Chapter 2

Heat Conduction Equation

Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer

※ Steady State (穩態) & Transient State (暫態)

Heat transfer problems are often classified as being steady (also called steadystate) or
transient (also called unsteady). The term steady implies no change with time at any
point within the medium, while transient implies variation with time or time
dependence.

※ lumped systems (統體系統)

In the special case of variation with time but not with position, the temperature of the
medium changes uniformly with time. Such heat transfer systems are called lumped
systems.

※ Multidimensional Heat Transfer

Heat transfer problems are also classified as being one-dimensional, two dimensional,
or three-dimensional, depending on the relative magnitudes of heat transfer rates in
different directions and the level of accuracy desired. In the most general case, heat
transfer through a medium is three-dimensional in the form of Fourier’s law of heat
conduction:
    T  T  T 
Q n  Q x i  Q y j  Q z k   kAx i  kAy j  kAz k
x y z

  
where i , j and k are the unit vectors, and Q x , Q y and Q z are the magnitudes of

the heat transfer rates in the x-, y-, and z-directions. Ax , Ay and Az are heat

conduction areas normal to the x-, y-, and z-directions, respectively.

Note: most engineering materials are isotropic in nature, and thus they have the same
properties in all directions. What’s the difference between homogeneous and
isotropic?

※ Heat Generation (熱生成)

Heat conduction may involve the conversion of electrical, nuclear, chemical energy,

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or absorption of radiation into heat (or thermal) energy which are characterized as
heat generation. Heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon where the total rate of
heat generation in a medium of volume V can be determined from:

E gen   egen dV
V

where egen is the rate of heat generation per unit volume. In the special case of

uniform heat generation, E gen  egenV . For example, heat generation in an electrical

wire of outer radius r0 and length L can be expressed as

E gen I 2 Re
egen  
V  r02 L

One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation

※ Heat Conduction Equation in a Large Plane Wall

Consider a thin element of thickness △x in a large plane wall (the density of the wall
is ρ, the specific heat is c, and the area of the wall normal to the direction of heat
transfer is A). Through energy balance:

 Rate of heat   Rate of heat   Rate of heat   Rate of change 

       
 conduction    conduction    generation inside    of the energy content 
 at x   at x  x   the element   of the element 
       

Eelement
or Q x  Q x x  E gen ,element 
t

where

 Eelement  Et t  Et  mc Tt t  Tt    Axc Tt t  Tt 



 Egen ,element  egenVelement  egen Ax

Therefore by substitution,

T T 1 Q x x  Q x T T
Q x  Q x x  egen Ax   Axc t t t or   egen   c t t t
t A x t
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Taking the limit as x  0 and t  0 along with constant area A yields

1   T  T   T  T
 kA   egen   c  k   egen   c
A x  x  t x  x  t

which is the 1-D transient heat conduction equation in a plane wall. If constant
conductivity is applied,

 2T egen 1 T
 
x 2 k  t

where α is the thermal diffusivity.

The 1-D transient heat conduction equation can be simplified through several
conditions

T
I. Steady-State: 0
t

II. Transient, no heat generation: egen  0

T
III. Steady-State, no heat generation:  egen  0
t

※ Heat Conduction Equation in a Long Cylinder

Consider a thin cylindrical shell element of thickness △r in a long cylinder. Through

the same energy balance process, the 1-D transient heat conduction equation in a
cylinder can be obtained

1   T  T
 rk   egen   c
r r  r  t

If constant conductivity is applied,

1   T  egen 1 T
r  
r r  r  k  t

※ Heat Conduction Equation in a Sphere

Consider a thin spherical shell element of thickness △r in a sphere. Through the same
energy balance process, the 1-D transient heat conduction equation in a sphere can be
obtained

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 1   2 T  T
r k   egen   c
r 2 r  r  t

If constant conductivity is applied,

1   2 T  egen 1 T
r  
r 2 r  r  k  t

※ Combined One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation

1   n T  T
r k   egen   c
r n r  r  t

where n  0 for a plane wall (let r  x ), n  1 for a cylinder, and n  2 for a

sphere.

General Heat Conduction Equation

※ Rectangular Coordinates

Consider a small rectangular element of length △x, width △y, and height △z where

Ax  yz , Ay  z x , and Az  xy . Through the same energy balance process,

Q z z Q y y

  T    T    T   T
k  k  k   egen   c Az
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
Ax
Q x Ay Q x x
If constant conductivity is applied,
Q y
 T  T  T egen 1 T
2 2 2 z
    y
x 2 y 2 z 2 k  t Q z
x
This is known as the Fourier-Biot equation. Note that simplifications can be applied
here as well

I. Steady-State: Poisson equation.

II. Transient, no heat generation: diffusion equation

III. Steady-State, no heat generation: Laplace equation

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※ Cylindrical Coordinates

Coordinate transformation between rectangular and cylindrical coordinate systems

z
can be done by the following relations

x  r cos  , y  r sin  , and z  z dz r

dr
through which the general heat conduction equation becomes

1   T  1   T    T   T
 rk  2 k  k   egen   c 
y
r r  r  r     z  z  t
d
x
※ Spherical Coordinates
z
Coordinate transformation between rectangular and

cylindrical coordinate systems can be done by the following

 d dr
relations
r
x  r cos  sin  , y  r sin  sin  , and z  r cos   y
d
through which the general heat conduction equation becomes x

1   2 T  1   T  1   T  T
r k  2 2  k   2 2  k sin    egen   c
r 2 r  r  r sin      r sin      t

Boundary (邊界) and Initial Conditions (初始條件)

The heat conduction equations above were developed using an energy balance on a
differential element inside the medium, and they remain the same regardless of the
thermal conditions on the surfaces of the medium. The mathematical expressions of
the thermal conditions at the boundaries are called the boundary conditions. To
describe a heat transfer problem completely, two boundary conditions must be given
for each direction of the coordinate system along which heat transfer is significant.

The temperature at any point on the wall at a specified time also depends on the
condition of the wall at the beginning of the heat conduction process. Such a
condition, which is usually specified at time t  0 , is called the initial condition. We
need only one initial condition for a heat conduction problem regardless of the
dimension since the conduction equation is first order in time.

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※ Specified Temperature Boundary Condition

The temperature of an exposed surface can usually be measured directly and easily.
Therefore, one of the easiest ways to specify the thermal conditions on a surface is to
specify the temperature. For 1-D heat transfer through a plane wall of thickness L, for
example, the specified temperature boundary conditions can be expressed as

T  0, t   T1

T  L, t   T2

※ Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition

When there is sufficient information about energy interactions at a surface, it may be

possible to determine the rate of heat transfer and thus the heat flux q on that
surface. For example, the heat flux in the positive x-direction at 0 and L of a plane
wall (or anywhere in the medium including the boundaries) can be expressed by
Fourier’s law of heat conduction

 T  0, t 
  k  q1
x

  k T  L, t   q
 x
2

※ Insulated Boundary Condition

Some surfaces are insulated in order to minimize heat loss (or heat gain) through them.
This indicates no heat flux q through that surface. For example, the boundary
conditions of a double side insulated plane wall of thickness L be expressed as

T  0, t  T  L, t 
k  k 0
x x

※ Thermal Symmetry

Some heat transfer problems possess thermal symmetry as a result of the symmetry in
imposed thermal conditions. Thermal symmetry is usually defined at the center plane,
where no heat flows across it. For example, the symmetric condition at the center
plane of a plane wall of thickness L be expressed as

T  L / 2, t 
k 0
x

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※ Convection Boundary Condition

Convection is probably the most common boundary condition encountered in practice

since most heat transfer surfaces are exposed to an environment at a specified
temperature. The convection boundary condition is based on a surface energy balance
expressed as heat conduction at the surface in a selected direction is equal to heat
convection at the surface in the same direction. Take a plane wall of thickness L for
example

 T  0, t 
  k  h1 T1  T  0, t  
x

  k T  L, t   h T  L, t   T 
2  2 
 x

※ Radiation Boundary Condition

For those encountered in space and cryogenic applications, radiation boundary

conditions are considered similar to convection boundary conditions (direction wise).
Take a plane wall of thickness L for example

 T  0, t 
 1 T41  T  0, t  
4
  k  
x

  k T  L, t     T  L, t 4  T 4 
 x
2  2 

※ Interface Boundary Conditions

Some bodies are made up of layers of different materials. The boundary conditions at
an interface are based on the requirements that (1) two bodies in contact must have
the same temperature at the area of contact and (2) an interface (which is a surface)
cannot store any energy, and thus the heat flux on the two sides of an interface must

be the same. Take a layered wall with interface at x0 for example

TA  x0 , t   TB  x0 , t 

 TA  x0 , t  T  x , t 
k  k B 0
 x x

※ Generalized Boundary Conditions

The boundary condition involving different conditions can be obtained from a surface
energy balance where heat transfer to the surface in all modes equals heat transfer
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from the surface in all modes. For example, convection and radiation combined

 T  0, t 
 h1 T1  T  0, t     1 T41  T  0, t  
4
  k  
x

  k T  L, t   h T  L, t   T     T  L, t  4  T 4 
 2  2  2  2 
x

Heat Generation in a Solid

Consider a solid medium of surface area As, volume V, and constant thermal

conductivity k, where heat is generated at a constant rate of egen per unit volume.

Heat is transferred from the solid to the surrounding medium at T with a constant

convection heat transfer coefficient of h (radiation neglected). Under steady

conditions, the energy balance can be expressed as rate of heat transfer from the solid
equals the rate of energy generation within the solid when

e V
Q  hAs Ts  T   egenV  Ts  T  gen
hAs

With a plane wall of thickness 2L; cylinder of radius r0; and a sphere of radius r0,

 As , plane wall  2 Awall , Vplane wall  2 LAwall


 As , cylinder  2 r0 L, Vcylinder   r0 L
2


 As , sphere  4 r0 , Vsphere  4 r0 / 3
2 3

The surface temperatures can thus be obtained:

 egen L
Ts , plane wall  T  h

 egen r0
Ts , cylinder  T 
 2h
 egen r0
Ts , sphere  T 
 3h

The maximum temperature inside the media can also be obtained through energy
balance which describes the heat generated inside the medium equals the heat
conducted through the outer surface

T
Q  egenV   kA
x

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With the above geometric conditions (L & r0 become unknowns x & r), this separable
ODE can be solved by integrating both sides of the equation over T and x (or r) which
gives

 egen L2
Tmax, plane wall 
 2k
 egen r02
Tmax, cylinder 
 4k
 egen r02
Tmax, sphere 
 6k

Variable Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of a material, in general, varies with temperature. However, this

variation is mild for many materials in the range of practical interest and can be
disregarded. In such cases, we can use an average value for the thermal conductivity

then the variation of thermal conductivity with temperature k T  is known

T2

kavg 
 k T  dT
T1

T2  T1

k T  can often be approximated as a linear function and expressed as

k T   k0 1   T 

where β is called the temperature coefficient of thermal conductivity. Therefore,

T2 T2

kavg 
 k T  dT  
T1 T1
k0 1   T  dT
 T T 
 k0  1   2 1   k Tavg 
T2  T1 T2  T1  2 