Hydraulic and Pneumatic

Circuits

Dr. Omar Mehrez

(PhD) Assistant Professor,

Mechanical Power Engineering Department,
Faculty of Engineering, Tanta University

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 - About the Course -

❑ Introduction to Fluid Power

❑ Energy and Power in Hydraulic Systems
❑ Frictional Losses in Hydraulic Pipelines
❑ Hydraulic Pumps
❑ Hydraulic Cylinders and Hydraulic Motors
❑ Hydraulic Valves
❑ Hydraulic Circuit Design and Analysis
❑ Basic Electrical Control of Fluid Power Systems

Reference:
Esposito, A. “Fluid Power with Applications”, England: PEARSON, 2014 2
Energy and Power in Hydraulic Systems

❑ Properties of Hydraulic Fluids

❑ Pascal’s Law
❑ Applications of Pascal’s Law
❑ Conservation of Energy
❑ The Continuity equation
❑ Bernoulli’s Equation

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 Properties of Hydraulic Fluids
Primary Functions
Hydraulic Fluids:
Water, Petroleum-based oils and Synthetic oils

Hydraulic Fluid should have the following properties:

▪ Good lubricity ▪ Good heat-transfer capability

▪ Ideal viscosity ▪ Low density
▪ Chemical stability ▪ Foam resistance
▪ Compatibility with system materials ▪ Nontoxicity
▪ High degree of incompressibility ▪ Low volatility
▪ Fire resistance
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 Properties of Hydraulic Fluids
Primary Functions

▪ The working fluid is the most important material in a hydraulic

system
▪ The working fluid has a crucial effect on the system performance
and life
▪ Hydraulic fluids must be changed periodically when its viscosity
and acidity increase due to fluid breakdown or contamination
▪ Preferably, the fluid should be changed while the system is at the
operating temperature to drain off all the impurities

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 Properties of Hydraulic Fluids
Primary Functions

Test the hydraulic oil for replace:

▪ Using the hydraulic oil test kit

▪ The kit measures:

viscosity
Water content
Foreign particles contamination

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 Properties of Hydraulic Fluids
Fluids Properties
Specific Weight: is the weight per unit volume (N/m3)
𝑊
𝛾= (N/m3 )
𝑉
Density: is the mass per unit volume (kg/m3)
𝑚
𝜌= (kg/m3 )
𝑉
Specific Gravity (SG): is the specific weight of the fluid divided by the
specific weight of water
𝛾oil
𝑆𝐺 =
𝛾water
Bulk Modulus: is a measure of fluid incompressibility
The higher the bulk modulus the less compressible is the fluid (stiffer)
∆𝑃
𝛽=− (Pa)
∆𝑉Τ𝑉 8
 Properties of Hydraulic Fluids
1. Bulk Modulus

The highly favorable power-to-weight ratio and the stiffness of hydraulic systems
make them the frequent choice for most high-power applications. The stiffness of
a hydraulic system is directly related to the incompressibility of the oil.

Bulk Modulus: is a measure of fluid incompressibility

The higher the bulk modulus the less compressible is the fluid (stiffer)
∆𝑃
𝛽=− (Pa)
∆𝑉Τ𝑉

Typical value for oil 250,000 psi (1.72 x 106 kPa)

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 Properties of Hydraulic Fluids
2. Viscosity
Viscosity: the most important property of a hydraulic fluid. It is a measure of
fluid’s resistance to flow
1Poise = 0.1Pa. s
𝐹 Τ𝐴 1centiPoise = 0.001Pa. s
𝜇=
𝑣 Τ𝑦

Kinematic Viscosity: is the absolute viscosity divided by the density

𝜇 2 /s)
𝜈 = (Stoke = 1cm
1Stoke = 1cm2 /𝑠 𝜌
1Stoke = 10−4 m2 /𝑠
1centiStoke = 10−6 m2 /𝑠 10
 Properties of Hydraulic Fluids
2. Viscosity
In reality, the ideal viscosity for a given hydraulic system is a compromise.

Too high a viscosity results in

1. High resistance to flow, which causes sluggish operation.
2. Increased power consumption due to frictional losses.
3. Increased pressure drop through valves and lines.
4. High temperatures caused by friction.

On the other hand, if the viscosity is too low, the result is

1. Increased oil leakage past seals.
2. Excessive wear due to breakdown of the oil film between mating moving parts.
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 Properties of Hydraulic Fluids
2. Viscosity
Saybolt Viscometer
The viscosity of a fluid is usually measured
by a Saybolt viscometer.
▪ The fluid viscosity is measured in terms of
time (in seconds) the fluid takes to fill 60-
cm3 container through the metering orifice
at the controlled temperature.
▪ The viscosity units called Saybolt
Universal Seconds (SUS), (or simply
seconds)
▪ Empirical relation between viscosity in
SUS and cS is:
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 Properties of Hydraulic Fluids
3. Viscosity Index
▪ Oil becomes thicker as the
temperature decreases and thins
when heated.
▪ The viscosity of a given oil must
be expressed at a specified
temperature.
▪ For most hydraulic applications,
the viscosity normally equals
about 150 SUS at 100°F (38°c ).
▪ The viscosity should never fall
below 45 SUS or rise above 4000
SUS regardless of the
temperature. 13
Preferred range of oil viscosities and temperatures
 Properties of Hydraulic Fluids
3. Viscosity Index
Viscosity Index (VI): is a relative measure of an oil’s viscosity change with
respect to temperature (ranged from 0 to 100).

An oil has low VI Exhibits a large change in viscosity with temperature

An oil has high VI Has relatively stable viscosity

unknown-VI oil
Viscosity
𝐿−𝑈 0-VI oil
VI = × 100 L
𝐿−𝐻
U
L = viscosity of 0-VI oil at 100ºF H
100-VI oil
U = viscosity of unknown-VI oil at 100ºF
0
H = viscosity of 100-VI oil at 100ºF
0 100 Temp. ºF 210
 Properties of Hydraulic Fluids
3. Viscosity Index

▪ A is oil with 0 VI, C is oil with 100 VI

▪ B is tested oil, calculated 50 VI
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▪ D is tested oil, calculated 140 VI (>100)
 Properties of Hydraulic Fluids
4. Fire-Resistant Fluids

▪ The petroleum-base fluid, which is the most widely used type, is refined from
selected crude oil.
▪ During the refining process, additives are included to meet the requirements of
good lubricity, high viscosity index, and oxidation/foam resistance.
▪ Petroleum-based fluids dissipate heat well, are compatible with most seal
materials.
▪ The primary disadvantage of a petroleum-based fluid is that it will burn.
▪ As a result, the fire-resistant fluid has been developed (synthetic oils).

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 Properties of Hydraulic Fluids
4. Fire-Resistant Fluids
It is imperative that a hydraulic fluid not initiate or support a fire.

A fire-resistant fluid: is one that can be ignited but will not support combustion
when the ignition source is removed.

There are basically four different types of fire-resistant hydraulic fluids in

common use:
1. Water-glycol solutions
2. Water-in-oil emulsions
3. Straight synthetics
4. High-water-content fluids

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 Properties of Hydraulic Fluids
4. Fire-Resistant Fluids
Flammability: the ease of ignition and ability to propagate a flame.

The followings are the characteristics to test the fluid flammability:

Flash point: the temperature at which the oil surface gives off sufficient vapors
to ignite when a flame is passed over the surface.

Fire point: the temperature at which the oil will release sufficient vapor to
support combustion continuously for five seconds when a flame is passed over
the surface.

Autogenous ignition temperature (AIT): the temperature at which ignition

occurs spontaneously 18
 Properties of Hydraulic Fluids
4. Fire-Resistant Fluids Disadvantages of fire-resistant fluids

▪ have a higher specific gravity than do petroleum-based fluids, may cause cavitation
problems in the pump due to excessive vacuum pressure in the pump inlet line.
▪ have significantly lower lubricity than do petroleum-based fluids.
▪ more expensive
▪ Not compatible with seal materials.

▪ Therefore, fire-resistant fluids should be used only if hazardous operating conditions

exist.
▪ Manufacturer’s recommendations should be followed very carefully when changing
from a petroleum-based fluid to a fire-resistant fluid, and vice versa.
▪ Normally, thorough draining, cleaning, and flushing are required. It may even be
necessary to change seals and gaskets on the various hydraulic components.
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Energy and Power in Hydraulic Systems

❑ Properties of Hydraulic Fluids

❑ Pascal’s Law
❑ Applications of Pascal’s Law
❑ Conservation of Energy
❑ The Continuity equation
❑ Bernoulli’s Equation

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 Pascal’s Law
Pascal’s Law

Pascal’s law reveals the basic principle of how fluid power

systems perform useful work.

Pascal’s law states:

Pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished

in all directions through out the fluid and acts perpendicular to
the surfaces in contact with the fluid.

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 Pascal’s Law
Pascal’s Law
F = 10LB Stopper surface area
1in2

The bottle is filled

A force of 10 LB
with a liquid
acts on every in2
(pressure) of the
bottle wall

The bottle bottom

P = 10 psi
has an area of 20in2,
resulting in a push
force on the bottom
of 200 LB
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 Pascal’s Law
Simple Hydraulic Jack

By Pascal’s Law:

P1 = P2

F1 F2
=
A1 A2

F2 A2
=
F1 A1

Force is multiplied
by a ratio A2/A1

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 Pascal’s Law
Simple Hydraulic Jack

The volume of the oil displaced by the first piston equals the volume
of the oil displaced by the second piston:

V1 = V2 S2 A1
A1 S1 = A2 S2 =
S1 A2
S1 = the downward movement of piston 1
S2 = the upward movement of piston 2

F1 S1 = F2 S2

Energy Input = Energy Output (neglecting loses)

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Energy and Power in Hydraulic Systems

❑ Properties of Hydraulic Fluids

❑ Pascal’s Law
❑ Applications of Pascal’s Law
❑ Conservation of Energy
❑ The Continuity equation
❑ Bernoulli’s Equation

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 Application of Pascal’s Law
Hand-Operated Hydraulic Jack

This system uses a piston-type hand pump to power a hydraulic load

cylinder for lifting loads.

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 Application of Pascal’s Law
Hand-Operated Hydraulic Jack

Fload

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 Application of Pascal’s Law
Hand-Operated Hydraulic Jack

Example:
An operator makes one complete cycle per second interval using the hand-operated
hydraulic jack. Each complete cycle consists of two pump cylinder strokes (intake
and power). The pump cylinder has a 25mm diameter piston and the load cylinder
has 80mm diameter piston. If an average hand force is 50N during power stroke,
▪ How much load can be lifted?
▪ How many cycles are required to lift the load 250mm assuming no oil leakage?
The pump piston has 50mm stroke.
▪ What is the Output power assuming 100% efficiency?
▪ What is the Output power assuming 80% efficiency?

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 Application of Pascal’s Law
Hand-Operated Hydraulic Jack
Example:

Given:
1 complete cycle take 1s, 1 cycle = 2 strokes (intake / power)
𝐹input = 50N, 𝐷piston = 25mm, 𝐷load cyl = 80mm
𝑆load cyl/total = 250mm, 𝑆piston/stro𝑘𝑒 = 50mm

required:
a) Fload =? ?
b) No. of cycles
c) o/p (100% and 80% system efficiency)

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 Application of Pascal’s Law
Hand-Operated Hydraulic Jack
Example:

Given:
1 complete cycle takes 1s, 1 cycle = 2 strokes (intake / power)
𝐹input = 50N, 𝐷piston = 25mm, 𝐷load cyl = 80mm
𝑆load cyl/total = 250mm, 𝑆piston/stroke = 50mm

Solution:
π 2 π 2
a) Fload = P Aload cyl = P D
4 load cyl
=P
4
0.08

𝐹piston 𝐹piston 𝐹piston

𝑃= = 𝜋 =𝜋
𝐴piston 𝐷 2 0.025 2
4 piston 4
200mm
𝐹piston = 𝐹 = 4 ∗ 50 = 200N 30
50mm input
 Application of Pascal’s Law
Hand-Operated Hydraulic Jack
b) Total volume displaced by the piston pump = total oil volume displacing the
load cylinder

𝐴load cyl 𝑆load cyl/total = 𝐴piston 𝑆piston ∗ no. of cycles

stroke
no. of cycles = 53

c) Output power (100% efficiency)

𝐹load 𝑆load cyl/total

𝑜/𝑝 = 𝐹load 𝑣load cyl =
𝑡

no. of cycles 53
t= = = 53s
time /onecycle 1
Output power (80% efficiency)
𝑜/𝑝 = 𝐹load 𝑣load cyl ∗ 0.8 31
 Application of Pascal’s Law
Air-to-Hydraulic Pressure Booster

This device is used for converting shop air into higher hydraulic
pressure needed for operating cylinders requiring small to medium
volumes of higher-pressure oil.

The pressure ratio of an air-to-hydraulic pressure booster is found as:

Output oil pressure Area of air piston

Pressure ratio = =
Input air pressure Area of hydraulic cylinder

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 Application of Pascal’s Law
Air-to-Hydraulic
Pressure Booster

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 Application of Pascal’s Law
Air-to-Hydraulic Pressure Booster

Example:
A pressure booster used to drive a load F via a hydraulic cylinder. The following
data are given:
Inlet air pressure (P1) = 7 bar
Air piston area (A1) = 130 cm2
Oil piston area (A2) = 6 cm2
Load piston area (A3) = 160 cm2
Find the load carrying capacity F of the system.

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 Application of Pascal’s Law
Air-to-Hydraulic Pressure Booster

An air-to-hydraulic pressure booster system

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Energy and Power in Hydraulic Systems

❑ Properties of Hydraulic Fluids

❑ Pascal’s Law
❑ Applications of Pascal’s Law
❑ Conservation of Energy
❑ The Continuity equation
❑ Bernoulli’s Equation

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 Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Energy
The conservation of Energy law states:

Energy can be neither created nor destroyed

Total energy of a system remains constant.

The total energy of a system includes:
▪ Potential energy due to elevation
▪ Pressure
▪ Kinetic energy due to velocity

𝑃 1𝑊 2
𝐸𝑇 (J) = 𝑊𝑍 + 𝑊 + 𝑣 = constant
𝛾 2𝑔 37
Energy and Power in Hydraulic Systems

❑ Properties of Hydraulic Fluids

❑ Pascal’s Law
❑ Applications of Pascal’s Law
❑ Conservation of Energy
❑ The Continuity equation
❑ Bernoulli’s Equation

38
 The Continuity Equation
Continuity Equation
The continuity equation states:

For a steady flow in a pipeline, the weight flow rate (weight of fluid
passing a given station per unit time) is the same for all locations
of the pipe

For incompressible fluid:

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Energy and Power in Hydraulic Systems

❑ Properties of Hydraulic Fluids

❑ Pascal’s Law
❑ Applications of Pascal’s Law
❑ Conservation of Energy
❑ The Continuity equation
❑ Bernoulli’s Equation

40
 Bernoulli Equation
Bernoulli Equation

Utilized in sizing components such as pumps, valves and piping for proper
system operation.

For an ideal frictionless system that doesn’t contain pumps or

hydraulic motors between stations 1 and 2

The total energy per pound of fluid at station 1 equals the total
energy per pound of fluid at station 2

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 Bernoulli Equation
Bernoulli Equation

Elevation head pressure head Velocity head 42

 Bernoulli Equation
The Energy Equation

Energy equation is the modification of Bernoulli’s equation taking

into account:
▪ Head loss (HL): energy per pound of fluid loss due to friction
▪ Pump head (Hp): energy per pound of fluid added by a pump
▪ Motor Head (Hm): energy per pound of fluid removed by a
hydraulic motor

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 Bernoulli Equation
Example

For the hydraulic system in the figure:

▪ The pump is adding 3.73kw to the fluid
▪ The pump flow rate is 0.001896m3/s
▪ The pipe has 0.0254m inside diameter
▪ The oil specific gravity is 0.9
▪ The elevation difference between 1 and 2 is 6.1m
Find the pressure available at the inlet to the hydraulic motor (station 2). The
pressure at station 1 in the hydraulic tank is atmospheric. The head loss HL due to
friction between stations 1 and 2 is 9.144m of oil.

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 Bernoulli Equation
Example

Hydraulic System
45
 Bernoulli Equation
Venturi Application

the use in automobile engine carburetor:

Automobile Carburetor 46
 Bernoulli Equation
Torricelli’s Theorem

The velocity of a free jet of fluid is equal to the square root of the
product of two times the acceleration of gravity times the head
producing the jet.

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 Bernoulli Equation
The Siphon

Used to cause a liquid to flow from one container in an upward

direction over an obstacle and then flow downward into a second
lower container.

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Frictional Losses in Hydraulic Pipelines

❑ Frictional Losses in Hydraulic Pipelines

❑ Frictional Losses in Laminar Flow
❑ Frictional Losses in Turbulent Flow
❑ Losses in Valves and Fittings
❑ Hydraulic Circuit Analysis

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 Frictional Losses in Hydraulic Pipelines
Introduction

▪ Friction is the main cause of energy losses in fluid power

systems
▪ The energy loss due to friction is transferred to the
surrounding air
▪ The result is a loss of potential energy in the system (i.e. loss
in pressure or head)
▪ Head loss in a system (HL) is due consists of two components:
losses in pipes and losses in valves and fittings.

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 Frictional Losses in Hydraulic Pipelines
Introduction
▪ The more tortuous the path of the fluid through the system,
the greater the losses.
▪ In many fluid power applications, energy losses due to valves
and fittings exceed those due to flow in pipes.
▪ Generally, the smaller the pipe diameter, valves and fittings
size, the greater the losses.
▪ However, using large diameter pipes, valves and fittings result
in poor space utilization and greater cost.
▪ Components size selection is a compromise between energy
losses and component cost and space requirements. 51
 Frictional Losses in Hydraulic Pipelines
Darcy’s Equation
The frictional losses in a pipeline equals:

𝐿 𝑣2
𝐻𝐿 = 𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔

f = friction factor (dimensionless)

L = pipe length (m)
D = pipe inside diameter (m)
v = average fluid velocity (m/s)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)

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 Frictional Losses in Laminar Flow
Darcy’s Equation
For laminar flow the friction factor equals:

64 64𝜇
𝑓= =
𝑅𝑒 𝜌𝑣𝐷
Hagen-Poisseuille equation (valid only for laminar flow):

64 𝐿 𝑣2
𝐻𝐿 =
𝑅𝑒 𝐷 2𝑔

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 Frictional Losses in Turbulent Flow
Moody Diagram

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 Losses in Valves and Fittings

Losses in valves and fittings are proportional to the square of the

velocity of the fluid:

𝑣2
𝐻𝐿 = 𝑘
2𝑔

k = loss coefficient (dimensionless)

k-factor for several common types

of valves and fittings

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 Losses in Valves and Fittings

Globe Valve Gate Valve

Fittings 56
 Frictional Losses in Turbulent Flow
Equivalent Length

The equivalent length of a valve or a fitting: the length of pipe

that for the same flow rate would produce the same head loss as
a valve or fitting
𝐻𝐿(valve or fitting) = 𝐻𝐿(pipe)

𝐿𝑒 𝑣2 𝑣2
𝑓 =𝑘
𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑘𝐷
𝐿𝑒 =
𝑓

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 Hydraulic Circuit Analysis
Example
For the hydraulic system shown in the figure, the following data
are given:
▪ The pump is adding 3.73kW to the fluid
▪ Pump flow is 0.00190m3/s
▪ The pipe has a 0.0254m inside diameter
▪ The specific gravity of oil is 0.9
▪ The kinematic viscosity of oil is 100cS
▪ The elevation difference between station 1 and 2 is 6.10m
▪ Pipe lengths are: pump inlet pipe length = 1.53m and pump
outlet length up to hydraulic motor = 4.88m 58
 Hydraulic Circuit Analysis
Example
Find:
The pressure available at the inlet to the hydraulic motor (station 2),
where:
▪ the pressure at the oil top surface level in the hydraulic tank is
atmospheric (0Pa gage)
▪ the head loss HL due to friction between station 1 and 2 is not
given

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 Hydraulic Circuit Analysis
Example

Example of a hydraulic system 60

 Summary

✓ Properties of hydraulic fluids

✓ Basic principle of fluid power systems
✓ The operation of hydraulic jack and air-to-hydraulic booster
✓ Apply Bernoulli’s equation to determine the energy transfer
within a hydraulic system
✓ Determine friction factors for laminar and turbulent flow
✓ Evaluate head losses in a pipeline undergoing laminar or
turbulent flow
✓ Calculate friction losses in valves and fittings
✓ Perform an energy analysis of a complete hydraulic circuit
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THANK YOU

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