36 CHAPTER Wood has been an indispensable resource to humans since the dawn of time. Besides providing the raw material for many of the worlds largest industries, including buildings, furniture, rubber, Paper and food (fruit and nuts), trees also provide life-sustaining oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis.Key terms Reece Cate eee) rere eee] eee Ere} Eee! Sere ae eee eve ee ae ei Pee aac) that produces boards whose faces PO eee en ees Ce ee ee ee ace Pee ee ced Po ae ue ae in the surface of timber during nec Poca eleenetese nr: Rea ee cr Sen pee etna ers pene nent race Pee Pree ear acer the exposed view of a ee ores Peery rat tee aeee peat nen See etary prereset! Ae ea eel Pon Seki BE eae ey Pets akc Tele eck cd Pee ene ie eter Eee) eee ecu eee eee eer Rees leafed deciduous trees with the eee ary eee eee eect enero ning ere uerer ct Peete Tir) Renee oan peter ee eee ee rer en cy a denser structure cael te simplest and quickest way to saw et being radial cut (quartersawn) and the two outer areas of the eee eae ea) Bice a) ey eee) from carbon dioxide and water Using light as an energy source es Pec) eee eee a oko eee ened ere Sls eo eens Peer Poe ere the newer eee the heartwood; more attractive pacer drying timber to eerste) Cees reac) eee eee ed evergreen trees with the botanical peel) Reece Beer an Paes fo eee erty inthe yearly cycle; generally eee tos dense structure pees eee eet pacer) eee Pee eer ra eee are a the bark or sapwood ee eee er Cone fea peer Comet)' @ FACT The Amazon rainforest represents more than half of the planets rainforests and has been described as ‘the lungs of the world’, but it has been mercilessly logged and cleared, by first felling and then burning the tree cover. The major destroyer is the cattle industry, but much of the forest is slashed and but by small subsistence farmers for the cultivation of soy, palm and other crops, often using chemical fertilisers. By 1995, 70 per cent of former forest in the Amazon had been converted to cattle production, At the peak of deforestation, almost a hectare of rainforest was disappearing every second (50000 hectares per day) As the rainforest species disappear, so do many possible cures for life-threatening diseases. ‘While 25 per cent of Western pharmaceuticals are derived from rainforest ingredients, less than 1 per cent of the potential of tropical trees and plants has been investigated by scientists. Search the internet for ‘Amazon rainforest’ to learn more. Amazon rainforest Deforestation Interms of their global resource, trees are being used faster than the rate of regrowth, and because they are the basic material of industry, woodworkers and hobbyists, itis essential that the resource is used wisely. Therefore, you should have an understanding of the growth and structure of timber, how it is cut, how it is prepared for use and how it behaves when used. Physical features of timber From the plant classification ‘exogens’, wood grows by the constant addition of new outside layers of the trunk and branches, It is made up of minute, tubelike cells packed closely together and joined end to end or overlapping obliquely. The cells include cellulose and lignin, a complicated organic material, which is a combination of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Inside the cells is a watery composition of starches, sugars, 38 WOODWORKING minerals, gums and resins. As the cells age, lignin is deposited in and between the cel walls, making the walls mote rigid and the wood more durable. How trees grow ‘Trees make food through a process known as photosynthesis, which is the formation of sugar from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight. This process only takes place where there is, chlorophyll - the green colouring matter in leaves, Water and minerals in solution are absorbed from the soil by the fine hairs on the roots and transported by the sapwood, which is immediately beneath the cambium layer and bark, to the leaves. Here, a large proportion of the water evaporates, leaving the minerals and some water behind. This process is called ‘transpiration’. Carbon, a basic element in all plants, is obtained from carbon dioxide (CO,) in the air. Entering through minute apertures called ‘stomata’ on the underside of the leaves, the CO, is broken down by chlorophyll, with the aid of sunlight. ‘The carbon combines with the water from the roots, while oxygen is returned to the air. ‘The tree's food, which is manufactured in the leaves, is transported down the inner layers of the bark cells (phloem), thus providing the living ‘cambium cells with materials for the formation of new wood and bark. On its way down, some of the food material also reaches the living wood cells immediately inside the cambium layer by ‘means of special cells called ‘medullary rays’ or ‘ray parenchyma’, which are produced for this purpose (and also for food storage). A ring-barked tree will, eventually die because the food from the leaves cannot pass down through the inner layers of the bark to the roots. In addition, if the sapwood is severed, the tree will generally die more quickly. A tree grows both in height and in girth (or diameter) Growth in height is due to the division and growth of numerous special cells at the extreme tips of the trunk and branches. These special cells are thin- walled and do not, in themselves, produce woody tissue. A short way back from the growing tip the inner cells form the pith or medulla, while the outside cells form the cambium layer. Once the woo formed, it does not grow in length or height. Growth in girth is brought about by the division and growth of the thin-walled cells of the cambium layer, which are very thin and invisible to the naked s7a0170411516Crown Cambium: layer Bork Pith or Growth medulla rings ‘wood (CROSS SECTION Figure 4.1 Structure of a tree eye. This layer lies just beneath the bark. These special cells divide, forming the inner, living portion of the bark and the new woody tissue of the sapwood, which later matures into heartwood. Neither the sapwood cells laid down on the inside of the cambium layer, nor the bark cells Iaid down on the outside of the ‘cambium layer, influence growth in height, 9780170811516 Summer (eariywood) Trunk Spring wood Heartwood Uatewood) BARK Protects wood from drying out. Inner layers conduct food for growth from leaves CAMBIUM Growing tissue, forms wood inside and bark outside SAPWOOD. Living tissue, conducts sap from roots to leaves, Stores Surplus plant food HEARTWOOD Dead tissue, usually darker in ‘colour than sapwood Medullary rays Visible evidence of growth Ifa nail was driven into the stem of the tree at a measured height you would notice that as growth continues (whether itis 10cm or Lm in a yea), the nail would remain atthe same height and would be gradually covered. CHAPTER 4+ TIMER PROPERTIES AND USES 39Parts of a tree ‘The pith (or medulla) is the heart or centre of a tree and stores food in the young tree. Itis usually quite soft, darker in colour and often rots out, referred to as piping’ ‘Much like the plumbing pipework of a tree, the sapwood (or xylem), keeps the leaves supplied with water from the roots. This living ‘pipeline’, not only supplies water to the leafy extremities, but stores ‘moisture in accordance with the seasons. However, by the time they become competent to conduct water, all xylem tracheids and vessels have lost their cytoplasm and the cells are, therefore, functionally dead. All ‘wood in a tree is first formed as sapwood. Very leafy trees featuring vigorous rates will have a larger sapwood volume. Rapid growth trees in the open have thicker sapwood for their size than trees of the same species growing in dense, shaded forests. Sometimes trees (of species that do form heartwood) grown in the open may grow to considerable size, 30cm (12in) ‘or more in diameter, before any heartwood begins to form, such as in second-growth hickory, or open- grown pine: Other living cells form the medullary rays (or ray parenchyma), whose purpose is to store plant food, ‘mainly in the form of starch. Sapwood has three main functions in the living tree: support, conduction and food storage. ‘The heartwood is the fully matured wood that surrounds the pith (Figure 4.2). The term heartwood derives solely from its position and not from any vital importance to the tree. Infact, a tree can thrive with its heart completely decayed. Itis frequently darker in colour than the sapwood due to the deposits of tannin, resins and gums in the dead cells. These also act as ‘antiseptics' against decay and fungi attack. Heartwood contains very little starchy food; therefore, itis not as susceptible to insect or fungi attack as sapwood. Figure 4.2 A board through the centre of a radiata pine tree showing the pith 49 WOODWORKING However, sapwood cells are more open and can be treated ‘more readily with penetrating preservative fluids, which ‘makes sapwood as durable as, oreven more durable than, heartwood. In some cases, sapwood may be superior ‘material. For example, sapwood from Canadian ash is selected for the manufacture of laminated tennis racquet frames because itis slightly lighter and less brittle than heartwood, Heartwood has practically no other function in the growing tee than that of structural support. ‘The cambium is entirely responsible for the tree's growth in girth through the development of growth rings. These concentric rings of alternating light and dark wood tissues are visible in the cross-section of ‘most trees and ate sometimes called ‘annual rings’ However, some trees, particularly in the tropics, have ‘more than one period of growth and, consequently, form more than one ring each year. Many other tropical and subtropical trees, in which growth is more or Jess regular throughout the year, produce no visible ‘growth rings, while trees grown in areas with greater climatic variation feature more pronounced rings. These rings are true annual rings and provide a means of determining the age of the tree. The cambium is most active in woody plants, where it lies between the bark. and wood of the stem. In spring, the cambium forms alayer of light-coloured, thin-walled cells commonly called springwood. Smaller, darker-coloured cells with thicker walls are formed later in the year, and are called summerwood. However, this term is misleading because summerwood may be formed in auturnn, so the terms eariywood and latewood are now widely accepted as more accurate. Rays (or ray parenchyma) are specialised cells in the xylem that grow radially from the pith or intermediate growth rings to the cambium layer. ‘Their function isto store sap food and convey it to the inner living parts of the tree. They also serve to bind the growth rings together. ‘The bark (or cortex) varies considerably in thickness and appearance between species, but always contains some dead, corky material, which protects the tender, living inner bark (phloem). The phloem carries the plant food from the leaves to the cambium layer. The structure of wood According to its botanical features, wood is classed as either hardwood (pored wood) or softwood (non- pored wood). Hardwood trees have leaves, are generally deciduous and have covered seeds, such as gum nuts. Softwood trees usually have needle-like foliage, and s7e0t70411516(One growth ring (1 year) Eariywood twacheids Latewood Latewood tracheids Radiol cut Rey parenchyma ‘or medllary ray Figure 4.3a Cell structure of softwood Ray Trachelds Figure 4.3¢ A typical pine forest softwood) 700170411516 cH. ‘One growth ring Latewood Vessel or pore Fibres (thick-walled cells) Latewood Medullary ray Tangential cub Radial cut Figure 4.3d Cell structure of hardiwood Fibres Pores Figure 4.3f Eucalypt trees (hardwood) “ APTER 4+ TIMBER PROPERTIES ANDare generally from the pine or conifer family with uncovered seeds that fall from the pine cone as it opens. Hardwoods do not necessarily have harder wood than softwoods; balsa wood, which is the lightest and softest commercial wood in the world (used in model airplane construction), is a hardwood, As far as the woodworker is concerned, the main difference between softwood and hardwood is in the cell structure. Chemistry of wood ‘Wood's chemical make-up is not as simple as many think. Carbon makes up about half ofits content in weight, with oxygen almost as plentiful, hydrogen about 5 per cent, nitrogen 1 per cent, followed bya raft of elements in tiny quantities, such as calcium, potassium, sodium, magnesium, iron, and ‘manganese. Smaller quantities of sulphur, chlorine, silicon and phosphorous are also present. Softwood Softwoods or non-pored woods feature a simpler, ‘more uniform cell structure. The majority of the wood is made up of long, very thin cells called ‘tracheids’, which carry the water and mineral salts from the roots and leaves. Connection between the cells is by ‘pits’, minute holes in adjacent cell walls. Rays, which are very stall when compared with those in some hardwoods, radiate from the centre of the tree and at right angles to the tracheids, and store food and carry food materials from the phloem inwards to the living cells in the wood. All non-pored woods come from coniferous or pine trees (e.g. Oregon pine, radiata pine, hoop pine and cypress pine). See Figures 4.3a~c. Hardwood Hardwoods or pored woods are characterised by large, tubelike vessels or pores. These consist of short stubby cells varying considerably in size and joined together to provide, when newly formed, a continous means of conducting solutions from the roots to the leaves. The vessels frequently occur in groups and have pits in the side walls to allow the passage of solutions. The pores in some hardwoods, such as pacific maple, are visible to the naked eye, while a magnifying glass is necessary to see those in coachwood. Smaller, thick-walled cells (called ‘fibres’) act simply as mechanical support for the tree, while the medullary rays have the same function as the rays in softwoods. Some of the more important 42 WooDWORKING hardwoods include eucalypts, blackwood, maple, oak, walnut, ash, beech, willow, red cedar, mahogany, basswood and hickory. See Figures 4.3d-f. (YW CHECK YOURSELF 1 What are the two ways a tree grows in size? 2 What is summer wood and latewood? 3 Whatis the purpose of the cambium layer of a tree? 4 Whatis the difference between softwood. and hardwood? Properties of wood While trees can be classified as pored or non- poted woods, nature has provided many different species of timber each bearing unique properties and characteristics. These are governed by the type and arrangement of cells and the variety of sugars, starches, resins, gums, oils, tannins, silica and colouring matter. Density Density depends on the size ofthe cells, the thickness of the cell walls and the amount of lignin, gums and resins present. Density is usually quoted as ‘light’, ‘medium’, or ‘heavy’ and in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m*) for timber dried to 12 per cent moisture content. Hardness and softness Hardness and softness are closely related to density because they vary according to the size of the cell, the thickness of the wall and chemical inclusions. Remember that balsa, classed as a hardwood (pored wood), has a density of only around 112 kg/m’ so that itis, in fact, very light and soft. Durability Durability depends largely upon moisture content and the presence in the cells and cell walls of chemicals, that are resistant to insect and fungus attack. Usually sapwood contains less resin and gum and more plant food than heartwood: therefore, itis usually less durable. A durable timber is not necessarily hard or tough; for example, Californian redwood is one of the ‘most durable timbers in the worl. s7a0170411516Strength is directly related to the type of cell structure, size of cells, thickness of walls, amount of lignin and direction of growth. Strength does not necessarily follow weight: Oregon pine has one of the highest strength-to-weight ratios for building timbers yet itis soft, light and easy to work with. Figure is the overall pattern or design produced on the longitudinal surface of the wood and is due to variations in texture, grain and colour (Figure 4.4). Figure 4.4 A variety of timbers have been used in this marquetry box Texture “The size and arrangement of the cells is referred to as texture, often classified as ‘fine’, ‘medium’ or ‘coarse’ ‘uneven’ or ‘uniform. The differentiation between coarse and fine texture applies mainly to hardwoods and is made on the dimensions of the vessels and the width and abundance of rays. For example, silky oaks, which have large vessels or pores and broad rays, are said to be of coarse texture, while timbers such as coachwood, have small vessels and narrow rays, are fine-textured igure 4.5a A top view of rippled grain s7a0t70411516 Grain Referred to as ‘cross’, spiral’, ‘wavy’ and so on, grain refers to the direction of the fibres and associated ‘wood elements in relation to the axis of the tree (Figures 4.5a-d), Figure 4.5b A side view of rippled grain Figure 4.5e Wavy grain (blackbut) Figure 4.5d Fiddleback figure in ash eucalypt Timber conversion After a tree has been selected and marked, and the undergrowth has been cleared, if necessary, the logger fells the tree. Two cuts are generally made using a chainsaw, a mobile circular saw, a two- ‘man crosscut saw or an axe. The direction of fall is controlled by the undercut. CHAPTER 4 + TIMBER PROPERTIES ryPrior to felling trees, loggers identify hazards in the felling area, such as widow makers, snags, spears, hang-ups, spring poles, blowdowns, and unstable ‘ground, and either eliminate or avoid them. After felling, the limbs and crown are cut off and the trunk is cut into manageable logs. These are then loaded onto timber jinkers for transport to the sawmill ‘Atharvesting time (approximately 25-35 years) in softwood pine plantations, where trees are of a uniform size and evenly spaced, a one-man operated tree harvester grips and cuts the tree off near ground level, turns the trunk 90° to horizontal, strips all the branches, docks the log to a computer-set optimum length and stacks the log on a truck ready for transportation, Methods of conversion ‘The conversion of timber involves cutting the logs into marketable or commercial sizes. Typically, in Australian hardwood mills logs are ‘broken down’ ‘with twin circular saws ora log bandsaw into fitches. “The flitches are then resawn into marketable sizes on smaller circular saw. The flitches are also docked to set lengths while waney sections and splits are cut out igure 4.98). Live sawing ‘The live sawing method results in the central planks being radial cut (quarter-sawn) and the two outer areas of the converted log being tangential cut (back-sawn). This gives an increased choice of grain pattern (Figure 4.6a) The main problem with live sawing isthe difficulty of cutting out faults, such as piping (hollowed-out pith area), internal gum pockets, and checks or shakes. (li) =) Figure 4.6a Live sawing 44 WoopWoRKING Figure 4.6b Back sawing Back sawing Back sawing (tangential cut) produces boards whose faces are, in general, tangential to the growth rings (Figure 4.6). This is a highly flexible method well suited to securing high-grade timber from varied and faulty logs; it allows for sawing around faulty parts with little waste, Timbers, such as red cedar, Oregon, radiata pine and alpine ash, which possess distinct growth rings, are usually back sawn, because this exposes the most decorative figure, Timber for ceiling and floor joists, bearers, and axe and hammer handles are generally back sawn, because there is more strength in the direction of the growth rings. Back-sawn boards shrink mostly in width and tend to cup or warp away from the heart of the tree. Quarter sawing Quarter sawing (radial cut) produces boards whose faces are generally parallel to the medullary rays and at right angles to the growth rings (Figure 4.6c). The log requires even more frequent turning than in back sawing and more timber is lost through waste, but the recovery rate is still good because quarter-sawn timber seasons very evenly. Timbers with distinct ray figure, such as silky oak, sycamore and, toa lesser degree, maple, reveal a very decorative figure called ‘silver grain’ when they are quarter sawn. Timbers with interlocked grain, such as Queensland maple and walnut, show a valuable decorative ‘stripe’ or ‘ribbon’ figure (Figure 4.7). For this reason, most valuable cabinet timbers that have prominent rays and/or interlocked grain are fully quarter sawn (that is, sawn within 10° of the rays). ‘The seasoning process is slower for quarter-sawn timber than for back-sawn timber, but quarter-sawn boards retain their shape and do not cup or check to aed eo Figure 4.6¢ Quarter-sawing 9780170811516any extent. The edge grain that is revealed produces Timber classifications an even-wearing surface. Timber for architraves, mouldings and flooring boards is usually quarter ‘Timbers are classified according to their sizes: sawn (Pigure 4.8), © Logs: trunks with the branches cut off © Baulks or litchs: <100mm thick and <150mm wide * Planks or sheeting: 40-100 mm thick and «150mm wide © Scantlings: sawn to dimensions up to 150 x 100mm, © Boards: pieces 10-40 mm thick and <75 mm wide © Battens: pieces 20-40mm thick and 25~75mm wide Racial cut or quarters board wil show ray igure ef Tangential cut or back sawn board wil show growth fing igure © Strips: >20mm thick and up to 75mm wide. Timber floorboard production Figure 4.7 Grain effect on quarter-sawn and bback-sawn boards “s Figure 4.8 Typical uses for quarter-sawn and back- sawn timber: a Quarter sawing for pieces to retain shape ~ 1 flooring boards for wear and less shrinkage, 2 mouldings and architraves, 3 window sashes, 4 door frames; b Back sawing for strength and growth ting figure ~ 5 beams, girder, joists, etc., 6 hammer and tool handles, 7 shelving and table tops, heartside up Figure 4.9b Docked logs ready on an in-feed deck Figure 4.92 Felled logs being delivered and unloaded from the truck 9700170811516 CHAPTER 4 + TIM PROPERTIES AND USES 45Figure 4.9¢ Log loaded on an in-feed deck for the first cut in half, using one blade of the twin edger blades Figure 4.9f Sharpened blades ready to be changed at the end of the day (Note the safety hard hat!) Figure 4.9d Half log cutting flitch, using both twin Figure 4.9g Cutting out waney edge and splits, edger blades then docking to lengths Figure 4.9@ The finished green flitches Figure 4.9h All offcuts ready to be used for pallet construction or to be chipped, sorted and sold to nurseries. (Note the safety signs and equipment)Figure 4.91 Timber placed in kiln for seasoning. Note the yellow paint that identifies the species and the date produced Figure 4.9) A fourblade cutter on 2 four header ‘to DAR timber, Figure 4.9k A six header: two rough face cuts, ‘two smooth face cuts, and a pair of matched side cutters (tongue-and-groove) Figure 4.91 A pair of shaped tongue-and-groove side cutters for floor boards Seasoning timber Green, or unseasoned timber, contains a large amount of water. Seasoning is simply the drying out of most of the water from the cell cavities and cell walls, in order to: ‘* reduce shrinkage, warping and checking toa ‘+ reduce weight, with a consequent reduction in freight charges * reduce likelihood of attack by wood-boring insects * prevent blue stain and attack by other moulds, such as decay fungi * increase the strength of the wood ‘improve bonding properties so that adhesives, paints and finishes will adhere better and last longer ‘© make the timber lighter and easier to work. ‘The aim in seasoning is not to dry the water completely from the wood, which, under normal conditions of use, always contains some moisture. For example, under Sydney conditions a seasoned hardwood floor for a room 5m x Sm will contain about 55. of water. The weight of water present is expressed as a percentage of the weight of the oven- dried wood, and this percentage is referred to as its ‘moisture content’ (Figure 4.10). ‘The moisture content of freshly sawn timber often exceeds the weight of the wood itself, For example, in green radiata pine moisture content is frequently greater than 200 per cent. The ideal moisture content for seasoned timber varies with the relative humidity and temperatuce of the air. To keep shrinkage and CHAPTER 4 + TIMBER PROPERTIES AND US a7igure 4.10 Modern moisture meter. Note the two pprongs that ae placed against the wood to obtain a readout swelling (movement) to a minimum, timber should be seasoned to the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of the locality where itis to be used. In Sydney, this is around 12 per cent. Shrinkage takes place during the process of seasoning. ‘There are two stages in the seasoning of green timber because the sap exists in two forms: as ‘free moisture’ in the cell cavities (Figure 4.11a) and as ‘combined moisture’ within the cell walls. In the first stage, the wood cells give up their free moisture (Figure 4.11b), the combined moisture in the cell, walls remaining until the cell cavity is empty. This condition is referred to as the ‘fibre saturation point’, at which the moisture content is typically around 30 per cent. Shrinkage occurs when the cell walls start to give up their combined moisture, and continues until seasoning is complete (Figure 4.110) Despite their apparent contrast, wood and water happily co-exist. This is the function of a hygroscopic substance — the ability to take in or give off moisture in the form of vapour. Water within wood exerts pressure in the form of vapour, with that pressure determined by the size of the water-filled capillaries. If water vapour pressure in the ambient space is lower than, vapour pressure within wood, desorption takes place. ‘The largest-sized capillaries full of water empty first, and as vapour pressure within the wood falls, water is contained successively in smaller capillaries. A stage is eventually reached when vapour pressure within the wood equals vapour pressure in the ambient space above the wood, and further release of moisture through the surface ceases. As humidity changes (such as in periods of rain or drought), 80 too does the moisture content of the wood; unless itis totally sealed from the atmosphere, which is just one of the reasons for lacquering, waxing or oiling a project. 43 WOODWORKING a ® Green walls Free moisture Timber shrinks saturated, dries out first. as mositure dries Free moisture Walls remain. from cell walls, fill cell saturated no Wood is dried cavity shrinkage +o EMC occurs to this approx. 12%) stage Figure 4.11 Stages in seasoning of timber (cells) Very little shrinkage takes place along the grain because the cells do not shrink to any extent in their length. Similarly, the rays, which are long, thin cells running at right angles to the growth rings, restrict radial shrinkage. Most shrinkage, therefore, takes place in the direction of the growth rings. This is called tangential shrinkage, and is usually about double that of radial shrinkage and about 100 times greater than longitudinal shrinkage (Figure 4.12). Back-sawn boards tend Quarter-sawn boards ‘to cup away from the heart retain their shape well during shrinkage ‘Tangential shrinkage along growth rings i almost ‘wice that of radial shrinkage Wide boards such as corestock should be built up with heart sides alternating to minimise the effects of shrinkage Bl) ill Figure 4.12 Effects of shrinkage 9780170811516Seasoning methods Air seasoning Air seasoning, or the natural drying method, requires the timber to be stored in stacks in the open, so that it dries slowly, in natural weather conditions. The secret to efficient air seasoning is. air circulation. To achieve this the stack is laid on bearers to keep it clear of the ground, and strips of dry wood, usually about 20mm thick and 25-40mm ‘wide, are placed exactly one above the other between the layers of boards. Any strips not in vertical alignment will cause distortion in the boards. The \strips in each layer should be spaced at 00-1000mm_ intervals, immediately above the cross-bearers of the foundations. The boards should be placed along the stack so that there is a space of 25-50mm between their edges to allow the vertical passage of air. Stacks should be protected from the effects of sun and weather. The ends of the boards are usually sealed with a thick coat of paint to stop the end grain from drying out too quickly. As a general rule, air seasoning takes approximately six months for every 25mm of timber thickness, but the time varies according to several factors, such as species of timber, size of boards, season and climatic conditions, location, and method of stacking (Figure 4.13). Overhanging roof to protect timber from sun and rain Vertical spacing of Roof tied boards to provide tostack natural airflow Ends of stacks should not face | direct sunlight Strips (20x 40 mm and about 500 mm apart) placed vertically above bearers to provide air space and prevent boards warping Figure 4.13 Air seasoning Stack above ground level for ventilation Kiln seasoning ‘The seasoning time for wood can be reduced considerably through the use of a specialist kiln, ‘This method can be used to accurately control the o7a0170811516 ‘moisture content of the wood. Kiln seasoning, or the artificial drying method, requires the stacking of timber in a similar manner to that for air seasoning Wood is placed on special trucks and wheeled into oven-like rooms called ‘kilns’ where heat and humidity is carefully controlled. The timber is dried using air circulated by fans over steam-heated coils, Steam inlets supply moisture to control the humidity (Figure 4.14), Care must be exercised in the early stages to ensure that the free moisture in the cell cavities is not drawn off too rapidly, resulting in serious degradation in the form of ‘collapse’ (Figure 4.15). Collapse is a flattening of softwood cell structure, causing distortion, severe shrinkage and a large loss in overall strength. Kiln seasoning is particularly suited to softwoods because they are not prone to collapse and the entire seasoning, process may be completed in the kilns. However, with hardwoods it is more economical to air dry to fibre saturation point (about 30 per cent moisture content) and then kiln dry to EMC, this keeps degradation to a minimum, Vents fixed with damping Heating Humidifying coils pipes Rails fr trolley Figure 4.14 A compartment kiln CHAPTER 4+ TIMBER PROPERTIES AND USES 49Figure 4.15 Collapse during drying Depending on the species and the other factors ‘mentioned previously, 25mm thick green timber takes between 1-3 weeks to kiln dry, compared with 3-9 months for air drying. ‘There are two types of kilns in general use: compartment kilns and progressive kilns. The majority of kilns used in Australia are the compartment type, which lends itself to an economical arrangement for combined air and kiln seasoning, These kilns offer greater control over the drying process for individual stacks. This is important where a number of different species are to be seasoned at the same time. Ceiling, fans induce air from the outside and drive it over heating pipes, down the side and through the stack, where it is returned to the fans over a second set of heating coils. A steam spray line and exhaust and inlet air vents in the ceiling control humidity. A progressive kiln represents an assembly line. ‘Truckloads of timber are moved progressively along the kiln so that the green stock added at the cool moist end and is gradually dried as it slowly moves along, until it emerges at the hot dry end ready for use. Progressive kilns lack the flexibility of compartment kilns and are suitable only when a continuous supply of timber of the same kind and thickness is available. Some progressive kilns combine the advantages of both types by dividing the tunnel into several compartments and controlling hheat, moisture and air circulation in each, However, they generally are not popular, because many technical problems are involved in their control, especially in Australia where so many species of timber exist. “The advantages of kiln seasoning include a considerable reduction in the time required for seasoning, destruction of insects and fungi, reduction of moisture content to a desired level, and a measure of control to minimise the causes of seasoning defects. Combined seasoning Combined seasoning utilises the advantages of both air seasoning and kiln seasoning, It helps to overcome 50 WOODWORKING the main disadvantages of kiln seasoning; namely, distortion and checking due to rapid removal of the free moisture from the outer wood cell cavities. The timber is first air seasoned for about three months until the free moisture in the cell cavities has dried. out and is then kiln dried for 3-7 days to remove the combined moisture from the cell walls. The final moisture content can be regulated so that the timber ‘can be used either indoors or outside. Other forms of seasoning Other forms of seasoning include: Solar: a combination of air and kiln seasoning. Microwave: microwave energy is directed at the timber, driving out the excess moisture. ‘Chemical: this is a specialist technique, involving submerging the ‘green’ wood in a hydroscopic chemical for 24 hours. The chemical slows down the rate of water loss, helping to reduce damage, such as warping, during the air-drying stage. Storage of seasoned timber In retail and domestic situations, the storage of timber should be undertaken so that scantlings, boards, battens and strips of timber remain straight and are not subjected to insect attack, moulds or fungi. Timber needs to be stored in an airy environment that is not too dry nor too damp. Timber should be stacked horizontally; vertical storage will cause timber to bend under its own weight. Support should be provided for timber along its length, as frequently as possible, and preferably on flat surface. Due to dampness, avoid storing timber on the floor; this leads to mould, fungi and insect attack. CHECK YOURSELF 4 What are the three main methods of conversion of timber? 2 What method of conversion is the most stable and best suited for furniture making? 3° What are two methods of seasoning timber? 4 What does EMC stand for? 9780170411516Defects in timber A defect in wood may be defined as any irregularity that affects its normal strength, durability, appearance or value for use. Natural defects Knots are caused as limbs (branches) form on the tree. ‘There is an obvious change in grain direction, which often presents seasoning and working problems. There are two types of knots — live and dead. Live knots occur when the trunk (bole) grows to a ~Jarger diameter with age and gradually grows over a live limb. When converted to boards, the limb shows [Link] knot (Figure 4.16a). Live knots generally weaken the timber and spoil its appearance, but in some timbers, such as cypress pine, these knots remain sound and tight and are not classed as defects; in fact, they can be used to enhance aesthetics on otherwise plain timber. ‘A dead knot is produced when a branch is removed and ceases to grow. As the trunk grows its diameter increases, eventually covering the limb completely, including its bark. When this timber is converted to boards it shows the knot, including its bark, which may become loose and fall out (Figure 4.16b).. Burls or burrs are tree growths in which the grain has grown in a deformed manner. Commonly found in the form of a rounded outgrowth on a tree trunk or ranch that is filled with small knots from dormant buds (Figure 4.172). They are believed to be caused by an injury, such as a bump from falling limb, or by insect attack. Turned bowls and veneers cut from burls are highly prized because the wavy or uneven fibre alignment usually presents an attractive figure (Figure 4.17b). Gum veins and pockets may occur naturally or be caused by tree injuries. Timber is weakened and disfigured by their presence (Figure 4.18). Brittle heart and heart rot are common defects found near the pith or medulla of the tree. The wood is pulpy, affected by decay, or of such a brittle nature that it is structurally weak. Shakes are caused by separation of the adjoining layers of wood either from the centre of the tree along, the medullary rays or between the growth rings. Shakes arise in the standing timber or during felling, not during the seasoning process. However, they s7a0r70411516 usually extend as the timber dries, following the split lines originally established. Heart shakes, which occur at the central region of the tree, are believed to be caused by swaying or growth stresses, 51Figure 4.17b An example of redwood burl veneer Unfiled pocket Filled pocket Figure 4.18 An example of a pitch or gum pocket in timber Grain direction is classed as a defect only ifit weakens the timber or makes it too difficult to work. Although there are many variations of cross-grain, such as spiral, diagonal, wavy, interlocked and curly, only the first two are generally classed as defects. When the fibre alignment runs at an angle to the axis of a piece of timber, the timber is said to be cross-grained, Interlocked grain is caused by the fibres of the adjacent layers of wood being spirally inclined in opposite directions. This produces a distinctive figure called ‘ribbon grain’ or fiddleback’ (see the section on grain within the section ‘Properties of wood’, pages 42-3), ‘This is sometimes difficult to plane or sand. ‘Queensland maple and walnut can show interlocked sain; however, itis not classed as a defect unless it ‘weakens the timber. Seasoning and handling defects Checks or splits are ruptures in wood along the grain. ‘They are usually caused by seasoning that is too rapid or imbalanced resulting in uneven shrinkage. There 52 WOODWORKING are two types of seasoning checks: end checks and surface checks. Once they develop they remain asa permanent weakness in the timber, even though they may appear to have closed up. Collapse results if the cell structure is flattened by excessive or uneven drying. Usually evidenced by severe and irregular shrinkage, in most cases it may be reconditioned by steaming Case hardening is a condition in which the outer layers of timber become abnormally hard as a result of drying that has occurred too rapidly. Uneven stressing results and unless reconditioning is carried out, the timber will be prone to cupping and warping. ‘Compression wood is indicated by the presence of eccentric growth rings. Compared with normal wood it is heavier, weaker and exhibits unusually high and irregular shrinkage along the grain. ‘Warping is the broad term that is used to describe any distortion from the true plane that may occur during or after seasoning, such as bow, spring, cup or twist (Eigure 4.19), ‘Bow’ may be described as the longitudinal curvature of the wide face of a board caused by uneven shrinkage during seasoning, Spring is the curvature of the edge of a piece of timber, with the face remaining flat. ‘Cup’ isa simple warp across the face of the timber and is commonly associated with back-sawn wood. The curvature, which is caused by uneven shrinkage, is generally away from the heart and can be minimised by careful stacking and seasoning, Twist or wind is a spiral warp along the length of a piece of timber and may be caused by sloping grain or poor stacking when drying. Cup Bow Spring Twist Figure 4.19 Types of warpingFigure 4.20 Waney edge Waney edge is the absence of the wood on the edge or comer, showing the bark or sapwood (Figure 4.20). ” Defects due to fungi “The terms dry rot and wet rot relate to the decay of timber. They are a little misleading because they both require a certain moisture content. They are versions of the partial disintegration of wood due to wood-destroying fungi ~ a primitive form of plant life that lives on the wood and devours it as food. These microscopic organisms require food, warmth, moisture and air to exist. If any of these factors is absent, or can_ be maintained in a condition that is unfavourable to the growth of the fungi, decay will not occur. If all are present, conditions conducive to decay exist. )) Dry rot is caused by a fungus that can exist in apparently dry conditions, like those found under badly ventilated buildings. Despite its dry reference, ») the fungus draws moisture from damp timber via long, threadlike strands that reach down to the soil. Dry rot spreads by using these threads or by means of spores so minute that they can be carried in the air. This, fungus cannot exist in well-ventilated areas. Live trees and logs lying on moist ground are the common residences for wet rot. It is also present at the bottom of fence-posts and poles below ground level. ‘The best preventative is to keep the wood dry, or by impregnating it with a preservative, such as creosote oil ‘Wood-staining fungi cause a bluish discolouration in some timbers, notably pines, but this does not impair the structural strength of the wood. This type of fungi requires a timber moisture content of approximately 20 per cent to exist. If caught in the early stages the discolouration can be treated with a weak oxalic acid solution. sregr70411816 Defects due to insect attack Public enemy numbers one and two when it comes to damage of trees, logs, freshly sawn timber and even wood that has been well seasoned, are borers and termites. Borers ‘The furniture beetle (Anobium) is the most common member of the borer group and is found worldwide. It mainly infests the sapwood of softwoods (conifers), although damage to the heartwood is not uncommon, Attacks in native eucalypts are rare. Larvae (grubs) may feed and tunnel in the timber for years before entering pupal or resting stage near the timber surface. The newly developed adult beetle emerges a few weeks later, then bores an escape tunnel to the surface (Table 4.1, row a). Furniture beetle infestations are usually noticed in old timber (from 7-40 years), partly because of the insects’ comparatively long life cycle (2-6 years) and also because it is possible for several generations to emerge before attack is discovered. Powder post or Lyctus beetles are borers often found attacking the sapwood of select hardwoods. The larvae damage the timber by feeding on the starch in the sapwood. The heartwood (truewood) escapes these attacks because it contains no starch. Timber containing susceptible sapwood is usually attacked within 12 months after milling, and the infestation continues until all of the food (starch) has been eaten. Lyctus beetle eggs are laid in the vessels or pores of the wood; and therefore, cannot attack softwoods (non-pored woods) or hardwoods with minute pores. “The complete life cycle may be as short as 4-5 months with a single emergence a year (Table 4.1, row b). Pin-hole borers (Ambrosia) attack green timber. ‘The adult beetles infest almost all species of trees, and frequently tunnel deeply into the wood of weakened. trees, freshly felled logs, and even milled timber that is high in moisture content. Their tunnels or holes. are typically long and straight across the grain, such that a pin may be inserted a considerable depth. Fungi are introduced into the tunnel by the beetle, and the young larvae feed on the ambrosial fungus, ‘The fungus is dependent upon a generous moisture supply and cannot grow in dry wood. Therefore, the pin-hole borer does not damage seasoned timber, AND USE CHAPTER 4 + TIMBER PROPERTI 53Table 4.1 Timber-boring insects Types of borers | Timber ee ee eo ee attacked | occur ica Cocca aFuriture beetle Sapwood Seasoned. nobium) mainly, timber % usually of with preservative chemicals. Actual size softwoods Surface spraying or brushing with contact 9 insecticides. Fumigation Pressure impregnation of sapwood and heartwood with methyl bromide if found in furniture. Heat will ae also kill insects. bPowder post Sapwood —_Partly or wholly Immunisation of sapwood beetle (Lyctus) only of seasoned with suitable chemicals % various timber or removal of susceptible Actin see timbers, sapwood. Fumigation or usually kiln drying wil kil Lyctus, ; 2 hardwoods but will not prevent fresh ke attack €Pin-holeborer Any timber Unseasoned Debark logs and (Ambrosia) that has spray with insecticide timber only eo 5 been freshly ie immediately after felling. slow felled J Momentary dip and G@ diffusion method may be used for boards prior to ane seasoning ‘The wood surrounding the borer holes is generally discoloured by the fungi; and although pin-hole ? damage does not generally weaken wood structure, it__Tetmites are often called white ants. While they does affect appearance and can lower its market value 3" Hot really ants, they destroy large quantities of (Table 4.1, row 0). timber in Australia, attacking poles, posts, sleepers Termites Tree stump, Building Floor jst Bearer plate Brick foundation Building Termite tubes from earth to woodwork Figure 4.21 Typical termite nest and earthen tubes 54 WOODWORKING sre0i70611516and wooden structures ofall kinds. They live in colonies, and individuals cannot exist without communications with the colony. In some species the nest is a series of galleries in timber; others build a mound-shaped nest above the ground; yet others construct a subterranean nest. Practically all of the termite damage to seasoned timber is caused by the subterranean species, and timber in contact with soil is most at risk (igure 4.21). ‘The damage produced by termites is often difficult to detect in a structure, because they prefer to seek out dark and badly ventilated areas. The signs of their presence include the termite galleries ~ leading from the ground. Often the damage is not discovered until timber has been almost completely hollowed out. Once found, the damage is easy to recognise; the termites work inside the boards, along the grain, eating out large galleries or runways. ‘These destructive networks are often lined with disintegrated wood and clay mixture, and the shell of timber leftis often decayed (Figures 4.22a and b). Prevention and control ‘Termite species capable of serious damage need contact with the ground or access to a continuous source of moisture. Therefore, prevention of damage calls for making it difficult for termites to make a concealed entry into a structure from the surrounding soil, and ‘measures to eliminate dampness within the building: ‘© Physical barriers. Preferably, foundations should be constructed from a solid, inorganic material, such as brick, steel or concrete slab, so that termite tunnels may be visible on them. All foundation ) ) walls and piers should be fitted with termite shields ‘made from durable material, such as crushed stone, steel capping or stainless steel mesh. Figure 4.22a Wood partly destroyed by termites 9790170811516 CHAPTER 4 + TIMBER igure 4.22b Termite damage in housing * Soil treatment. Liquid treatments using a pesticide called a ‘termiticide’ create a barrier around a house so that termites cannot pass. Long-life chemicals are no longer registered for this use; therefore, modern chemicals must be re-applied to maintain protection. “There are two basic kinds of liquid pesticides used on termites: repellents and non-repellents. Repellents try to create a chemical barrier ‘which termites cannot pass. The chemicals repel termites, and they will not cross the barrier to get into your home. Non-repellents just kill the termites when they cross the barrier. ‘© Ventilation. Adequate underfloor ventilation reduces the presence of moist, sheltered areas sought by termites. * Drainage, Adequate drainage avoids water collection areas under structures. © Use of treated timber. Naturally durable timbers, such as cypress pine, or timbers that have been impregnated with suitable preservatives reduce the options for termite infestations. ‘The building Code of Australia (BCA) requires all new building work to conform to Australian Standard ‘AS3660.1-2000 Termite management. ‘he life cycle of termites Every termite colony is founded by a king and queen. “The queen produces a vast number of eggs that give rise to the various castes of termites; workers, soldiers and reproductive alates (winged types). ‘The workers of this pest species are small, wingless, white-bodied, blind insects with well-developed jaws OPERTIES AND USES 55 LSS ESsoe or and fomale Se with wings dropped ing h h Fags Immature ome reproductives ~2¢ =) fe Figure 4.23 Termite life cycle for gnawing wood. The workers are responsible for building the nest, collecting food, and the feed and care of the rest of the colony. ‘The soldiers, whose function itis to protect the nest from invaders, are also blind, but are armed with longer jaws than the workers, The male and female reproducers are provided with wings, which enable them to fly from the nest to start new colonies (Figure 4.23) ‘Two peculiar habits of the termites enable us to control their activities They groom or clean each other by removing particles of dust and moisture. 2 They eat their own dead. Poison powders and insecticides introduced into termite galleries are thus transferred from one termite to another until the whole colony is dead. Wood preservation Wood preservation is the treatment of timber to increase its durability and service life. The principal agents causing deterioration or destruction of wood are fungi, insects, fire and weather. Excluding this quartet of destroyers prolongs life, evidenced by 56 WOODWORKING the good condition of wooden furniture unearthed from very dry, sealed tombs dated to the times of the Pharaohs. Some timbers, such as Californian redwood, naturally contain chemicals that are toxic or repellent to fungi and insects. Choose either naturally durable or correctly preserved timbers where decay or insect attack is likely to occur. Timber may be preserved in two broad ways. 1. By the provision of physical barriers against attack through sound construction and maintenance methods. 2 By treatment with chemical preservatives. Physical barriers “The evolution of building techniques using durable timbers, concrete, brick or stone foundations with correctly fitted termite shields and sub-floor ventilation has resulted in a large reduction in the need for chemical preservatives continuous film of paint affords good protection against fungal and insect attack and also helps to control the ‘working of wood! (shrinkage or swelling caused by variations in moisture content). Chemical preservatives Preservation is recommended if conditions are conducive to fungus or insect attack, Sound construction using durable timbers, and normal maintenance, should ensure a satisfactory life without preservatives. ‘Timber may be coated or impregnated with preservatives, and their effectiveness depends on the degree of penetration achieved. Although the heartwood of most species is non-permeable, and can only be treated by special means, generally the sapwood of all timbers, hardwood or softwood, can be impregnated. This enables the safe use of susceptible sapwood and normally ‘non-durable’ timbers for construction. Preservatives should be applied before infestation has begun. Unless the wood is fully impregnated, decay can proceed in the part not reached by the preservative; therefore, timber should be further treated after completion of all sawing, boring and other operations likely to expose untreated areas. 97a0170811516Types of preservatives Oil types Creosote, a common and efficient preservative, is used for treating fence posts, poles, sleepers, structural timber, etc. Besides being an effective fungicide, it is toxic to insects and marine borers. It has satisfactory penetration and lasting qualities, but because ofits dark colour and oily nature it renders the timber surface unsuitable for painting or varnishing Copper chrome arsenic salt (CCA salt) is a water- soluble preservative that becomes fixed in the wood. ™ his mixture can be applied through sap-replacement of green timber or vacuum pressure impregnation. From March 2006 the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) has implemented a number of restrictions on CCA because of its potential carcinogenic properties. CCA is not to be used to treat timber where regular human contact is likely, such as picnic tables, handrails, decking and playground equipment. However, CCA has not been restricted in industrial, agricultural and ‘marine applications Copper and 2inc naphthenates, which are almost insoluble in water but easily soluble in kerosene and many other organic solvents, are highly toxic to fungi, borers and termites, and, to alesser degree, marine borers. The naphthenates are suitable for treating plywoods and timbers used in boat building, jpper naphthenates leave a green stain and are only suited for painted surfaces, while the zine naphthenates, though less toxic, are non-staining and may be used where a clear finish is desired. Naphthenates are generally available from large hardware stores. Water-borne types ‘These types consist of chemicals, either unfixed or fixed salts, dissolved in water. The chemicals, provided in powder form, are usually odourless and non- staining; when dry, the treated wood may be painted. Various boron compounds, such as borax and boric acid, are used to protect susceptible timbers from attack by Lyctus and Anobium. These salts offer a clean, paintable surface without discolouration. Boron compounds should not be used on timbers or plywoods exposed to conditions that could cause the salts to leach out. They are better suited to interior or painted work, ‘9700170411516 Methods of applying preservatives Vacuum pressure treatment ‘The most effective and reliable form of preservative is pressure-impregnation of wood and plywood. This factory treatment, carried out by specialist firms, must be specified when ordering materials. Plywood can be treated with preservatives to a concentration up to 8 kg/m and still be satisfactorily glued in assembly. This treatment does, in fact, aid painting, CCA salts and creosote are pressure-impregnated into plywood or timber in specially designed chambers. ‘The CCA treatment is permanent and imparts a green colouring to the material, which has excellent resistance to fungal attack. Hot and cold bath process ‘The timber is soaked in heated preservatives for a few hours, then allowed to cool. The heat in the tank ‘expands the air in the wood and a certain amount is expelled, so that during the cooling process a partial vacuum is formed and the preservative is virtually sucked into the wood under pressure. Good penetration is achieved, particularly in the sapwood of hardwoods. Dipping In this process, the wood is dipped in a tank or bath for a period varying from a few seconds to a ‘maximum of three minutes. Sodium ‘penta’ borax. is used as a preservative in a stain dip. Satisfactory preservative penetration in veneers and solid timber is obtained by using the momentary dip and block- stacking process, sometimes referred to as the ‘dip- diffusion process. CCA fixed preservatives are generally accepted as the most effective waterborne preservatives available. Aqueous solutions in 2-6 per cent concentrations are generally used in pressure plants and for dip treatment of veneers, where carefully controlled Toadings can be maintained. These salts are non- leaching and non-staining, so that when dry, treated wood is blemish-free and may be painted or varnished. Proprietary preservatives, such as Boliden K33, Celcure AP and Tenalith C and CA, consist primarily of copper chrome arsenates. CHAPTER 4+ TIMBER PROPERTIES AND USES 57Fire retardants Some timbers boast degrees of natural resistance to fire. Large sections or laminated beams, in particular, usually char on the outside and then burn very slowly because the charcoal shields the wood from oxygen. Plywood and timber may be impregnated with fire- retardant chemicals, such as ammonium sulphate and ammonium phosphates, and further protection can be afforded by applying special fire-retardant paints. These chemicals and paints protect the wood by melting at a temperature below the combustion point of wood and forming a glaze over the surface, or by giving off non: flammable gases that blanket the combustion. Brush and spray application ‘This may be the simplest method, but it is usually the least effective because only a light surface penetration is achieved. Specialists in timber preservation have a wide range of solvent-based preservatives available, which are designed to meet specific requirements. Follow the preservative manufacturers’ recommendations regarding brush or spray application, paying special attention to any cracks and end grain areas. Preservatives do not readily penetrate the core stock of plywoods and, for this reason, they should not be applied until components are cut to size. Further cutting or drilling also exposes untreated surfaces, where decay could start if conditions are conducive. Ween e @ Cole] t 38g 11 List two examples of natural defects in timber. 2 Name one seasoning defect. 3. _ List two methods of preventing white ant attack on a house. 4 What causes dry rot in timber? 5 What risk is associated with working with treated pine timber? 88 WOODWORKING @rlm™ ‘Asin any specialised field, itis wise to discuss any specific preservation problems with experts. Organisations, such as the Division of Wood Technology, the Plywood Association of Australia and the Timber Development Association, will be glad to provide additional information when requested Commercial uses of timber Timber characteristics ‘There are various timber characteristics that dictate diverse use. The guidelines that make timber especially suitable for structural, joinery and cabinetwork are: © good strength-to-weight ratio © adaptability for a variety of uses © ease of working and joining with glues and ‘mechanical fasteners © pleasing appearance (aesthetics). ‘The following disadvantages also need to be considered: * susceptible to attack by insects and fungi ‘+ prone to variations in quality, when compared with metal, due to the effects of grain direction, knots, shrinkage and moisture content ‘+ susceptible to the weather, necessitating the application of a preservative. Used structurally, timber is subject to the same stresses as steel, but resists them in a different way. This is why joints, struts and braces in timber must be designed to resist compression stresses, while in steel they must resist tension stresses. Forestry Considerable concern has been expressed for some years now regarding the increasing rate at which timber is being used. Some countries have made positive moves to reduce the rate of disappearing forests by practising sustainable yield through. silviculture, Silviculture is a managed plantation s7e0170811516system controlling the establishment, growth, ‘composition and quality of forest vegetation, the conservation of water resources, recreational areas and wildlife habitats, and the level of livestock grazing, “The practice of sustainable yield involves trying, to grow at least as much wood as is being used in the timber industry by plantation work, natural regrowth and disciplined harvesting. Unfortunately, as yet, this is not being met on a global scale. World forests ‘Almost half of the world’s original forest cover has been lost since the last ice age, with most of this, loss occurring since the 1960s. Study the map in Figure 4.25 and you will see that, setting aside the large desert areas and the regions near the North and South Poles where no forests exist, there are ‘two natural belts of timber: softwoods (conifers) extending across the northern part from the Arctic, Circle down to about the 50th latitude and hardwoods covering the tropical areas. Although the Northern, Hemisphere contains the natural pine belt, pines are plantation cultivated in all parts of the world, just as ‘Australian eucalypts are cultivated in other countries. report from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) indicates that forests Figure 4.24 Forestry Australia’s facts 9780170811516 pial et Sefuond Meedhacnod and Tod tors, Ml cnccd toes, MM Conon fons Ml food treats erase cera one toy tinh ore aay re famed ee tar rae Figure 4.25 Distribution of the world’s softwood and hardwood forests CHAPTER 4+ TIMBER PROPERTIES AND USES 59were reduced by 3 per cent in 1990-2015 to a total of 3999 million hectares, which represents 31 per cent of the globe's land mass. This represents a drop in the rate of deforestation, Rainfall, temperature and soil conditions are the factors affecting not only the distribution of forest areas throughout the world, but also the variations that occur in the timber produced by the same species in different regions. For example, English oak, American oak and Japanese oak are all members of the Quercus family, but they differ from each other in density, colour, weight and texture. @Q FACT HMS Victory, best known as Lord Nelson's flagship at the 1805 Battle of Trafalgar, was built using an estimated 5000 mature English oak trees. There were 27 ships like it making up the Royal Navy fleet; even more in the French: Spanish alliance. ‘The majority of Australia’s more than one million hectares of softwood plantations consist of radiata pine. About 70 per cent of the softwood timber we consume in Australia is domestically grown. Radiata pine takes approximately 25-35 years to mature; and therefore, provide a return on investment. Only two other softwoods, cypress pine and hoop pine, are of commercial importance. Australia has more than 980000 hectares of hardwoods in plantations so far - much of which is lower value and used for wood fibre and paper production. Eucalypts (hardwoods) are predominant; New South Wales has about 240 different species, of which only about 20, chiefly blackbutt, are exploited to any extent. Forestry: what is it? ‘There are five main aspects summing up the use of forest lands. They are central to the science and art of forestry management: 1 Maximum yield of timber products. Research by bodies, such as the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), results in the creation of more efficient methods for achieving maximum yield from timber products (.e. reafforestation). 2 Conservation of water resources. Watersheds in Australia are within the tree line, and because 60 | woopworKING removal of forests from catchment slopes causes silting of creeks and dams, forest management plays a vital role. 3. Preservation of outdoor recreation areas. The rapid increase in urban populations means that certain forest areas must also service recreational use by the general public. 4 Provision of a secure habitat for wildlife. Most wild creatures live in the forests so they must be allowed unhindered use of areas, or face extinction. 5 Controlled grazing for domestic livestock. Grazing, within forest lands is approved in order to meet the demand for animal feeding; however, a balance must be reached so that livestock is not in direct competition with wildlife for food. It has been stated that grazing contributes to the bushfire hazard by accelerating erosion; and therefore, decreasing water catchment. Conservation Europe's first plan to regenerate forest lands dates back to 1750, In Australia, New South Wales led the charge to control timber cutting in 1839, but it was not until the early 1900s, following the establishment of the Forestry Commission to control and manage the state's timber forests and reserves, that the first attempt was made to practise forestry as we now know it. Since then, planting programs have established new hardwood forests and, more notably, considerable areas of softwoods (conifers). By 1973, 100000 hectares of pine had been planted in New South Wales, and planting was expected to continue at the rate of 6000 hectares annually. According to the NSW Department of Primary Industries there were about 251 500 hectares of radiata pine plantations in New South Wales in 2005. Preservation of suitable tees in existing forests, so that they may develop to advantage, is achieved by three operations: thinning, pruning and protection from fire. Thinning ‘Within nature, a forest thins itself; the more vigorous ‘wees outgrow the weakest and the slow growers, which are more prone to insect and fungal attack. By using planned thinning, foresters ensure the preservation to maturity of useful species with good shape and size. In pine plantations, thinning is large scale, By initially planting trees closer together, this. process promotes straight stems, branch shedding s7e0170411516Figure 4,26 Thinning managed forests and encourages upward growth towards the light. Thinning removes the trees with poor growth, large branches, forks and bent trunks. This leaves only the best quality trees (Figure 4.26). ‘Trees are planted at intervals of 2.5m in rows 3m apart, which translates to about 1300 trees, per hectare. By the end of 12 years, the number remaining after thinning is about 500 per hectare ‘Thinning is conducted around five-year intervals, until at 35-40 years there are around 150 per hectare left standing, Thinnings are achieved using chainsaws or poison treatments. Smaller thinnings can be chipped for mulch and larger ones are used for fuel and posts, or pulped. The total yield from a hectare of uch a pine forest is about 166m, Pruning ‘Asa tree grows, the lower branches play a less active part in the life process and eventually die and are shed, In eucalypts this happens at an early stage and the stubs of fallen branches heal quickly, producing long, clean trunks with few knots. In pines and most other trees whose foliage requires less light than that of ceucalypts, the lower branches remain for much longer. When they do die and fall, loose knots are formed in the trunk, spoiling the timber quality. The aim of pruning is to prevent such knots by removing the lower branches while still living, Subsequent growth on the pruned section will then be knot-free. The usual practice is to prune all trees around eight years of age, when the height is usually about nine metres. Then, at 13 years, trees that are selected to remain for the final felling are pruned five metres from the ground. s7e0r70411816 ‘The advantages of pruning are fourfold, 4 Itimproves the shape of the tree and its log 2. It produces clean timber, free from knots and defects. Itaids in fire proofing because the removal of lower branches reduces fuel for ground fires. Itimproves access to all parts of the forest for logging and other activities. Protection from fire Controlled fires are used to clear a site for planting, preparing seed beds, burning off dense undergrowth prior to logging and exterminating plagues of insects. Uncontrolled fires bring the risk of loss of life and property as well as destruction of recreational areas, and natural food of birds and animals; however, they also have serious implications for forest management. ‘Mature trees may be burnt or, if not killed, severely damaged. Scorching of the crown (the top branches and leaves, which play a vital role in maintaining the tree's food supply) will retard development; destruction of bark leaves a tree prone to attack by termites or fungus; defects such, as gum veins may be caused, spoiling the timber’s appearance. Fire may lower the commercial value of a forest area by destroying useful species, such as blackbutt, which grow only from seed, and allowing. less desirable species that propagate by lignotubers to grow again. By destroying humus (the mulched material formed from dead leaves and other organic matter, which supplies important chemical elements to the soil), fire may change the nature of the soil to CHAPTER 4+ TIMBER PROPERTIES AND USES 61such a degree that it either will not support tree life or will produce only inferior quality timber. Fire-control measures are concerned with the three main factors that cause fires; namely, fuel material that will bum (dry grass and undergrowth, fallen bark, leaves and sticks), oxygen (present in the air) and heat (flames, sparks, lightning) to cause ignition. Fie trails criss- crossing the forest are vital for fire control, providing access roads for vehicles, people and equipment. Fire prevention is the best remedy and is being aided in ‘Australia by the enforcement of penalties for lighting fires in the open and by research into the causes of ire. It isestimated that lightning is responsible for only 1 per cent of bushfires in Australia. The remainder are caused by carelessness with camping and picnic fires, or during ‘burning-off and clearing operations. Reafforestation Forests regenerate naturally as trees shed seeds and form lignotubers. Species seed at different ages (some eucalypts at 4-5 years, Monterey pine at 10 years) and spread their seeds over a distance equal to t height. A lignotuberis a woody mass formed by some trees in the first shoot of seedlings, carrying food reserves and dormant buds. As the tree grows, the lignotubers bury into the ground, remaining dormant until the tree is felled or destroyed, when, subject to the right conditions, they form new growth. Most eucalypt forests play host to about 1250 lignotubers per hectare, Deliberate cultivation of forests, known as silviculture, involves replanting or reseeding with ue regard to the site and the method of cutting ‘existing timber. Clear felling and selection are the two operational systems, Clear felling Clear felling involves four different methods. New plantations are established by clear felling and planting, When the whole of the usable crop is felled at one time, the site is cleared and the new crop planted. Simplicity is the main advantage, ensuring planting of the required species, and, since the seedlings are usually one or two years old, this allows the correct spacing of trees. Disadvantages include cost, risk of soil erosion caused by wholesale clearing, the necessity of first growing nursery trees to shelter seedlings (if they are of a frost-sensitive type), and the fact that failure of the crop, or destruction by fire or vermin, means total area replanting. 62 wooDworKING Another method of clear felling avoids seed trees of desirable species so the area can regenerate after other trees have been removed. The advantage is no reliance upon pre-grown seedlings, and if any ‘young trees die, the seed trees replenish the stock. Disadvantages include that regeneration may be uneven, depending on the seeding cycle, and that seed trees are very exposed and may deteriorate or be damaged by wind. variation is called strip felling, in which the seed trees are left in strips. This provides more effective seed distribution and more shelter which leaves young trees less exposed to the elements. Under the fourth method, the ‘sheltered system’, the old crop is felled in gradual stages, allowing small trees to develop and the new crop to establish itself before all the old trees have been felled. Selection Selection operates similarly to the sheltered system of clear felling in that the largest trees are felled as they mature, leaving the smaller ones to develop. ‘The ‘individual’ system, which operates well in Switzerland, where trees of all sizes grow side by side and removal of a single tree has no effect, is not practical in Australia. ‘The ‘group’ system, as the name implies, sees groups of trees felled (in areas up to half a hectare) rather than single trees. This system is often used in ‘eucalypt forests, where gaps, formed mainly through the loss of trees by fire, have been filled with much younger self sown trees. Removing the older trees enables the young ones to develop more effectively. Selection systems are useful where species sensitive to exposure are grown, but logging costs are high owing. to the smal yield of trees for felling, with the total unpredictable and variable. The cutting cycle is usually about 10 years, which means that one-tenth of the area is cut every year. Contrast this with clear felling systems, in which the cutting cycle is from 30-60 years. Forest products as commercial raw materials Besides supplying the needs of structural and general woodworking use, forest products produce the raw ‘material used in many manufacturing processes igure 4.27) 9780170811516shes Cheving gu stoRAK— Some See fee Rehime solder —Flevounng retngink oro reworks] Drags — STORK —| Papers pacar coum Rosny [-—sesns jos coerurrnne [9X5] Drags Prints, stain Varnishes soe aah seruce ‘Camphor | Sogae— SAP mph Drugs ms Os, waxes confections | 9? ae chewing =n Insecta usser eee (a [—cLomes Rubber Products Yypnin La turer bu COR Peat OE Rosin OF cramps Turpentine CChaeoal __ pisrLLATION Wiood ar stain, sorrwooo |_ rue saeco ots T cuarcon. chara f-rurwooo Tg 1 ove Wood alcohol MAIN BRANCHES Grwosste Trane eta offine (condwooed ccm | mscoosgs ceUILOse Fasten Fe! | Tee Yeni | Sones rovers Sr \ 1 I Rayon, cellophane, PAPER ond | bain rose pes Soest tn, | SECS ts i} ; FIBREBOARO ‘ius ns tutto ee wee ———ractowes fess tee —— es PALWaY VENEERS FUEL UMDERGUSE_ ares Sa Roar Soe coe Pood eae foo eee Se Rem Sn fae fore oa Ea eeehoned Vcthuboods dee Some Tents vicars Figure 4.27 The many products derived from a tree. 7e0170411516 CHAPTER 4 + TIMBER PROPERTIES AND USES 63Sawdust utilisation ‘This is an important factor in overcoming a major cause of waste in timber conversion, with sawdust accounting for up to 20 per cent of a log. Problems with its use include transport, separation of species, colour grading, resin content and particle size; however, further research may produce marketable solutions to these problems. Although attempts to produce sawdust-based boards have not been fully developed, sawdust is used commercially for fuel, bedding litter for cattle, packing, insulation, stuffing and food preservatives. It is also used to manufacture linoleum, plastics, explosives and abrasives, and as a composition ingredient in concrete, cast clay products, stucco and plaster. Paper pulp ‘The paper and pulp industry uses more than 40 per cent of the industrial wood traded globally, according. to the World Wildlife Fund. Austealia isa relatively small industry player, but Australians are recognised. as consuming 230kg of paper products per person every year, comparable with the United States, while Western Europe's per capita usage is 179g, Latin America 79kg, Asia 41 kg and Africa 8kg. Australians are consuming too much paper with very litle consideration about where that paper is sourced from and how itis made, Witha history spanning 2000 years, making papers still basically the same process: logs are cut into chips, which are ground and pulped with water and chemicals to make the fibres bind. The pulp is bleached, then formed into a mat and compressed between rollers, Chemicals and other materials are produced from wood by distillation and allied processes. Creosote, methanol, acetone and tar are distilled, leaving charcoal as a by-product. Other products include wood alcohol for making synthetic rubber and explosives, tannin for the leather industry, and resin and turpentine tapped from living trees as well as, produced from wood waste, Specific uses for special timbers Based on their particular qualities, different timbers aid in special applications. Cypress pine contains guagol and callitral, which make it resistant to decay and a resinous substance that makes it termite-resistant. Therefore, it has a 64 WOODWORKING special value as scantling, flooring, weatherboards and lining for house construction, as well as fence posts and vineyard trellises. Lignum vitae, while not a structural or cabinet timber, boasts a density and hardness that makes it particularly suitable for bearings for artillery ‘weapons, stern tube bearings in ships, pulley sheaves, gear wheels, mallet heads and tool parts. There is a marked difference in colour between the dark brown heartwood and the yellow sapwood. Teak, seen in furniture and veneer, has long been used for joinery and decking on ships and boats. Natural oils withstand water immersion and make for a long life, while there is little shrinkage or twisting, Itis also highly resistant to fire and termites, Spotted gum, a useful structural timber, has high shock-resistance and good bending qualities, making it ideal for ships’ ribs and planks, for vehicle bodybuilding and bent work. Its the best available Australian timber for tool handles. ‘Turpentine, a structural timber, is resistant to the ‘Teredo worm, a marine borer, and is used for building wharves, where the bark is often left on, because it is believed that the oleoresin present in the inner bark repels the Teredo. Turpentine is the least flammable of all Australian timbers. The working characteristics of commonly used cabinet timbers * Radiata pine. The most economical softwood timber on the market. Itis easy to work (plane or chisel) except for knots and it nails satisfactorily. Its high resin content can make it hard to glue and it clogs up abrasive paper easily. Back-sawn pieces can cup easily but have attractive grain figure. Can take a very good finish; will darken with age and exposure to light. © Meranti, Phillippine mahogany and luaun (all from the Shorea family). Among the cheapest and most readily available of the hardwoods. Works well, apart from the lighter coloured varieties that tend to collapse when chiselling across the grain. There is a tendency for these timbers to split along the tain, so be aware. Relatively straight grained and 9780170411516knot free, these timbers can take a good finish; ‘The following tables dissect hardwoods and however, some examples have a furry surface and _softwoods, Australian and imported. Note, some are require the grain to be lifted and re-sanded. getting quite scarce and are now protected. Table 4.2 Australian hardwoods ener) Set cork ates istribution __| den: i Ash, silver Almost white Fairly close texture, Easy to work Veneers, plywood, 670kg/m? straight grain, glues and stains panelling, interior Nowe sometimes with and finishes well; decoration, flooring, Queensland, interlocked, wavy, good seasoning _ining, joinery, tennis north NSW. fiddleback and timber, doesnot _ racquets, cricket stumps, ribbonlike figure warp or twist; baseball bats, boat ribs, bends well sail slats, oars and sculls Blackbutt Pale brown Usually straight Hard, strong and General building - 880-1030kg/ grain; moderately durable construction, scantlings, Coastal NSW, im? close texture, often floorings, sleepers, posts, rae Fi with small gum poles, shipbuilding, jueenstam veins fencing and paving blocks Blackwood Reddish brown Straight grain, Strong and tough; Furniture and cabinet f 640kg/m? moderately open _excellent for work, shop and office Rea texture; fissile steam bending; fittings, panelling, billiard ee but sapwood tables, parquetry flooring, een eet susceptible to inlays and aeroplane except WA Lyctus borer members attack Bean, Dark walnut Rather open Durable; high Panelling, cabinet work, black with pale texture; alternating electrical shop and office fittings sapwood light and dark resistance; does. and wood carving North NSW, 770 kg/m? zones not glue well; ) Queensland Cees dermatitis Box, brush Paleto Close texture, Hard and tough; Bridge and wharf decking, reddish brown often slightly somewhat liable paving blocks, coach and cca coast 910 kg/m? interlocked grain towarpandtwist carriage work, mauls and oe _ a in seasoning; mallets, woodworking, Stephens, NSW. ‘excellent wearing plain high-class floors, 4 poe 4 qualities; durable, general building purposes, ee resistant to wedges and shipbuilding termites yards Cedar, red Light to Open texture Soft, aromatic, Cabinet work and deep red light, easy to joinery, racing skis, Coastal Fi 420kg/m? ‘work; very durable pattemmaking, sheathing, NSWien when exposed to interior panelling, show Queensland, is pa i a8 4 weather cases, carving, shop and Pacific Islands office fitings, veneers and plywood graor70ani5i6 CHAPTER 4+ TIMBER PROPERTIES AND USES 65Name and fear Coachwood —_Pinkish colour; or scented darkens on satinwood exposure NSW coast eon and ranges Gum, Pale colour spotted 950kg/m* Coast of NSW and Queensland Ironbark Deep red Coast and ee dividing range in NSW and Queensland Jarrah Redgish South-west wa S80ka/m Maple, Pinkish Queensland 580kg/m’ North Queensland tablelands Oak, Brownish pink northern 550kg/m? silky North Queensland rainforests 66 woopworKING Close texture, rather tough; often prettily figured Moderately open texture; grain often interlocked; fine concentric lines of soft tissue Close texture, usually with interlocked grain Straight grain, moderately close texture Moderately close texture Rather open texture, prominent medullary rays Ce Roce keen Retr tes ee Somewhat leathery to work; readily polished Rotary-cut veneers and plywood, veneer and corestock Strong, tough; All classes of building broad sapwood construction; shipbuilding; particularly heavy oars; axe, pick and subject to hammer handles destruction by powder post borer Hard, strong and durable; ranks high in ironboark group Heavy construction work ofall kinds, sleepers, poles, posts, bridge and wharf building and paving blocks Durable and fire- resistant Used in WA for general building purposes, flooring, rusticated weatherboards, shipbuilding, wood paving, posts, sleepers, panelling, cabinet work, carving; used in NSW for high-class parquetry flooring, rusticated weatherboards and chamfered fencing Readily seasoned; can be easily fumed; excellent cabinet wood High-class furniture, interior joinery, mouldings, panelling, shop and office fittings, boat building, rifle stocks and window sashes Moderately soft; excellent for steam bending; sapwood wide and highly susceptible to borer attack Cabinet work, plywood, shop and office fittings, interior joinery, mouldings, panelling, turnery and car hood bows s7ag170811516Reena) Pew Sassafras Hunter River, NSW to Mary Valley district, Queensland st igybark South-east Australia and Tasmania Tallowwood NSW central coast to Fraser Island, Queensland Turpentine NSW and ‘Queensland coast ) Walnut, Queensland North Queensland rainforests 9700170411516 Yellow to yellowish brown 610-720kg/m* Pale colour 740kg/m* Greyish yellow 980kg/m! Reddish brown 930kg/m? Varies from yellowish or reddish brown to dark chocolate 700kg/m’ Close texture, straight grain Rather open texture, usually straight grain Fairly close text greasy nature Close texture, usually straight grain Moderately close texture, freque with rich figure Colour and | Grain and texture Uses eee Not durable ‘exposed to weather; sapwood highly susceptible to attack by powder post borer Strong, easily worked; sapwood highly susceptible to attack by powder post borer ture, Gard, heavy, strong and very durable; sapwood liable to powder post borer attack Hard; difficult to season, being liable to warp and twist; most resistant to attack by marine borers; specifically fre resistant Contains silica, making it difficult to work with hand and machine tools; slices well to make attractive veneer; highly electrical resistant tly Cabinet work, interior joinery and fittings, small tool handles, tumery and plywood General building purposes, furniture and cabinet work, interior joinery and fittings, shingles, palings, cases, wood pulp and paper pulp Floorings, general building, weatherboards, window sils, paving blocks, decking, sleepers, poles, posts, bridge and heavy construction work and works exposed to weather Saltwater piles, wood paving, sleepers, bridge and wharf decking, flooring, scantlings and ship planking Shop and office fittings, all classes of ornamental turnery, veneers; highly prized for decorative furniture and panelling CHAPTER 4+ TIMBER PROPERTIES AND USES 67Table 4.3 Australian softwoods heerae) Cree eek Caged eed | Pine, cypress Pale yellow Close texture, Ratherhard, subject All kinds of to brown pleasant smelling to numerous building purposes, eat ane | ei firm knots, often _scantlings, possessing flooring, beautiful figure for panelling, lining, tumery; slices, but weatherboards and does not peel well; concrete formwork durable in ground and famous for termite resistant properties Pine, hoop Pale yellow to Even texture, Not durable in wet Interior joinery, almost white no pronounced situations; subject shelving, North NSWand 430-64 kg/m? growth rings toblue stain in plywood, flooring, pieersiand) sapwood due to ining, ceilings, fungal attack mouldings, masts, booms end spars, light oars, planking for light boats, cabinet work,and brush and broom stocks Pine, radiata White to Straight grain, Strong and takes All kinds of or Monterey creamy yellow frequent knots, preservatives well _ building purposes, pine 510kg/m* fine texture; mouldings, distinct growth flooring, lining, NSWeand SA’ ee weatherboards, joinery, corestock and plywood manufacture Table 4.4 imported hardwoods Name and | Colour and | Grain and —_| Qualities, Ceca ead | texture Hickory ‘Sapwood Straight Strong, tough, shock World's foremost white, grain; fine resistant, elastic; not durable, _ timber for tool Eastern North truewood and uniform subject to insect attack handles, vehicle peice reddish brown texture; distinct parts, agricultural 800kg/m? fine growth tools, poles, rings shafts, spokes, ladder rungs and gymnastic bars, 68 WOODWORKING 9780170411516Name and Cac Jelutong Malaysia, Indonesia Maple, Pacific (red meranti group) Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand Meranti, red or Borneo cedar Malaya, North Borneo, Philippines Nyatoh ) Malaya, Borneo and Philippines Ramin Sarawak, Borneo Ca ed White or pale yellow 400-500 kg/m? Light pink tored 400-720 kg/m? Pale pink to purple-brown; darkens on exposure 450-720kg/m? Reddish brown, slightly lighter sapwood 510-930kg/m? Light yellow 640kg/m? rr ei Rather fine, even texture; fairly straight Cre Soft and light; contains latex deposits, making it unsuitable for face work; saws easily and grain; sapwood planes to good finish; not and heart not clearly defined Interlocking grain Coarse texture; grain usually interlocked, but even Moderately fine to coarse texture; straight grain with occasional interlocking Straight grain, sometimes slightly interlocked; fine and uniform, texture; has distinct ‘odour when unseasoned, durable in exposed positions; sapwood susceptible to Lyctus borer Moderate weight, reasonably easy to work ‘Saws and machines readily; gives good finish; durable in dry situations, but not in contact with ground; attack by pin-hole borer common in green timber Moderately soft to hard and strong; not durable in exposed areas or in contact with ground; seasons well with little degrade; works to a fine finish; holds nails well and takes @ good polish Works well; requires very sharp tools, interlocked areas require most sanding; stains and polishes well; may require boring for nails and screws; not durable, susceptible to surface checking CHAPTER 4 + TIMBER PROPER re Patternmaking, drawing boards, plane tables, carving, matchboxes, ceiling battens, interior joinery; sep used in manufacture of chewing gum Furniture, shop and interior fittings, joinery and cabinet-making Furniture, shop and interior fittings, joinery, flooring, rotary-cut veneer and ship decking Sideboards, wardrobes, drawers, shelving, cigar boxes, patternmaking, general building purposes and ship planking General joinery and fittings; a good furniture wood ES AND USES 69Table 4.5 Imported softwoods eee) opr Grain and texture | Qualities Cesc! density I Cedar, western red North America, British Columbia, Vancouver Island Oregon or Douglas fir North America Upper Ramu and Huon Gulf areas of New Guinea Pine, Parana Brazil Redwood or Sequoia California Dull, pinkish red to deep brown 350kg/m? Pale yellow to reddish brown 420-640kg/m? Straw-coloured 450kg/m? Various shades of brown; sapwood yellowish 480-640 kg/m? Dark reddish 390-500kg/m? 70 woopworKING Straight grain; thin sapwood Straight grain, comparatively free from knots and resin; thin sapwood Straight grain and uniform structure Straight grain, Uniform texture Straight grain Seasons readily takes paint and stains well; good gluing properties; very durable Strong, of moderate weight, fairly durable, easily worked and seasons readily; rarely attacked by borer, but highly susceptible to termites, not suitable for damp situations Soft to cut and easy to work; gives smooth finish; not durable in wet situations; subject to blue stain in sapwood due to fungal attack Easy to work; holds paint well; sapwood not liable to attack from powder post borer Soft, easily worked; great durability in weather, highly resistant to fire, borers and termites All interior joinery, doors, rusticated weatherboards, shingles, laths, patternmaking, veneer, corestocks and many exterior applications All building purposes, ladders, plywood, masts and spars, oars and interior joinery Interior building purposes, flooring, lining, joinery, mouldings, battens, furniture, cabinet work, plywood and veneers, tumery and patternmaking Interior joinery, shelving, plywood, flooring, lining, ceilings, moulding, masts, booms and spars, light oars, planking for light boats, cabinet work, and brush and broom stocks All interior joinery, doors, rusticated weatherboards, shingles, laths, patternmaking, veneer, corestock and many exterior applications 170411516Something to think about: old-growth forests, silviculture, self- sustainability, logging and ecosystems Before we delve more deeply into this section itis important to define afew concepts, such as old- growth forests and ecosystems. An old-growth forest is an ecologically mature forest where the cffects of disturbances are negligible. An ecosystem (C\sa community of plants and animals and their environment, functioning as a unit. /\ Below are facts and statements that are ' associated with various aspects related to the timber industry, such as logging, wood chipping, deforestation, environmental degradation and conservation concerns. Itis important to bear in mind that there are two sides to an argument; exaggerations are sometimes made to emphasise a point and wording is altered so that it becomes ambiguous. Read these statements, research the topic on the internet or at the websites provided, discuss them and become more informed about this very important issue. Wilderness Society According to the Wilderness Society, over the next few years 10.8km of new roads are planned within pristine old-growth forests in the Upper Florentine area of Tasmania. Forestry Tasmania has admitted that up to 90 per cent of the timber extracted from the area will end up as woodchips and low value products. A recent report by The Wilderness Society highlights the fact that the majority of Tasmania's old-growth woodchips are exported to Japan. Research the impact of this forestry. 9780170411516 Que A study by the Federal Government Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC), and funded under the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program (JVAP), aimed to ‘identify ways to enhance the conservation value of exotic softwood radiata pine (Pinus radiata) plantations in south-eastern Australia. The work was focused in the Tumut region of southern New South Wales (NSW). This publication outlines the design of a study that has begun to address key issues of plantation design and management the Tumut region. Summarise some of the principles that can be embraced to increase the conservation value of both existing plantation landscapes and new areas targeted for future plantation expansion. CHAPTER 4 + TIMBER PROPERTIES AND USES nEcotourism The United Nations (UN) General Assembly has approved the adoption of 2017 as the international Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development. Discuss the role of ecotourism and its impacts upon the timber industry 25 innovative woodworking tools Wood Magazine's editors recently published th list of 25 of the most innovative woodworking tools of the past quarter-century. Discuss some of the list inclusions. 72 WOODWORKING Plantation 2020 Softwood can be harvested as early as 25-35 years for investment returns; hardwoods take about 80 years to become harvestable. This represents a long-term investment and means there is a need to plant on a large, rotational scale for a continual return As an interesting exercise, compare and contrast old-growth logging and sustainable silviculture. Does Australia still export and/or import wood in any form? s7e0t70411516CHAPTER Calculate the total cubic metres of ‘two pieces of timber, each measuring 5000 150 x 40mm. Sketch the changes to wood cells from a freshly cut tree to fully seasoned timber. Fully label all diagrams. Describe two methods of seasoning timber, Sketch and fully label a diagram of the end of a stack of air drying timber. Give the full name of an Australian plantation softwood, State the function of each of the following parts of a tree: cambium layer, roots, leaves, bark and medullary rays. Why does a tree die when it is ring barked? Draw and label a sketch showing how a knot is formed on a growing tree, State the name of one timber that gets its figure from medullary rays. Sketch how this timber is milled from a log, 97801704 ibs 10 1 12 13 14 QUESTIONS Neatly sketch a log showing the annual rings, medullary rays, bark, cambium layer and pith. Lightly shade the heartwood area. Why are galvanised iron caps placed under the bearers when a structure is being built? Identify each of the following timbers as either Australian or imported and hardwood or softwood: meranti, jarrah, Oregon, coachwood, spotted gum, cypress pine, silver ash, ramin and western red cedar. Sketch tangential sawn and radial sawn pine planks and indicate the effect of shrinkage on the end view. Draw on the flat main surface of the plank the grain lines you would expect to see ‘What class of timber makes up the bulk of Australian forests? Name two important varieties of this timber. CHARTER 4 73