AS Level

1 Physical quantities and units

By the end of this topic, you will be able to:

(a) understand that all physical quantities consist of a • miero(p)
numericalmagnitudeanda unit • milli(m)
(b) make reasonable estimates of physical quantities • centi(c)
includedin thesvnabus • ded(d)
(a) recall the following Sl base quanttues and their • kilo(k)
units: lll:tss(kg), length(rn), time(s),current (A), • mega(M)
temperature (K),amoullt of substance (mol) • giga(G)
(b) expressderived unns as products or quotients of • rera rr)
theSI base units and use the named units listed (e) understand and use the conventions ror labelling
in the sytlnbus as approprtare graph axes and table columns
(c) use SI base units to clleck the homogeneity of (a) distinguish scalar and vectcr quanttrtes and give
physicalequations examples of each
(d) usethe folloWlngpreflxes and their symbols to (b) add and subtrac(coplanarv€Ctors
indicate dectmnl submultiples or multiples of both (c) represent a vector as two perpendIcular
base and dertved units components
• pico(P) Note: amount of substance (mol) is only used in the A level
• nano(n) course but is included here for completeness

Starting points
• Accurate measurement is very important in the development of physics
• Physicistsbeqin by observinq. measuring and collecting data
• These data are enelysec to discover whether they fit into a pattern
.lfthereisapattemandthi5patterncanbeu5edtoe~plainotherevents, it becomes
a theory
• The process is known as the scientific method (see Figure 1.1)

Figure 1.1 Blockdiagramto iIImtratethe scientificmethod

IIPhysicalquantities and units
1.1 Physicalquantities

1.2 SIquantities and base units

In very much the same way that languages have developed In various parts 0fthe
world, many different SYSieIDS of measurement have [Link][as languages can be
translated from one [0 another, units of measurement can atsc be converted between
systems. Al[hough some conversion faC[OIS are easy [0 remember, some are very
dfffk-ult.[[ is much better 10have Ju51one system 0( unjts. For [hISreason, scientists
around [he world use the svsreme International (Sl) whIch Is based on the metric
system of measurement.
 1.2 51 quantities and base units I
The basequantitiesandthe units with which they are measuredare nsed In
Thble 1.1. For completeness, tbe candeta has been Included, bllllhlsunllwillnOibe
used In the A/AScourse. The mole "111only be used In the A [Link] course
Table 1.1 The base quantitie5 and untts

kilogram kg

ampere(amp) A
thermodynamictemperature
mol
luminousIntensity

Table 1.2 ThemorecommonlyuseepreliXl'5

prefix symbol ntultlplylngfactor
T
",.
mega
kilo
",.
to
ro-

".
10-"

10-"

Beware when converttng units for areas and volumes'

Squaringboth sides (10-3)'111''''

lo-6m2

lcm3=(IO-'tm3= JO-6m!
The box in Figure 15 has a volume of 1.0" 1O;cm3Of 1.0x lQ6mm3or 1.0" 1O-3m3.
Flgurel.5Thisbolchasa A dtstancect thirty metresshouldbe wruten as30mandnot [Link]
volumeoflD.» l()lcml lener sts nevertncluded Ina unn for the plural. If a space tsren between two lett€rs,
theleners [Link], 30mswoujdmeanthirtymetreseconds and
jcms neans jc mnnseccods,
IIPhysicalquantities and units

Celruletathe number of microgramsin 1.0 milligram.

1.0g 1.0" 10lmg
and [Link] 1.0" l()6micrograms(llg)
so,1.0,,16lmg 1.0,,1()6llg
~ 10l)= 1.0 ~ 101l-lg
and 1.0mg (1.0" 1()6)J(1.0

1----0.26 nm-l
Figure t.s Atomof gold

Derived units
Allquantities, apart from the base quantities. can IX'expressed In terms of derived

Derivedunfts consistof some combinationof the base units. The base unrts meybe
multipliedtogether or dividedby one another, but neveradded orsubtr acted

See Table 1.3 for examples of derived units. Some quanUUeshave a named unit For
example, the unit of force Isthe newton, symbolN, but trc newton can be expressed
In terms of base units. Quantities which do not have a named unit are expressed In
terms of other units. For example, specific latent heat (Toplc 12) Is measured In joules
per kllogrnm 0 kg-'),
Table 1.3 Someexample50fderivedunitswhich maybe usedInthe AlAS course
quantity

frequency hertz(Hz) 5'

velocity

newton(N) kq m s-e
joule(J) kgm' 5-'
watt(W) kq me s 1
electriccharge coulomb(C)
potentialdifference volt(V) kq me s lA-'
ohm(0) kq me s lA-l
specificheat capacity Jkg'K'

Example
Whdtarethebaseunrtsofspeed?
speedisdefinedasdisli~:ceandsotheunitjS7'
Divisionbya unit is shown usinqa neqetiveindex, that is, s-t.
The base unitsof speed are ms-"
 1.2 51 quantities and base units I
Now it's your turn
Use the information in Tables 1,1 and 1.3 to determine the base units of the following
oueottues
, D,"'icyi" o::;:~,)
, p,~,+;::)
Checking equations
It is possible
toworkoutthe10l~1 eumber ot oranges InlWObags Ifonebag contains
four and the other live (the answer Is ninel). TIllsexercise would, of course, be nonsense

therermsareuuund zn
Inanyequation where eachterm has the same base units,the equetion lssaid to be
homogeneous or 'balanced'

homogeneous, then the balancing of base unns provtdes a means of finding t he unus
of anunknownquantity.

Usebase units to show that the followingequation is homogeneous

ImI"k done = gain in kinetic energy + gain in gravitationaJpotenfiaienergy

The terms in the equation are 'Mlrk,(gain in) kinetic energy, and (gain in)gr avildtional
potential energy.
workdone=force)(distancemOlled
andsotheba5eunitsarekgm5-1)(m=kgm'~-z
kineticenergy=~)(maS5)«(spee<j)l
Sinceanypurenumbersuchas~hasnounit,thebaseunitsarekg,,{ms-I)1=kgm2s-2
potential cncroy e rress e orevnetonel fieldstrengthg" distance
The base unitsare kq x m s-2"m= kg ma s-a
Conclusion:All terms have the same base units and the equation is homogeneous

Q=mL

(iI)energy(=force"di5tance),
(b) speclfk heat capacity
(thermal energychiJnge = mass" specific hwr capacity >< femperature change)
t1 Show that the left-hand side of the equation
pressure +1>< density>< (5peed)2 = constant
i5homogene()IJ5andfindthebaseuni~ofthecoostantontheright-handside
IIPhysicalquantities and units

Conventions for symbols and units

VCRI may have nonced that when symbols and units are printed, they appear In
different styles of type. The symbol fora physjcaf quanutv Is printed In uanc (sloping)
rype, whereas lis unit Is In roman (uprtght) type. For example, I'eloctty Ills Ilallc,but
Its unit m s-' Is roman. Of course, you will not be able to make thiS ensnncton In
handwrltlng.
At A/AS level and beyond, there 15a special convenrton for labelling columns of
data In tables and graph axes. The symbol Is primed nrs On Italic),separated by a
forward slash (the prtnttng term Is a solidus) from the unit (In roman). Then the data
Is presented in a column, or along an axis, as pure numbers. This Is Illustrated In
Figure 1.7,which shows a table of data and the resonrog gmph for the velocity II of a
particle at various times t.

_I..;~
-_::_~
~

,_.~,/ ~~,~
r~ :~-

~
'.o~
1",4.0

2.0

o
2.0/1S
~:~'. ~~ ~-. ~'f~
Figure 1.7 Theconventonfor labellinglablesand graphs

If you remember that a physical quantity contains a pure number and a unit, the
reason for this style ct presenranon becomesdear. By dlV!dlnga ph)'siGlIquantity such
as time (a number and a unit) by the approprmte unn, you are left with a pure number.
It Is then ajgebratcaljy correct for tne data In tables, and along graph axes, to appear as
pure numbers.
You may also see examples In which the symbol for the physical quantity Is followed
by the slash,and then bya power of 10, and then the unit, for example t/1O's. Th Is
Figure 1.8 Theratioof the massctihe means thai theco!umn of data has been divided by [Link] sace repeauogtces or
humpbackwhaleto the massof the mouse zeros tntne tatse. tf ycu see a table or graph labelled I/IO'S and the figures l,2,31n
is about 10'_Thali,minutecomparedlo the table column or along the graph [Link] means that me experimental data was
the ratioofthe massct a galaryto the mass obtained at values oftof tnos, 200s, 300s
ofanudeus(10·")1
Try to get out of the habit of headtng table columns and graphs In ways such as
tin s', 'I(s)' or even of recording each reading in the table ns LOS,2.0 s, 3.0 S

Order of magnitude of quantities

Table 1.4 Somevaluesof distance

dlstan(e/m
distancefromEarthto edge 1.4 ~ 10'"
ot coservabie urwerse
[Link] ofa galaxy 1.2~ 10"
oistancerromrauf to the Sun 1.5~ 10tl
di'l1ancefromLondon to Paris 3.5~ 10!
lenqthct a car
5,,10-0
3,,10-'0
diameterofanudeus 6x 10-'s
 1.J Scalars and vectors I
It is worthwhile to remember the sizes of some common objects so thai comparisons can
be made. For example, a jar of peanut butter has a mass of about 5009 and a carton of
orange juice has a volume of 1000cm1(1litre)

Now it's your turn

12 Estimate the following quantities:
(iI) the mass of an orange,
(b) the mass of an adult human,
(e) the height ot a room in a house,
(d}thediameterofapencit
(e) the volume ofa small bean,
(f) the volumeofa human head,
(g) the speed of a jumbo jet,
(hlthetemperatureofthehumanbody.

A quantity which can be described fully by giving ns magnrtude is known as a scalar

quantity A vector quantity has magnitudeand direction
Some examples of scalar and vector qcaoutes are gwen In lable 15
Table 1.5 50mescalarsandvectors

temperature

shouJdbetreatedasascalarquantity.

A 'big wheel' at a theme park has a diameter of 14m and people on the ride complete one
revolutionin 24s. Calculate
(iI) the distance a rider movesin 3.0 minutes,
(b) thedistanceoftheriderfromthe~tartingposition
IIPhysicalquantities and units
(al In 3,0 minutes,the ridercompletes 3,Oz~60 =7.5 revolutions
distancetravelled= 7.5 x circumferenceof wheel

(b) 7.5 revolutionsare completed. RiderisY, revolutionfromthe starting [Link]

rider is at the opposite end of a diameter of the big wheel. [Link] distance from
starting position = 14m

Vector representation
When you hit a tennis ball, you have to judge the cnecucn you want it to move In. as
well as how hard to hit It. The force you exert Is therefore a vector quantnv and cannot
De represented by a number alone, One way to represent a vector Is by means of an
arrow. The dtrecnonof the arrow Is the cnrecnon of tile vector quanrny. The length of
the arrow, drawn to scale, represents Us magnitude. This Is Illustrated In Figure 1.10

Scale: 1 unit represerjts Sm s'"!

a)velocity15 [Link] cast b) velocitylQms-1,due south

Figure 1.10 Representationof a vectorquantity

Addition of vectors

Adding together rwo vectors Is more difficultbecause they have directlon as well as
magnnude. If the tV>'D vectors are In the same cnrecnco. then rtey cao sImply be added
together. 1;;'iO objects of welgtu 50N and 40N have J combined "'"eIghtof 90N because
both weights act in the same direction (verticallydown\vards), Figure 1,1I shows the
effect of adding two forces of magnitudes JON and 20N which act along the same
line In the same cnrecnon or In opposite duecuons. The angle between the forces Is
0" when they act in the same directionand 180"When they are In opposae directions.
For all orher angles between the directions of the forces, the combined errecr, or
resultant. Is some value between IONand 50N.
 1.J Scalars and vectors I
-- --
...... 1 20N ...... ~ lON

Figure 1.11Vectoraddition

In cases where the two vectors do not act In uic snne or opoosne [Link]
Flgurel.12Vectortrlangles

4.0kmh-1 A ship is travellingdue north with a speed 01 12kmh-1 relativeto the water. Therets a
currentinthewaterilowingat4.0kmh-1 inaneasterlydirection. Determinethe velocityof
the ship by:
(a) scale drawing,
(b)caiculation
(e

(b)

R'=122+42=160
R=,fIf,O = 12.6
-ri=O.33

The velocityof the ship is 12.6km h-t ina direction 18.4°eastofnor th

Now it's your turn
17 Explainhow an arrow may be used to represent a vector quantity
18 Twoforces are of magnitude 450N and 240N [Link]
(a) the maximummagnltude of the resultant force,
(b) the minimummagnitude of the resultant terce.
(t) theresultantforcewhentheforce~aC1atrightangl!!stol!achother.
Usea vector diagramand then checkyour r!!sultby cakulation
Figure 1.14
IIPhysicalquantities and units
19 A boat can be rowed at a speed of7.0km h-I in stillwater, A riverflowsat a constant
speedofl,5kmh-I,Useascalediagramtodeterminetheangletothebankatwhich
the boat must be rowed in order that the boat travelsdirectlyacrossthe river
20 Twoforcesad at a point P es sbown in Figure1.15,Drawa vector diagram. to scale,to
[Link] resultant force,Checkyour work by calculation
11 A swimmerwho can swim in stillwater at a speed of 4km h-I is swimmingin a river.
The riverflows at a speed of 3 km h-I. Calculatethe speed of the swimmerrelativeto
the riverbank when she swims
(a) dowrstreem.
(b) upstream
22 Drawto scale a vector triangleto determine the resultant ofthe two forcesshown in
[Link] bycalculatingthe resultant.

Figure 1.16

w,
Figure 1.17Apparatusto checl::the use 01a vectortriangle

10
 1.J Scalars and vectors I
We have considered only the addition of two vectors, When three or more vectors
need to be added. the same prtnciples applv, provided the vectors are roplanar(a 11
In the same plane). The vector triangle then tecomes a vector polygon: the resultant
forms the missing sjde to close the polygon
To subtract two vectors, reverse the direction (thnt IS, change the sign) of the vector
to be subtracted, and then add

Resolution of vectors
On pages 8-to we saw that two vectors may be added together to produce a
single resultant, This resultant behaves In the same way as the two lndivldual
vectors. II follows that a single vector may be split up. or resolved. Intot wo
vectors, or components. The combined effect of the components Is the same as
the original vector, In later chapters. we will see that resotuuonofa vector Into

Flgure1.18Thevectortrlangle

ano x,

quantity.
Figure 1.19 Resolving a
vector into components

A glider is launched by an aircraftwith a ceble, as shown in Figure1.20_At one particular

moment, the tension in the cable is 620N and the cable makesan angle of 25· with the
horizontal(see [Link]:
(a) the force pullingthe gliderhonzontejy,
(bl the verticalforce exerted bythe cable on the nose of the glider
(al horizontalcomponentFH=620cos25=560N
(bl verticalcomocnent rv e szc sin25=260N

~62or:,

Ftgurel.21

11
IIPhysicalquantities and units

• All physicalquantities have a magnitude (sile)anda unit

• The 51base unitsof mass, length, time, electriccurrent, thermodynamictemperature
and amount of substance are the kilogram,metre, second, ampere, kelvinand mole
respectively.
• Unitsof all [Link],magneticand thermal coeuuesmaybe derivedin
terms olthese base units
• Physicalequations must be homogeneous (balanced).Eachterm in an equation must
havethesameba5eunits
• Thecanvention for printingheadings in tables of data, and for labellinggraph axes. is
thesymbollorthephysicalquantity{inita/id,followedbyaforwardslash. followed
bythe abbreviationfor the unit{in roman). In handwriting,onecanno tdistinguish
between italicand roman type
• The order of magnitude 01a number is the power of ten to which the number is
[Link] order 01 magnitude can be used to make a check on whethe r a cskulatlon

Examination style questions

1 a i Explainwhat is meant by a base unit. b Explainwhy your answers to a mean that caution is
ii Givefour examples of base units required when the homogeneity of an equation is
b Statewhat is meant by a derived unit being tested
c i Forany equation to be valid. it must be 4 a Distinguishbetween a scalar and a vecrorquantity.
homogeneous, Explain what is meant by a b A mass of weight 120N i,hung from two strings as
homogeneous equation. shown in Fig.1,n
ii The presscre not ao ideal gasofdensitypisgiven by
the equation
p=j.p(c2)

homogeneous

T=21r~ Fig. 1.22

;~~;ts the gravitational field strength ( ~:~ ) and h is Determine, by scale drawing or by calculation, the
tension in
Determine the base units of the quantity I,
iRA,
3 a Determine the base units of' ii RB
i work done,
ii the moment ofa force

12
 Examination style questions I
c U5eyouranswersinbtodeterminelhehonzontal The speed of the wind is 36ms-' and the speed of the
component of the tension in aircraft is 250m s-'
i RA, i Make a copy of Fig.1.23. DraINan arrow to show the
ii RB direction of the resultant velodty of the aircraft II}
Commenton your answer ii Determine the magnitude of the resultant velocityof
5 A fielder in a cricket match throws the ball to the wicket- the aircraft. [21
keeper. At one moment of time, the ball has a horizontal Cambridge InternationalAS and A Level Physics,
velocityof iems-' and a velocityin the verticallyupward 9702123OctlNov2012 Q I
direction of8,9m s-'.
7 a i State the Slbase units of vclvme. [1]
a Determine, for the ball
ii Show that the 51 base units of pressure are
f tts resoltant speed kq m-t s-e, [1]
iithedirectioninwhichit b The volume vof liquidthat flows through a pipe in
is travelling relative to the time lisgiven by the equation
horizontal V 1';l'ro1
bDuringtheflightoftheballto
the wicket-keeper, the horizontal
,=sa
velocity remains unchanged. The
speed of the ball at the moment
when the wicket-keeper catches
itis 19ms-'. calculate, for the Determine the base units ct c BI
balljust as it is caught: Cambridge InternationalAS al"ldA Level Physics.
i itsvertical speed, 9702121MaylJune2012Q 1
iitneanglethatthepathofthe
8 Make reasonable estimates of the following quantities.
ball makeswith the horizontal
c SU9gestwith a reason whether a the frequency 01 an audible sound wcwe 111
the [Link] the moment it is b thewavelength,innm,ofultravioletradiation 111
caught,isrisingorfalling c themassolaplastic30cmruler tn
6 a The spacing between two atoms d thedensityofairatatmosphericpressure {I}
inacrystalis3.8xl0-10m Cambridge Internafional AS and A level Physics,
State this distance in pm f1J 9702102May/June 2008 Q I
b Calculatethe time of one dayin
tn 9 a Two of the SIbase quantities are mass and time. State
three other 51 base quantities {31
c ThedistancefrorntheEarthto b A sphere of radius ris moving at speed vthrough airof
the Sun isO.15Tm. Calculate the densityp. The resistiveforce l'acting on the sphere is
time in minutes for light to travel given by the expression
Fig. 1.23
from the Sun tothe Earth {2l
F=Sr"lpl'·
d Identifyall the vector quantities in the list below
where Band k are constants without units
distance energy
i State the 51 base units of ,.; pand v. BJ
weight work 111 ii Use base unitstodeterminethevalueofk 121

9702121

13
IIPhysicalquantities and units

Sine rule

Flgur<?1.24

For anytrtanglc(f'lgure.I.Z4)' Figure1.25

Si~:A = ,"/;8 = SII~C 1,25).

Cosine rule
Foranytrtangle,
a'=b'+c'-2Ix:COSA
(058=*
tr=a'+c'-2tICCOS8
c'=a' +tr-2abcooC 1an()=~

14