GENERAL AGRICULTURE

Land use
Population growth and land use
• Population is defined as the total number of people or organisms occupying an area at
any given time
• Population growth refers to the increase in the number of people living in an area
• Population growth is a result of births and migration of people into an area
• As the total of settled people increases, more land is used to build homes, towns,
industries, recreational parks and many other human activities

Effects of population growth on land use

Pressure on resources
• Population growth results in increased need for resources such as roads, schools, clinics
and hospitals
• Demand for natural resources such as firewood also increase leading to high levels of
deforestation leaving the soil bare and prone to erosion causing land degradation

Increased demand for residential land

• As the total number of people living in an area increase, more land is needed to build
homes social facilities such as parks, sports facilities, industries and commercial business
areas
• This will take up potential land for agriculture and some farms leading to reduced
cropping and grazing land

Increased demand for agricultural land

• Population increase results in family land holdings being reduced to smaller units as a
result of subdivision of land to younger generations
• Each created family unit will have smaller subdivision units with less cropping land
• When family units have small land holdings, food production levels are reduced,
eventually leading to hunger and starvation

Degradation of the environment

• Destruction of natural surroundings will result from overuse of some natural resources to
levels that impact negatively on the environment
• Intensified agricultural activities are carried out while industrial activities increase to
meet the increasing demand in agricultural and industrial products
• This leads to high levels of erosion and pollution of the environment by agro-chemicals
and industrial wastes as well as domestic wastes
• Gas pollutants from vehicles and industries can result in the formation of acid rain which
is destructive to vegetation resulting in reduced soil cover and reduced evapotranspiration
leading to increased erosion and reduced rainfall respectively
Solutions to problems of population growth
Family planning awareness
• This involves making people aware of the need for family planning, its advantages and
details available birth control methods
• This can be done through public shows by relevant health authorities, community based
health workers and public media adverts on televisions, phones, newspapers and
billboards

Environmental awareness campaigns

• Government departments (EMA & AGRITEX), schools and authorities should educate
people on the effects of pollution and encourage safe disposal of waste materials
• Farmers should be encouraged to adopt better methods of farming by extension workers
from the ministry of agriculture
• Awareness campaigns will the citizens to use resources wisely in a way that promotes use
of the resources over generations thus minimizing pressure on resources is minimized

Technological advances
• This involves the use of electricity, production equipment, processes and agricultural
practices that have reduced or no environmental damage
• Use of alternative energy sources such as solar and gas energy reduce the number of trees
cut down for firewood thus reduce deforestation and its effects
• There is also need for advanced technology that treats industrial and vehicle fumes to
harmless wastes that have no effect on the environment
• Other advances in technology involves environmentally friendly technology that are
efficient and ensure sustainable use of natural resources e.g. energy saver lights

Establishment of social facilities

• The availability of schools, universities, social welfare funds and entertainment facilities
help slow down population growth as the sexually active generations will be occupied to
some extent in their studies and carrier specialization areas

Farming systems
• Farming systems are ways in which production s carried out on a farm as a unit e.g.
mixed farming, monoculture or crop rotation

Mixed farming
• Involves practicing both crop and livestock production on the same farm
• The farm is partitioned into sections which are allocated to crop and livestock production.
• The farm will have different livestock and crop enterprises e.g. broiler production, dairy
farming, wheat and tobacco farming on the same farm.

Advantages
• Crop residues can be used as supplementary animal feed
• Manure from animals can be used in crop lands as a source of nutrients
• There is additional income from animals or crops instead of relying on one enterprise
• Improved nutrition for people due to a variety of products on the farm
• Economics on space.
• Allows spreading of risks or reducing the impact of unforeseen hazards that results in
production losses

Disadvantages
• Loss of specialization thus needs a lot of capital to purchase various equipment
• More labour is required
• Control of pests and diseases is difficult
• It is difficult to practice on a small piece of land

Monoculture
• Is a practice of growing the same crop year after year on the same piece of land
• It is practiced where crop is in high and constant demand e.g. Maize in communal areas
or when perennial crops such as citrus fruits, apples, peach and banana are grown

Advantages
• Allows specialisation and use of machinery without difficulties
• Supplies crops on high and constant demand
• Works well under limited land use in small holder farmers

Disadvantages
• Leads to destruction of soil structure thus weakening the soil resulting in increased
erosion
• Results in continuous depletion of nutrients due to their extraction at the same depth
• Leads to high levels of disease and pest build up which may be difficult to control
• In the event of drought or pest outbreak, total crop failure and yield loss may occur

Intercropping
• This is a farming practice that involve the growing of more than one crop at the same
time on the same piece of land e.g. A farmer can grow field beans and maize at the same
time in the same field

Advantages
• If one crop fails a farmer can rely on the other crop
• Economics on space as more than one crop can be produced on the same piece of land
• There is one land preparation for two crops or more
• There is uniform utilization of nutrients at all depths of soil because different crops have
different rooting zones.
• Reduces disease build-up
• Reduces soil erosion through provision of ground cover when broadleaved crops are
included

Disadvantages
• Prevents the use of machinery e.g. One cannot use a cultivator to control weeds.
• Prevents the use of selective herbicides
• Bushy crops may harbour pests that may affect other crops in the intercrop
Environmental factors influencing agriculture
Modification of adverse environmental factors
Excessive rainfall
• May result in flush floods which are very destructive to crops and livestock
• Farmers should avoid settling and carrying out farming activities in low lying areas that
are prone to flooding
• Dam construction helps to collect flood water and reduce flooding on other areas

Drought
• This is when very little rainfall is received during the rainy season resulting in crop
failure and reduced crop yield as well as death of livestock
• Construction of dams and other water harvesting methods can help provide a constant
supply of water for irrigation and livestock
• Tied ridging and pot holing help to reduce surface runoff and encourage infiltration of
water for storage in the soil thus increases the effectiveness of rainfall
• Practicing mulching and conservation tillage methods which reduces evaporation and
conserve soil moisture

Hailstorm
• This refers to precipitation in the form of frozen water that fall at high velocity and shred
plant leaves or kill small livestock
• Farmers in hailstorm prone areas should carry out practices that are not affected by
hailstorm such as small livestock production in protected housed environment
• In such areas, farmers should avoid growing leaf crops and grow plants less affected by
hailstorm

Strong wind
• Strong winds destroy crops, cause flower drop, fruit drop and lodging in some crops
• This may significantly reduce yields or result in no yields at all
• Farmers can grow wind breaks (tree lines) to reduce wind speed to levels that are less
destructive to crops
• Farmers can also carry out activities that are less affected by strong winds

Extreme high temperature

• Causes crops to wither and die

Methods of reducing the effects of extreme high

temperature o Supply adequate water through irrigation. o
Mulching to reduce evaporation.
o Transplanting under cool conditions such as late afternoon or cloudy conditions. o
Shading seedlings or transplanted seedlings to reduce heat from direct sunlight
o Use of greenhouses in which temperature can be modified to suite the crop’s
requirements
Extreme low temperature
• Causes frost damage on crops and death of animals

Methods of reducing the effects of extreme low temperature o Sprinkling water on

crops early morning or late in the evening o Avoid having tea, coffee and tobacco
seedbeds in areas prone to frost e.g. valleys.
o Choose planting dates which prevent frost hitting the crop at its susceptible growth
stage.
o Construct frost barriers e.g. thatch grass barriers. o Building proper housing facilities
that supply adequate warmth to livestock o Use of greenhouses in which temperature
can be modified to suite the crop’s requirements

Forestry
Softwoods and hardwoods
Differences between softwoods and hardwoods
Softwoods Hardwoods
• Produce less durable timber • Produce very strong and durable timber
• Produced from coniferous tree species • Produced from pod bearing tree species
• Easy to cut and work with • Difficult to cut and work with
• Examples: Mexican pine, Slash pine • Examples: Mukwa (bloodwood), Teak,
Mahogany, Saligna gum (Eucalyptus
grandis)
Tree nursery
• A tree nursery is a place set aside for raising of seedlings or young plants before they are
transplanted to their permanent planting positions
• The seedlings in a tree nursery can be raised in float trays, plastic pockets filled with
planting media (soil mixtures) or prepared beds on the ground

Factors influencing the choice of a tree nursery site

• The suitable site should be free from termite and ant activity
• Soils must be well drained
• Areas that are prone to frost should be avoided
• The site must be near a good and reliable water source
• The slope must be gentle to allow free drainage

Establishment of a tree nursery

• Most forest trees are established from seeds in polythene bags or kaylite trays filled with
prepared soil mixtures or pine bark as planting media
• The seed is sown to correct depth guided by a wood tool while small seeds such as gum
tree seeds are picked using a nail head for sowing
• The pockets sown with seeds are then watered and treated with Adrin to prevent termite
attack on the seedlings
• The pockets are covered with grass and watered with a can fitted with a fine rose
• The pockets are watered regularly and germination is checked every day after 7-10 days
from sowing
• When the seeds germinate, watering continues steadily avoiding aver watering which
may encourage damping-off of the seedlings
• Small seeded trees sown in trays are pricked or transplanted into polythene pockets until
for growth until they reach the ideal size for transplanting onto permanent stations
• Constantly check for pests and diseases
• Hardening off is done to condition the seedlings for field environment usually by
reducing watering frequency

Tree establishment
Site for planting
• A good site should have deep, fertile and well drained soils
• The site should be cleared off all plant material by stumping and cutting grass
• The land should be ploughed and levelled

Tree plantation layout

• Forest planting layouts include triangular, rectangular, hexagonal and quincox layout
• Most forest trees are spaced 2.5 metres apart using any one of the four planting layouts
however, where thin straight logs are required, a smaller spacing of 75cm to 100cm

• between rows and 25cm to 30cm between plants in rows is used

Seedling selection
• Healthy disease free seedlings should be used for establishing plantations
• Seedlings should be transplanted when they are pencil thick and about 20cm to 30cm tall

Transplanting
• This is the removal of seedlings from the nursery for planting onto their permanent
planting stations
• The seedlings should be watered at least an hour before they are pulled out
• The polythene bag should be carefully removed with minimum damage to the roots,
making sure the soil on or around the roots remain intact
• Place the seedlings gently in the planting hole and cover with soil
• Firm the soil around the planted tree to exclude air pockets
• Water the planted trees and shade if temperatures are too high

Tree plantation management

• Established tree plantations are managed by protecting the plants from animals, veld fires,
harsh weather, weeds, pests and diseases
• Termites should be monitored and controlled
• Fire guards (grass free bands) should be made around plantations to protect the trees from
veld fires
• It is also necessary to prune and train the trees to grow straight

Wildlife
Sustainable utilisation of wildlife resources
• This refers to the use of resources in a way that does not affect the natural balance,
quality and availability of the resources for future generations

Methods of sustainable wildlife utilisation

• Monitoring killing of wild animals and harvesting of forest products following set
government policies and laws
• Practicing non-consumptive use of wildlife resources which have little harm to the
wildlife such as game viewing, biological and ecological studies, bird watching and
photography
• Protecting wild animals in parks and sanctuaries
• Controlling trade of wildlife resources and preventing trade on endangered species
• Use of traditional customs that help in sustainable utilisation of wildlife where some
communities still respect them

Traditional customs that help in sustainable utilisation of wildlife

o Certain clans do not kill their totem animals
o Some forests, rivers or mountains are regarded as sacred thus they are not frequented
by humans and are left in their natural state
o Cutting of trees or harvesting of wild fruit trees is prohibited and monitored by
traditional leaders
o Some animals are regarded as sacred and cannot be killed or eaten by the public e.g.
python and pangolin

Endangered plant and animal species

• Endangered species are organisms which are near levels of disappearing completely
(extinction)

Endangered plants Endangered animals

o Flame lily o o Pangolin o
Aloe Python o
Elephant o
Rhinoceros o
Cheetah
Dangerous and problem animals
Dangerous animals
• These are wild animals that cause harm to livestock and humans e.g. hyena, leopard, king
cobra snake, buffalo, rhino and hippopotamus
Ways of dealing with dangerous animals
• Putting the animals in protected enclosures to prevent them from encountering people in
the local community
• The department of wildlife should assist by controlling the animals through fencing to
keep the animals away from homesteads and through provision of game reserves or
protected areas
• Animals such as elephants and stray lions are killed or captured by wildlife authorities

Problem animals
• These are animals that destroy crops and disturb livestock e.g. quelea birds, baboons,
elephants, buffaloes, warthogs, spotted hyena, black backed jackal and wild dog

Ways of dealing with problem animals

• Problem animals can be harvested by killing as a ways of managing them
• Fencing can be done to keep the animals away from human settlements
• Scarecrows can be put to scare baboons and some birds
SOIL AND WATER

Soil profile
• This refers to the different soil layers found vertically form the soil surface to the parent
rock.

Horizon A: Topsoil
• This is where most plant roots grow in.
• It is the soil that is cultivated and nourishes the crops.
• Most biological activities take place here (decomposition) • It is dark in colour because it
contains a lot of organic matter.
• Its structure is influenced by farming activities.
• A soil pan may form in this horizon if ploughing depth is not varied.

Horizon B: Subsoil
• It mainly consist of clay or sand particles
• It is lighter in colour than the topsoil because it contains less organic matter.
• There is less biological activity
• Has fewer plant roots
• There is less disturbance of the soil through tillage
• Nutrients in this layer can be utilized by deep rooted crops e.g. citrus

Horizon C: Partially weathered rock

• This layer contains partly weathered rocks.
• It contains both soil (mostly clay) and rock.
• No organic matter and a few plant roots (mainly of deep rooted trees) are found in this
layer.

Horizon D: Parent rock

• This is the un-weathered parent rock.
• It is a layer of solid rock from which the soil above was formed.
• No water can pass through this layer.
• It may mark the water table.

Importance of soil profile

• Enables the assessment of nutrient and organic matter content in the soil • Studying the
soil profile help to determine soil texture, structure and colour.
• Helps to assess the depth of soil and water table.
• Allow the farmer to determine soil drainage, water retention and aeration.
• Evidence of toxic material can be assessed from the soil profile

Soil types
Composition and properties of soil types
Sandy soil
• Particles are loose and coarse over 50% sand and 20% clay and silt combined
• It has poor water-holding capacity
• It does not stick when wet
• It is well drained and well aerated
• It has low capillarity and high erodibility
• It leaches nutrients readily especially nitrogen
• It is easy to work and provides easy root penetration Clay soil
• Consists of fine soil particles, over 30% clay and less than 50% sand
• It is sticky when wet
• It has high water holding capacity
• It retains soil nutrients
• Clay soils swell when wet and shrink when dry resulting in cracks
• It is poorly drained and poorly aerated
• It is hard to work with and provides poor root penetration • It has low erodibility
Loam soil
• Contains almost equal proportions of sand, silt and clay (30% clay and over 30% sand)
• It sticks to some extent and forms threads with difficulty
• It has moderate water holding capacity
• It is well drained and aerated
• It does not leach soil nutrients (has satisfactory levels of soil nutrients)
• It is easy to work with and provides easy root penetration
• It has moderate porosity
NB: loam soils are the most suitable for crop production.

Soil fertility
• This refers to the amount of plant nutrients in the soil
• Soil fertility determines the capacity of a soil to produce crops
• Major nutrient sources are classified as organic (containing carbon) and in-organic
(manmade)

Organic fertilizers
• These are remains from decomposed plant and animal parts that release nutrients into the
soil
Types of organic fertilizers
Farmyard manure
• they contain a fairly high amount of organic matter
• also contains almost all plant nutrients
• bulk of phosphate is excreted in the dung while urine contains the bulk of nitrogen and
some phosphate
• nitrogen available to plants in farmyard manure is largely in ammonium form (NH+4) and
has to be converted into nitrates through the process of nitrification
• generally applied at 2-4kg/m2
• poultry and sheep manure are more concentrated and should be applied at a lower rate of
1kg/m2 otherwise they cause leaf burns.
Composition of various farmyard manure
Animal N% P2O5% K2O%
Sheep 0.9 0.4 1.0
Horse 0.7 0.3 0.6
Cattle 0.5 0.2 0.5
Pig 0.5 0.4 0.4
Poultry 1.0 0.8 0.4
NB: The nutrient content of each manure depends on the quality of feed taken in by the
animal.
Compost manure
• A mixture of organic residues and soil that have been piled in layers, moistened and
allowed to decompose.
• When applied to the soil it adds both organic matter and plant nutrients.
• It is made from a heap either above or below the soil surface (pit method).
• The pit method is not widely practiced because it requires more labour for digging the
compost material takes longer to decompose because there is less aeration.
Green manure
• A crop (usually leguminous) is grown on a piece of land then ploughed in while it is still
green.
• The best time for ploughing in is just before planting because:
i. The crop will have attained maximum vegetative growth and thus provides a lot
of material for decomposition.
ii. The crop will still be succulent and easily decomposed to release nitrogen and
other nutrients in the form in which they are available for plant uptake.
• Legumes are mostly used as green manures and the common ones are sun hemp, cowpeas
and jack beans.
Advantages and disadvantages of organic fertilizers
Advantages Disadvantages
• Improves nutrient status and water • Takes time to decompose
holding capacity of the soil • May cause pest and disease carry over
• Improves soil structure therefore • They are bulky and large quantities are
drainage and aeration required to be effective
• Improves soil temperature • A lot of labour is required to apply
• Buffers soil pH organic fertilizers
• Improves resistance of the soil to
erosion
• Releases nutrients to the soil over a long
period of time
• Readily available
• Relatively cheap
Inorganic fertilizers
• These are man-made or synthetic nutrient formulations that do not contain carbon
• They are also known as artificial fertilizers
Types of inorganic fertilizers
Straight fertilizers
• These are inorganic formulations that supply only one major nutrient; nitrogen,
phosphorus or potassium
• They are used as top-dressing or for addressing nutrient shortages
Various straight fertilizers
Type of straight fertilizer Examples
Nitrogenous fertilizers • Ammonium nitrate (34.5% N)
• Urea (46% nitrogen)
• Ammonium sulphate (21% N)
• Sodium nitrate (16% N)
 Phosphoric fertilizers • Single super phosphate (SSP)
• Double super phosphate (DSP)
Potassic fertilizers • Muriate of potash (60% K4O
• Sulphate of potash (50% K2O)
Advantages and disadvantages of straight fertilizers
Advantages Disadvantages
• Reduces costs by applying specific • More labour is required if one nutrient is
required nutrient needed
•
Supply known quantities of nutrients • More storage space is needed for storage
•
Exact amount of nutrients recommended of different fertilizers
are applied
Compound fertilizers
• These are inorganic formulations that supply more than one major nutrient
• Compound fertilizers are usually applied as basal dressing before planting or at planting
Various compound fertilizers
Compound N% P% K% S% Micro elements %
A 2 17 15 10 0.1 Boron
B 4 17 15 9 0.1 Boron
C 6 17 15 7.5 0.1 Boron
D 8 14 7 6.5 ---------------
J 15 5 20 3.4 0.1 Boron
L 5 18 10 8 0.25 Boron
M 10 10 10 6.5 ---------------
P 10 18 0 6.5 ---------------
S 7 21 7 8 0.04 Boron
T 25 5 5 5 ---------------
V 4 17 15 8 0.1 Boron
X 20 10 5 3 ---------------
Z 8 14 7 6.5 0.8 Zinc
Advantages and disadvantages of compound fertilizers
Advantages Disadvantages
• Required nutrients are applied at once • Supply some nutrients not lacking in the
• Supply known quantities of nutrients soil thus may lead to nutrient toxicity
• Granular therefore are easy to apply (over-supply)
Irrigation
• This is the application of water to the soil for good crop growth.
• Irrigation is practised because there will be inadequate or no rainfall for a farmer to grow
crops.
• It is also the artificial application of water to the soil in areas where rainfall is insufficient.

Reasons for irrigation

1. To supply water when rainfall is inadequate for plant growth: in semi-arid areas rainfall is
totally inadequate for crop production e.g. the South-Eastern Lowveld (Triangle, Hippo
Valley and Mkwasine Estate) where the soil is suitable for crop growth but rainfall is
limited.
2. To supplement rainwater: in some areas may be adequate in quantity but badly distributed
that is there will be dry spells during the rainy season. For optimum growth of plants the
farmer must irrigate during those dry spells.
3. To extend the growing season: planting and irrigating the crops before the rains come or
irrigating the crop to reach maturity after the rains have stopped. Extension of the
growing season can be used for long season varieties of maize and groundnuts.
4. To grow crops during the dry season: farmers use irrigation to grow wheat and barley
during winter months. The farmer can therefore grow two crops per year, a practice called
double cropping.
NB: The supply of adequate moisture to a crop throughout the season ensures high yields
of good quality crops which fetch higher prices on the market.

Sources of irrigation water

Natural sources Artificial sources
• Rivers • Dams and Weirs
• Streams • Ponds
• Lakes • Wells
• Aquifers • Boreholes
Suitability of water for irrigation
• Not all water is suitable for irrigating agricultural crops
• Some water sources are polluted to the extent that the water cannot be used by crops or
causes damage to the crops
• It is therefore important to manage wastes properly, minimise the use of persistent
chemicals and improved farming methods that do not contaminate or pollute water
sources

CROP HUSBANDRY

Classification of plants
Classification of plants into Monocots and dicots
• This classification groups plants according to the number of seed cotyledons and other
characteristics such as leaf an root structure

Monocotyledonous plants
• These are plants that produce seeds containing a single cotyledon
• The plants have narrow shaped leaves which have parallel veins
• They have a fibrous root system
• Monocots are mostly grasses, cereal crops and palms e.g. maize, wheat, rice, onion and
banana

Dicotyledonous plants
• These are plants that produce seeds containing two cotyledons
• The plants have broad shaped leaved which have net veins
• They have a tap root system and perennial plants have woody stems
• Dicots are broadleaves e.g. groundnuts, tomatoes, soya bean and sunflower

Botanical classification of plants

• This is a scientific classification of plants into families based on biological characteristics
• Plants of the same family share common features and are related

Legumes
• This is a family of plants that are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen into the soil
• The plants have root swellings called nodules where nitrogen fixing bacteria called
rhizobia inhabits
• Bacteria in the nodules acquires nutrients from the plant and converts atmospheric
nitrogen into a form that can be used by plants
• The legumes and rhizobia have a symbiotic relationship
• Leguminous plants include crops such as groundnuts, peas, beans, round nuts and soya
bean

Graminae (cereals)
• This is a family of grass crops mostly grown for their carbohydrate rich grains e.g. maize,
wheat, barley, sorghum, millet and rapoko

Brassicas
• This is a family of plants made up of leafy vegetables that have produce edible leaves and
flowers e.g. cabbage, rape, cauliflower and broccoli
Cucurbits
• This is a family of herbaceous creeping plants which produce edible fruits e.g. pumpkin,
watermelons, squash and cucumbers.

Solanaceous
• This is a family of having typically tubular flowers with reflexed petals, producing
anthers, and often poisonous or narcotic properties e.g. potato, tobacco, tomato, pepper
etc.

Structure of flowering plants

Structure of a flower
• A flower is the sexual organ for plant reproduction
• Flowering structures differ with classes of plants, some have male and female parts in the
same flower e.g. bean, while others produce male and female on different parts of the
plant e.g. maize

The structure of a bean flower

Part Functions
Peduncle Supplies nutrients to the flower
Receptacle Large end of the flower which bears parts of the flower
Sepals Protect the male and female parts of the flower while in bud
Petals Brightly coloured to attract insects
Ovary A female part which produce female sex cells called ovules
Ovules Female sex cells which when fertilised develop into seeds
Style Holds the stigma in position and also connects the stigma to the ovary
Stigma A female organ which receives pollen grains
Filament Hold the anther in position
Anther A male organ which produce male sex cells called pollen grains
Pollen grains Male sex cells which fuse with ovules to form seeds
The structure of a maize flower
Part Functions
Female flower part that contains the ovary and ovules that produce grains
Ear
after fertilization
Silk Elongated style and stigma which receives pollen grains
Male flower at the top of the plant which have anthers that produce
Tassel
pollen grains
Plant reproduction
• This refers to the generation of new plants (plant propagation)
• Plant propagation occurs through sexual reproduction or asexual (vegetative)
reproduction

Sexual plant reproduction

• Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of a male and female gamete.
• The male gamete is a pollen grain nucleus produced by anthers • The female gamete is a
large egg cell in the ovule found in the ovary.
• The main stages involved are pollination, fertilization and germination

Pollination
• Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
• There are two forms of pollination:
i. Self-pollination – the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the
same flower or flowers on the same plant.
ii. Cross-pollination – the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the
stigma of another flower on different plants of the same species.
• Pollen grains are transferred either by wind or insects
• Plant flowers have special adaptations to wind or insect pollination

Wind pollinated flowers e.g. maize Insect pollinated flowers e.g. beans
Do not produce nectar Produce nectar to attract insects
Have no scent Produce a scent to attract insects
Have small petals which are not brightly Have fleshy brightly coloured petals to
coloured attract insects
Anthers hang out of the flower at maturity
Anthers are inside the petals
exposing them to wind which carries pollen
Large amounts of small and light pollen Small quantities of sticky or spiky pollen
grains are produced to increase the chances are produced because there are increased
of landing on the stigma chances of pollen landing on the stigma.
The stigma is feathery to increase surface
The stigma is sticky
area for pollen reception.
The stigma is outside the flower The stigma is enclosed within the flower