the findings of Enyioko (2012), Nalubiri (2010), (2017), and

Hibbard and Tang (2004), a study in Savelugu-Nantong District of Ghana by Zakaria (2011)
stainable. There is no consensus in the
literature concerning the kind of attention NGOs give to sustainable development practices.
However, despite the importance of Hibbard and Tang's (2004) findings, it should be pointed out
that their study could not adequately unearth the essential issues that confront the sustainability
of such development services provided by NGOs. It is a conceptual weakness that needs to be
 PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022

addressed through further studies. Beyond the conceptual inadequacies, it can be seen from the
empirical review that while Enyioko (2012) provided a clear methodological framework
informing the study, a similar conclusion cannot be advanced in support of the studies conducted
by Nalubiri (2010) and (2017). For instance, the kind of analytical tools that
informed

Similarly, the gaps in qualitative study include that the questionnaire was used
without any sufficient justifications. Questionnaires are purely employed for quantitative studies.
Thus, using a questionnaire in a qualitative study puts the methodology adopted by Zakaria
(2011) into question. Despite these conceptual and methodological weaknesses, the review has
demonstrated that NGOs play a key role in the area of sustainable development.

Additionally, the studies by both Adjei et al. (2012) and Sono (2013) in Ghana showed that
NGOs provide interventions to improve people's livelihood. However, unlike Adjei et al., Sono
(2013) failed to provide a methodological framework that was scientifically rigorous enough for
the study. Specifically, Sono (2013) failed to indicate the tools for analyzing the qualitative data.
Qualitative aspects of mixed methods studies help to offer additional perspectives to complement
the quantitative aspects of the research. Thus, a clear identification of the qualitative tools used
helps the reader to have a deeper understanding of the findings from multiple perspectives.
Based on Odoom's (2021) study, it is apparent that NGOs are active agents of community

to understand their constituents' diverse development problems. NGOs are to rethink their
approaches and strategies in defining the development needs of people. For NGOs to have an
adequate understanding of communities' development problems, they serve Odoom (2021) calls
for them to employ appropriate and well-planned development communication strategies and

views of other stakeholders, such as officials of WVG who took part in the delivery of the
project. Indeed, the inclusion of other stakeholders in the study could have widened and possibly
improved the perspectives of the issues examined in his study.

services (Bessette, 2000), there are concerns about the level of participation within the NGO
Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development...

sector (Dempsey, 2009; Long, 2001). More efforts need to be put in place by NGOs to make
participatory approaches relevant to the delivery of their development services. Bessette (2000)
argues that participatory communication
communication strategies for development. However, Bessette (2000) submits that NGOs need
to be supported to pursue and incorporate participatory development practices in delivering
development services. For instance, capacity building for NGO workers in participatory
development communication will crucially prepare NGOs to develop and implement
participatory development communication approaches to deliver development services (Bessette,
2000). NGOs are also advised to look for other approaches and communication strategies
appropriate for development service provisions. Also, apart from advocacy communication,
NGOs can employ awareness creation, behavior change communication, and social mobilization
as strategies when undertaking development services (Dzisah, 2019; Odoom, 2021). Again, due
to the dwindling funds from both local and international sponsors, NGOs are to use very useful
communication approaches to mobilize funds and other resources to undertake development
activities (Dzisah, 2019).

Despite the contributions of NGOs to development services, there are concerns about the
operations of NGOs. It is recognized that the control of local influential persons and educated
elites who mostly have political connections pose a danger to democratic management and
decision-making structures (Andreasen, 2001; Myllyla, 2001). Again, the opportunistic nature of
NGOs tends to hinder their capacity to deliver development services (Barr et al., 2003). NGOs
have been appreciated more than the public sector regarding development service provisions
despite the concerns associated with their operations. Mohan (2002) strengthens this position by
asserting that given philosophy; it makes more sense to have inefficient NGOs
than to have inefficient states.

Conclusions

This paper reviewed concepts, themes, and previous studies related to the role of NGOs in
development service provisions and the approaches NGOs adopt. The paper has established that
NGOs remain indispensable in the development discourse due to the increasing inability of the
state to provide adequate development services to the citizenry single-handedly. Again, the paper
tried to locate the place of NGOs in society within the context of the global recognition of
 PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022

people's dissatisfaction with other development approaches. NGOs are entities whose operations
are not under the manipulation and control of the state. NGOs are essentially not for profit-
making, and so are their activities and services. Attempts at providing services based on
voluntarism, altruism, relief, welfare, and humanitarianism have become the mainstay and
underpinning motivations for NGO operations. Also, there are varying terminologies used to
describe NGOs due to the diverse philosophies, cultures, and histories associated with the
emergence of NGOs. Though NGOs contribute substantially to the delivery of vital development
services, the foci, functions, approaches, and the means they use may differ due to the vastly
multifaceted nature of development. These differences tend to inform the varying
conceptualizations and typologies of NGOs. It is noteworthy that various factors, including areas
of operation, functions, service provision, intermediary, and advocacy, influence NGO typology,
and classification. Besides,
such as education, agriculture, health, water and sanitation, and employment creation.

NGOs also provide microfinance, financial literacy, livelihood diversification, and governance
services. Despite the contribution of NGOs in development service provision, there is a lack of

so, the infiltration of local influential persons and educated elites with political connections
coupled with the opportunistic nature of some NGOs constitutes a major threat to the overall
effectiveness of NGOs in development service provisions. Further, there are concerns with
regard to the nature of participatory approaches NGOs employ in the provision of development
services. It is not surprising because participatory development communication has not received
adequate attention within the NGO sector.

Moreover, there are theoretical, conceptual, and methodological gaps in the literature concerning
NGOs' activities and strategies. As a recommendation, NGOs are encouraged to pay increased
attention to communication approaches such as participatory communication, scholarly
communication, social mobilization and awareness creation, advocacy, and behavior change
communication. Besides, NGOs are called upon to deeply reflect on how they can use
communication approaches and strategies as vital tools for achieving their set goals. Effective
use of relevant communication approaches and strategies by NGOs can help them mobilize
Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development...

enough resources for development services. Finally, more studies need to be conducted from
different perspectives using appropriate methodologies to bridge the gap between theory and
practice in the NGO sector. It is only through such means that the continuing relevance of NGOs
in development services can be firmly established.

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