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Chapter 5

Geological Mapping

5.1. INDEX TO NEW ZEALAND, AUSTRALIA AND PAPUA NEW GUINEA

1:250 000 SCALE MAPS SHOWING MAGNETIC DECLINATION1
Magnetic Declination vs true North
+ve for Magnetic North to East. December 2010
164˚ 166˚ 168˚ 170˚ 172˚ 174˚ 176˚ 178˚

−34˚ −34˚
18
17

Whangarei
18
−36˚ −36˚
19
Auckland

19 Tauranga
Hamilton
−38˚ 20 −38˚
Rotorua
Taupo Gisborne
New Plymouth Wairoa
19 20 Napier
1
2Hawera
−40˚ Wanganui −40˚
Palmerston North
21
Nelson2
2 Masterton
Blenheim Wellington

−42˚ −42˚
22 Greymouth
23

Christchurch
23
−44˚
Haast Ashburton 24 −44˚
Timaru

24 Oamaru
23 Queenstown 25

Dunedin
−46˚ Gore −46˚
25
24 Invercargill 26

27
26

−48˚ 27 −48˚
164˚ 166˚ 168˚ 170˚ 172˚ 174˚ 176˚ 178˚

GNS accepts no liability for any loss or damage, direct or indirect, resulting from
1. GNS accepts no liability
thefor
use any
of thisloss or damage,
information. GNS doesdirect orany
not make indirect, resulting
representation in respectfrom the use of this information.
GNS does not make anyofrepresentation in respect
the information’s accuracy, of theorinformation’s
completeness accuracy,
fitness for any particular [Link] or fitness for any
particular purpose.

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 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

Magnetic Declination vs Grid North

+ve for Magnetic North to East. December 2010

172˚ 174˚ 176˚ 178˚

−34˚ −34˚

20

21

22
19

Whangarei

−36˚ −36˚
8

20

21

Auckland

22

23
Pukekohe

Tauranga
19

Hamilton
−38˚ Whakatane −38˚
Tokoroa Rotorua
20

Taupo Gisborne
21

22

23

New Plymouth Wairoa

24

25

Napier
Hawera Hastings
Wanganui
−40˚ −40˚

Palmerston North
Levin
21

22

Masterton
23

24

Nelson
25

26

Wellington
Blenheim

−42˚ −42˚
172˚ 174˚ 176˚ 178˚

GNS accepts no liability for any loss or damage, direct or indirect, resulting from
the use of this information. GNS does not make any representation in respect
92 Field Geologists’ Manual
of the information’s accuracy, completeness or fitness for any particular purpose.

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 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

Magnetic Declination vs Grid North

+ve for Magnetic North to East. December 2010

166˚ 168˚ 170˚ 172˚ 174˚

−40˚ −40˚

18

20

21

22

23
Nelson
Wellington
17

Blenheim

−42˚ −42˚
19

Greymouth
18

20

21

22

23

24

25
Christchurch

Haast Ashburton
−44˚ −44˚
19

Timaru
20

Queenstown Oamaru
21

22

23

24

25

26

Dunedin
−46˚ −46˚
Gore

Invercargill
20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

−48˚ −48˚
166˚ 168˚ 170˚ 172˚ 174˚
GNS accepts no liability for any loss or damage, direct or indirect, resulting from
the use of this information. GNS does not make any representation in respect
of the information’s accuracy, completeness or fitness for any particular purpose.

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 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

114° 120° 126°

MAGNETIC DECLINATION
2010

12°
DARWIN

16°

NT
Broome

20°

24°

WA

28°
Geraldton SA

Kalgoorlie

PERTH 32°

Albany

36°
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4

40°
-5

-7
-6

-8
-1 -9
-1 0
- 1
-1 12
-1 3
-1 4
-1 5
6
11-5179-1

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 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

138° 144° 150°

MAGNETIC DECLINATION
2010
4

5
12°

16°
Cairns

NT
Townsville
20°
Mount Isa
Mackay

QLD Rockhampton
Alice Springs Gladstone 24°
Bundaberg

BRISBANE
28°

SA

Broken Hill 32°

NSW
Newcastle

SYDNEY

ADELAIDE
CANBERRA
36°
VIC
6

MELBOURNE
Geelong
7

14
8

15
9

40°
10

16
11

TAS 17
12

HOBART 18
13

19
11-5179-2

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[Link] 96

96

144° 150° 156°

Field Geologists’ Manual

MAGNETIC DECLINATION
3

2010

4
Kavieng

CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

5
Wewak

6
4°
Rabaul

IRIAN JAYA

Lae

7
PAPUA
NEW GUINEA
8°

Daru

8
PORT MORESBY SOLOMON
ISLANDS

AUSTRALIA

11-5179-3
5/08/2011 9:09:36 AM
 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

5.2. GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

Quaternary subdivisions

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Paleogene and Neogene subdivisions

Palynological Zonations

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Cretaceous subdivisions

Palynological Zonations

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Jurassic subdivisions

Jurassic
Jurassic
Jurassic

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Triassic subdivisions

Cretaceous
Cretaceous
Cretaceous

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Permian subdivisions

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Carboniferous subdivisions

Pennsylvanian
Late
Middle
Penn.
Pennsylvanian
Early
Late Mississippian
Middle Mississippian
Early Mississippian

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 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

Devonian subdivisions

Polarity

Devonian
Devonian
Devonian

Monograptus hercynicus

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Silurian subdivisions

Polarity

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Ordovician subdivisions

Polarity

Yapeenian

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Cambrian subdivisions

Polarity

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Precambrian subdivisions

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 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

5.3. STANDARD MAPPING SYMBOLS Bedding (including facing, direction of

– GEOSCIENCE AUSTRALIA sedimentation, prevailing dip of folded
SYSTEM strata and plunge).
Direction of movement.
Introduction Metamorphic foliation, other than
 cleavage (cleavage follows past usage).
A standard series of symbols is used on geological
maps published by government agencies in Primary banding, other than bedding
Australia. The symbols are presented in the (eg flow banding).
publication ‘Symbols Used on Geological Maps’, Lineation of all kinds, including trace of
published in 1989 by Geoscience Australia’s (GA) a plane on another plane.
predecessor, the Bureau of Mineral Resources Specific types of lineation. Arrows with
(BMR). This publications is available from GA, both open and closed triangles are used
from the ‘Data Standards and Symbols’ section as part of fold symbols.
of the GA web site ([Link] Fold, facing not known (eg 5.11.1).
and from the GA Sales Centre at GPO Box 378,
Vertical fold (eg 5.8.1).
Canberra ACT 2601, Australia or by phone at
Other styles of arrows available for
+61 2 6249 9111. Only those symbols that may
miscellaneous purposes are but the
be required for field drafting are presented here.
compiler should ensure that the styles adopted
GA has digital versions of the symbols, suitable are distinctive; this is most important when
for use in geographic information system (GIS) draftsmen are not available for compilation.
computer applications such as ArcGIS. These are
available from the GA web site and the GA Sales Combined symbols
Centre.
Where more than one structural element is
Standard symbols to show the age of rock observed at a locality, symbols are usually
units and standard colours for geological maps combined on the map. Examples appear under
are provided in Section 5.4 of this manual. Faults, Folds, Bedding, Metamorphic Foliation,
This standard colour scheme is also available Cleavage, and Lineation. To avoid lengthy and
in digital format from the GA web site and complicated descriptions, combined structural
the GA Sales Centre. This colour scheme was symbols may be shown separately in the symbols
published in the 1980s by GA’s predecessor reference and the following note added:
BMR. However, the increasing complexity of
Some structural elements observed at a
geological maps published in recent years has
single locality are combined on the map.
meant that maintaining a single colour scheme
for all geological maps is no longer practical. This For ease of drafting combined symbols should
standard colour scheme may, however, be applied either be standardised so they can be reproduced
to some geological maps as a rough guide. on stripping film, or be formed by combining
standard basic symbols.
Some of the patterns used to show rock type,
shown at the end of this section, are also available Not measured or prevailing dips and
in digital format from the GA web site and the GA
plunges
Sales Centre.
Line thickness is generally 0.15 mm for Where dips or plunges are measured the value
geological boundaries, and for bedding, foliation, is shown with the symbol. Where not measured,
joint, cleavage and lineation symbols (Sections 2, or where the symbol shows the prevailing dip or
6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 herein), 0.2 mm for dykes plunge, no value is shown and ‘not measured’ or
and veins and mining symbols (Sections 4 and ‘prevailing’ is added to the symbol description if
14), 0.3 mm for fold axes (Section 5), and 0.4 mm desired. For example:
for fault traces (Section 3). Strike and dip of strata, dip not measured
or
Arrows and arrowheads Prevailing strike and dip of strata
The style of arrow and arrowhead for structural or
symbols indicates a particular type of observation: Strike and dip of strata

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 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

To avoid repetition of ‘not measured’ or faults portrayed in geological cross-sections. If

‘prevailing’ dip and plunge descriptions in a this is done it should be noted above the cross-
reference with numerous structural symbols, section.
insert the following note after the last structural
symbol: Units of measurement
Dips and plunges without values are Care should be taken to use legal units of
not measured, or prevailing. measurement on maps and to avoid the use of
A combined dip and plunge symbol will non-legal units as far as possible.
commonly show the plunge value, but if it does Information on the standing of units may
not, the plunge value can be measured from the
be obtained from publications of the Metric
geometry of the symbol.
Conversion Board.
Example:
Strike and dip of strata and plunge of Other sources of standard symbols
bedding-cleavage intersection
or
•• Standard symbols for ‘Australia Standard Colour
age of rock units Scheme and Stratigraphic
Strike and dip of strata and plunge of
bedding-cleavage intersection
•• Standard colours or Symbols for Geological
Maps’, Section 5.4
geological ages

Facing or younging not known •• Screens and patterns (in black and white)
showing the range of variations that can be
Double lines in structural symbols at least in achieved by use of screens and overprinting
large-scale maps, indicate that the facing or patterns available to GA, at the end of this
younging is not known (eg 6.2.11. 5.14.9 to section.
5.14.12). On small-scale maps double lined
The International Standards Organisation
symbols present difficulties in drafting and
(ISO) has compiled International Standard ISO/
reproduction and should be avoided.
DIS 710, which covers graphical symbols for use
Classification of geological boundaries, on detailed maps, plans, and geological cross-
faults and fold axial surface traces sections (including letter symbols for minerals
and rocks). Some of the symbols adopted in this
Classification is governed by: section are at variance with ISO symbols.
•• geological certainty, and
•• planimetric accuracy. Graphic representation of coal seams
For example, boundaries are established
AS 2916-2007 Symbols for graphic represen-
or inferred. Established boundaries may be
accurate (located within the thickness of the line tation of coal seams and associated strata is
drawn), approximate, or concealed; inferred an Australian Standard® (originated as K183-
boundaries are approximate and may be 1970) and covers lithological symbols for coal
concealed (deduced, not observed). A concealed, seams, some associated rocks, and letter symbols
but not inferred, boundary is one established for some minerals and rocks. The Standard is
by sub-surface exploration or is an established available for purchase from Standards Australia
boundary beneath cover. via [Link]
For cartographic convenience, question marks State and Territory authorities may also be
may be omitted from inferred boundaries and consulted for local standards.

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GEOLOGICAL MAPPING

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SYMBOL DESCRIPTION NOTES
No:

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Folds
GEOLOGICAL MAPPING
Definitions and notes
Anticline a fold with older rocks in the core
Syncline a fold with younger rocks in the core
Antiform a fold whose limbs close upward
Synform a fold whose limbs close downward
Upright fold a fold with a near-vertical axial surface (ie axial surface dip 90° ± 10°)
Inclined fold a fold with an axial surface dip between 10° and 80°)
Overturned fold a fold with limbs dipping in same direction (ie one limb inverted)
Recumbent fold a fold with a near-horizontal axial surface (ie axial surface dip 0° ± 10°)
Vertical fold a fold with a near-vertical plunge (ie 90° ± 10°)
Asymmetrical fold a fold with an axial surface dip between 10° and 80° and limbs dipping in opposite
directions. The limbs usually dip at different angles but may not in folds with one
preferentially thinned limb
Inverted fold a downward-facing fold (ie inverted strata)
Reclined fold a fold with axial surface dip between 10° and 80° and strike of axial surface at 90°
± 10° to trend of fold axis
Horizontal fold a fold with a near-horizontal plunge (ie 0° ± 10°)
Monocline Local steepening of other-wise uniformly gently-dipping or horizontal upward
facing strata
Monoform Local steepening of other-wise uniformly gently-dipping or horizontal layers of
unknown facing

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Letter symbols for minerals and rocks Ch Chalcpyrite

Cr Chromium
Notes Cy Clay, use not specified
•• Minerals and rocks are listed here with Ci Bentonite
their standard letter symbols. Those listed
Cj Fire clay
are generally of economic interest but the
occurrence recorded is not necessarily Cl For heavy products (bricks, tiles,
economic. Where no confusion is likely to pipes)
arise, this does not preclude the use of the Cx For use as fillers
same letters for other purposes, or as symbols Cf Fullers earth
for other rocks and minerals. For example, St
is the letter symbol for staurolite; it is also Ck Kaolin
the standard letter symbol for a stratigraphic Cg Pigment clay
hole. Element symbols, rather than mineral Cp Pottery clay
symbols, are used for metallic deposits except
Cw White clay, other than pottery clay
on large-scale maps.
C Coal, type not specified
•• Minerals and rocks should be listed in the
symbols reference in alphabetical order Cb Black coal (type not specified)
based on their abbreviation. Cba Anthracite

Abbreviations Cbb Bituminous coal

Cbs Sub-bituminous coal
Ae Agate
Cwb Brown coal
Agg Aggregate other than crushed rock. Uses
(eg concrete aggregate, road metal) and Cwl Lignite
rock type may be indicated in reference. Cwp Peat
See also Gr – gravel, Rc – crushed-rock Cw Other low-rank coal and coaliferous
aggregate materials (type not specified)
At Alunite Co Cobalt
An Anhydrite Cu Copper
Cba Anthracite Cn Corundum
Sb Antimony Cv Covellite
Ap Apatite (see also 4.2) Rc Crushed-rock aggregate
As Arsenic Di Diamond
Aa Asbestos – amphibole Dt Diatomite
Ac Asbestos – chrysotile Dl Dolerite (see also 4.2)
Ad Asbestos – crocidolite Do Dolomite (suitable for industrial
Az Azurite purposes) (see also 4.2)
Ba Barite (see also 4.2) E Emery
Bx Bauxite Ep Epsomite
Be Beryllium Fs Feldspar (see also 4.2)
Bi Bismuth Fl Flourite (see also 4.2)
Bo Borax G Galena
Bn Bornite Gs Gems (sapphire, topaz, zircon, etc – to be
Bs Building stone (rock type/s may be specified in reference)
indicated in reference) Gl Glauconite
Cd Cadmium Au Gold
Ca Calc-silicate Gt Graphite
Cc Chalcocite Gr Gravel – aggregate devoid of sand

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Gp Gypsum Pp Pyrophyllite
He Hematite (see also 4.2) Qc Quartz crystal
Im Ilmenite Qt Quartzite (see also 4.2)
Fe Iron (see also 4.2) RA Radioactive minerals, unspecified
J Jarosite Rr Rip-rap
Ky Kyanite Rm Road materials, other than aggregate
Pb Lead R Rutile
Ls Limestone (suitable for industrial Na Salt (sodium chloride)
purposes) (see also 4.2) Sd Sand, building
Li Lithium Sf Sand, foundry
Ms Magnesite Sg Sand, glass
Mt Magnetite (see also 4.2) Ss Sandstone (suitable for industrial
Ml Malachite purposes)
Mn Manganese Se Selenium
Ma Marble Sh Shale (suitable for industrial purposes)
Hg Mercury Si Silica
Mi Mica Sm Sillimanite
Mo Molybdenum Ag Silver
Mz Monazite Sl Slate (suitable for industrial purposes)
Ct Natural cement Sp Sphalerite
Natural gas (see Section 15) St Staurolite
Ne Nepheline Sr Strontium
Ni Nickel S Sulfur
Nb Niobium T Talc, steatite
Oc Ochre Ta Tantalum
Ol Oil shale or torbanite Th Thorium, other than monazite
Op Opal Sn Tin
Os Osmiridium W Tungsten (wolframite, scheelite)
Pe Perlite Tq Turquoise
Petroleum (see Section 15) U Uranium
Ph Phosphate rock V Vanadium
Pt Platinum Ve Vermiculite
Pz Pozzolan Wh Whiting
K Potassium Zn Zinc
Py Pyrite Zr Zirconium

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 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING

CHAPTER
PATTERNS FOR 5 – Geological
GEOLOGICAL MAPS IN Mapping
BLACK AND WHITE
Patterns can be differentiated by varying weight and density of stipple, weight and spacing of lines, etc. Line
patterns wherever
Patterns forpossible shouldmaps
geological be oriented with theand
in black trendwhite
of the rock denoted.

Patterns can be differentiated by varying weight and density of stipple, weight and spacing of lines, etc.
Wherever possible line patterns should be oriented with the trend of the rock denoted.

Sedimentary rocks Sedimentary rocks (cont.)

Shale, siltstone, claystone, etc.
Conglomerate Sandstone, quartzite, arkose, etc.
Sandy Normal

Sandy conglomerate,
pebbly sandstone, etc. Chert
Bedded Massive

Limestone and dolomite Broken coal Coal with shale Shale with coal
bands bands

Sandy limestone Cannel coal Cannel shale

Coal, carbonaceous shale, etc.

Black coal unspecified
Carbonaceous Brown coal Oil shale
shale

Grades of Black coal

Calorific value−B.T.U.
>11 500 11 500-10 000 <10 000
Suitable for thin beds, coal seams, etc.
Ash content (used when calorific is not available)
< 15% 15% < 20% 20% and above

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GEOLOGICAL MAPPING

Metamorphic rocks Igneous rocks

Slate, phyllite, High grade metamorphic: Acid and intermediate Hypabyssal rocks
schist, etc schist, gneiss, etc plutonic rocks

Sandy slate or
interbedded sediments
Basic plutonic or Bedded lavas Volcanic rocks
hypabyssal rocks

Suitable for massive rocks (hornfels, etc) or for

areas in which open pattern required

Miscellaneous

Tuff or tuffaceous Bedded tuff, tuffaceous Brecciated rock or scree Alluvium

sandstones shale or slate

Suitable for small areas denoting gossan, ore, etc,

or for picking out small outcrops

Breccia Soil cover

In special cases a letter pattern may be useful to

denote lithological changes within a unit

Hornblende Biotite
granite granite

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 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

5.4. AUSTRALIA STANDARD COLOUR Figure 5.5.2

SCHEME AND STRATIGRAPHIC
SYMBOLS FOR GEOLOGICAL
MAPS
See fold out following page 178.

5.5. GEOLOGICAL MAP

PROJECTIONS1

Introduction
Having developed a coordinate system and
measurement techniques for the Earth, the
next problem map makers faced was how to
transfer the information from the surface of a
three-dimensional (3D or spherical), irregularly
shaped sphere (the Earth) to a two-dimensional
(2D or flat) ‘piece of paper’. This is not as simple
as it sounds! Over many centuries a vast number of techniques
The images of the Earth as it might be seen from (often involving very complex mathematical
space give a good indication of the complexity of formulae and models) have been developed to do
the problem facing map makers when it comes just this. These are called projections. Projections
to converting the surface of a sphere onto a flat are generally given a name so that they can be
‘piece of paper’. The seven images shown in easily identified and referenced on a map. They
Figure 5.5.1 are viewed over the Equator. In each are often named after the person(s) who invented
of these views the central area is clear, but at the them (eg Mercator); or aspects of the projection
edges shapes are distorted. (eg equidistant conic); or a combination of the two
(eg Lambert conformal conic).
Beyond the Equator you need to twist your
point of view to look directly at the area you are
interested in. By way of example, note the way Distortions
that Arctic, Antarctica and Australia appear on All projections result in some distortion of the
these views compared to when you look at them relationships between features on the sphere
from the Equator (see Figure 5.5.2). when they are projected onto a flat surface. These
distortions include:

1. This section was sourced from [Link]

•• the direction between a feature and
surrounding features,
[Link]/icsm/mapping/about_projections.html
licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution •• the distance between a feature and
surrounding features,
3.0 Australia Licence. More information is available
from: [Link] •• the shape of any feature, and
/au/[Link] •• the size of any feature.
Figure 5.5.1

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 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

The only ‘projection’ that has all features with USA Geological Survey (USGS) has produced a
no distortion is a globe. particularly useful poster, which summarises
This problem is in part due to the changing the merits and shortcomings of a selection of
relationship between latitude and longitude. commonly used projections: [Link]
Near the Equator a ‘block’ of 1° × 1° latitude and gov/isb/pubs/MapProjections/[Link]
longitude is almost a square, while the same
‘block’ near the poles is almost a triangle (see Explaining some jargon – projections
Figure 5.5.3). and maps
There is no one perfect projection and a map
maker must choose the one that best suits their These are two terms that are commonly confused
needs. and the difference is simple: a projection is a
The world maps shown in Figure 5.5.4 are system of mathematics and geometry whereby
samples of the results of different attempts the information on the surface of a sphere (the
to solve the 3D-to-2D problem. For more Earth) is able to be transferred onto a flat piece
information about individual projections the of paper (a map).

Figure 5.5.3

Equator Tropic of Capricorn South Pole

Figure 5.5.4

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 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

Describing projectios techniques used to create a projection and

There are two ways that projections are classified: therefore a map. These are:
1. basic type – depends on the characteristic •• azimuthal – the imaginary ‘piece of paper’ is
that is preserved, and flat – this is usually used over Polar areas,
2. basic technique – depends on the method •• conical – the imaginary ‘piece of paper’ is
used to project features onto a flat surface. rolled into a cone – this is usually used in
Projections are described by referring to both mid-latitude areas (approximately 20° - 60°
North and South), and
of these.
•• cylindrical – the imaginary ‘piece of paper’
Basic projection types is rolled into a cylinder – this is usually used
over Equatorial areas or for world maps.
This describes how a map shows the positional
relationship between two features as well as a These basic techniques have different distortions
feature’s size and shape. Depending on their and therefore limitations to their use – see below
for descriptions of these. Each technique type has
intended use, projections are chosen to preserve
a region of the Earth where it is usually used.
a particular relationship or characteristic. These
However, any of the three projection techniques
include:
can be used for any area of the Earth.
•• equal-area – correctly shows the relative
In simple terms, where the ‘paper touches the
size of a feature, normally at the expense of
Earth’ there are no distortions, but the further the
distorted shape;
‘paper’ is from the surface of the Earth the greater
•• conformal – have the correct angle/direction the distortions (see Figure 5.5.5). The mathematics
from one point to another in a local area thus in different projections attempt to overcome this
preserving the general shape of features (a problem – but none remove all distortions.
map cannot be both equal-area and conformal
– it can only be one; or the other; or neither); Explaining some jargon – standard
•• equidistant – correctly shows the distance parallel and central meridian
between one or two defined points to all Map makers have technical terms to describe
other points on the map or along one or more the lines where this imaginary ‘piece of paper’
parallel lines; and touches the Earth. These are:
•• true direction – correctly shows the direction
•• standard parallels – are essentially where
between two features along a great circle
the conic, cylindrical or plane touch or cut
surrounding the earths surface.
through the earth’s surface, and
Basic projection techniques •• central meridian – is the line on which the
resultant conic/cylindrical will be unrolled
This describes the way an imaginary piece of paper
in both directions. It becomes the 0 value on
(which will become the map) is laid on the Earth
the X axis of the resultant map grid (unless a
to obtain the latitude and longitude for the map. false origin is specified).
Where the imaginary ‘piece of paper’ touches
the Earth there is no distortion on the map. As Azimuthal projections
you move away from there, however, distortions This projection is based on a ‘flat piece of paper’
increase with distance. Because of this, map touching the Earth at a point (see Figure 5.5.6).
makers usually choose for the piece of paper to The point is usually a Pole, but this is not
touch the Earth in the middle of a map – thereby essential.
minimising the amount of distortion. Azimuth is a mathematical concept that
Using this concept of an imaginary ‘piece of relates to the relationship between a point and
paper’ touching the Earth there are three basic the ‘flat piece of paper’ that ‘touches’ the Earth.
Figure 5.5.5

No distortion

Map

Earth surface

Most distortion Most distortion

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 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

Figure 5.5.6 When the centre of the map is the North or

South Pole maps produced using azimuthal
projections techniques have lines of longitude
fanning out from the centre and lines of latitude
as concentric circles. These projections are often
called polar projections (see Figure 5.5.8).
The two examples in Figure 5.5.9 are of
azimuthal projection maps that are not centred
on a Pole.

Conical projections
This projection is based on the concept of the
‘piece of paper’ being rolled into a cone shape
and touching the Earth on a circular line (see
Figure 5.5.10). Most commonly, the tip of the
cone is positioned over a Pole and the line where
the cone touches the earth is a line of latitude; but
this is not essential. The line of latitude where
the cone touches the Earth is called a Standard
It is usually measured as an angle. The word Parallel.
itself is believed to have come from an Arabic
Conic projections are usually used for regional/
word meaning ‘the way’ – referring to the way or
national maps of mid-latitude areas – such as
direction a person faces.
Australia and the United States of America.
These projections:
These projections:
•• have distortions increasing away from the
•• are fan shaped when used to map large areas,
central point,
•• have very small distortions near the centre •• have distortions increasing away from the
point (the ‘touch point of the paper’), central circular line (the ‘touch point of the
paper’),
•• compass direction is only correct from the
•• have very small distortions along the central
centre point to another feature – not between
other features, and circular line (the ‘touch point of the paper’),
•• are not usually used near the Equator, •• show shapes correctly, but size is distorted,
because other projections better represent and
the features in this area (see Figure 5.5.7). •• usually have lines of longitude fanning out
from each other and have lines of latitude as
equally spaced open concentric circles.
Figure 5.5.7
Figure 5.5.11 shows a typical example of a world
map based on the conic projection technique.
This map is centred on central Australia and the
Standard Parallel is 25° South. Note how the
shapes of land masses near the Standard Parallel
are fairly close to the true shape when viewed
from space – see the images at the beginning
of this section. This includes Australia, South
America and the ‘tip’ of Africa. Also note how
land masses furthest away from the Standard
Parallel are very distorted when compared to the
views from space. Particularly note how large
northern Canada and the Arctic ‘icecaps’ look.
Because of the distortions away from the
Standard Parallel, conic projections are usually
used to map regions of the Earth – particularly
in mid-latitude areas. The map shown in

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 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

Figure 5.5.8

Figure 5.5.12 uses the same settings as the Cylindrical projections

previous world map, but it is more typical of a
Conic Projection map. Distortions are greatest to This projection is based on the concept of the
the north and south – away from the Standard ‘piece of paper’ being rolled into a cylinder
Parallel. However, because the Standard Parallel and touching the Earth on a circular line (see
runs east-west, distortions are minimal through Figure 5.5.13). The cylinder is usually positioned
the middle of the map. over the Equator, but this is not essential.

Figure 5.5.9

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 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

Cylindrical projections are usually used

Figure 5.5.10 for world maps or regional/national maps of
Equatorial areas – such as Papua New Guinea.
These projections usually:
•• are rectangular or oval shaped – but this
projection technique is very variable in its
shape;
•• have lines of longitude and latitude at right-
angles to each other;
•• have distortions increasing away from the
central circular line (the ‘touch point of the
paper’);
•• have very small distortions along the central
circular line (the ‘touch point of the paper’);
and
•• show shapes correctly, but size is distorted.
Figure 5.5.14 shows an example of a cylindrical
map projection and it is one of the most famous

Figure 5.5.11

Figure 5.5.12

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 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

Figure 5.5.13 Explaining some jargon – cylindrical and

pseudo-cylindrical projections
The first Cylindrical Projections developed
had the lines of latitude and lines of longitude
shown as straight lines – see the section on the
Mercator projection ([Link]
pubs/MapProjections/[Link]).
With advances in computers it became possible
to calculate the lines of longitude as curves –
thereby reducing distortions near the Poles
– see the section on the Robinson projection
([Link]
[Link]).
To distinguish between these two projections
the first continued to be called a cylindrical
projection, but the second (with the curving
lines of longitude) was called pseudo-cylindrical
projections ever developed. It was created by a projection.
Flemish cartographer and geographer – Geradus
Mercator in 1569. It is famous because it was It’s all in the name
used for centuries for marine navigation. The
sole reason for this is that any line drawn on the A projection’s name is often a good indicator of
map was a true direction. However, shapes and some of its properties.
distances were distorted. Firstly, projections are often named after their
Notice the huge distortions in the Arctic creator – famous names include Albers, Lambert,
and Antarctic regions, but the reasonable Mercator and Robinson. However, without
representation of land masses out to about 50° inside knowledge, this gives no indication of the
north and south. properties of a projection.
Figure 5.5.14

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 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

Secondly, the projection name may refer to Multiple standard parallels or central
some of its attributes – quite commonly equal- meridians
area, conformal and equidistant are included in
a projection’s name. One very common variation is to have more
than one ‘touch point of the paper’ to the Earth,
Thirdly, the projection name may refer to
its source technique – conic and azimuthal are ie two or more Standard Parallels (or central
the ones most commonly used here. (There is meridians). As we have learnt above the areas
an element of assumption that a projection is near the Standard Parallel have less distortion
cylindrical if not otherwise stated.) than those further away from the ‘touch point
of the paper’. By having two Standard Parallels
the distortion levels across the map are kept to
Variations to these basic techniques a minimum and increase the overall accuracy of
The techniques described above are in their the map.
simplest form. From here it gets more com- Consider Figure 5.5.15, which illustrates how
plicated. The array of mathematical and distance away from the ‘touch point of the paper’
geometric variations to these basic techniques
results in distortions.
described above is only limited by the imagination
of the projection’s creator and their capacity to Now note Figure 5.5.16 where the paper doesn’t
calculate complex formulae (in the modern era touch the Earth – it slices the Earth. Across the
this is made simpler by the use of advanced whole piece of paper the distance to the surface of
computers). the Earth is much less and therefore distortions
are less.
Some (but far from all) variations to the three
basic techniques are: Using this conic projection as an example, the
‘piece of paper’ appears to ‘slice through’ the
•• bipolar – azimuthal, but two separate ‘pieces
Earth – thereby touching the surface of the Earth
of paper’ are used, one over each Pole;
in two places and creating two Standard Parallels
•• polyconic – two or more ‘cones’ are placed (see Figure 5.5.17).
over the Earth – these may be ‘nested’ inside
When placing the Standard Parallels, it is
each other or placed elsewhere – eg centred
best to have them about one quarter to one
over the Americas, Europe/Africa, Asia and third of the way in from the edge of the map –
the Pacific; and this minimises the distortion across the map.
•• sinusoidal – describes the mathematics For example, in the case of a map of Australia
of how the lines of longitude (meridians) that extends from about 10° to 45° South the
are calculated in some pseudo-cylindrical Standard Parallels most commonly used are 18°
projections. and 36° South.

Figure 5.5.15
No distortion

Map

Earth surface

Most distortion Most distortion

Figure 5.5.16
No distortion No distortion

Map

Earth surface

Most distortion Most distortion

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 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

Figure 5.5.17

One standard parallel Two standard parallels

Pattern of distortion Pattern of distortion

Map Accuracy Levels

Low Medium High

Figure 5.5.18

The two maps shown in Figure 5.5.18 both Merits and limitations of projections
use the same conic projection. The first uses
As stated above, no projection is able to
only one Standard Parallel and the second uses accurately show the correct compass direction,
two Standard Parallels. With this projection the distance, shape and area of all features depicted
difference between the two is dramatic; with on it. Because of this, each projection has
others (such as the Lambert conformal conic) the advantages and disadvantages, as well as serving
difference is not as dramatic. This example is to different purposes and producing different types
emphasise that a map maker needs to be aware of distortions.
of the strengths and weaknesses of the projection As a general rule maps of local areas have less
they are using. distortions than those of larger areas or the world.

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5.4
 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

Many special projections have been developed Principles of stratigraphic

to specifically overcome some of these distortions. classification
For example:
•• ‘equal-area’ projections preserve true areas, General
•• ‘conformal’ projections preserve true shape, It is possible to classify stratified rocks according
and to any of their properties: lithology, fossil content,
•• ‘azimuthal’ projections preserve true compass magnetic polarity, electrical properties, seismic
direction from the centre. response, chemical or mineralogical composition,
As a general rule the best projection to use is sequence boundaries, geochemistry, and many
dictated by the map’s: others. A different set of units is needed for each
property (see Figure 5.6.1).
•• location (equatorial, polar, or mid latitudes);
•• extent/size (world versus regional versus
Categories of stratigraphic classification
local); and
•• purpose (distortion may not be an issue, but 1. Lithostratigraphy – the element of
keeping equal-areas or true direction may be stratigraphy that is concerned with the
important). organisation of strata into units based on
When selecting a projection, map makers their lithologic character,
should also consider national conventions and 2. biostratigraphy – the element of
consistency with other maps of an area. stratigraphy that is concerned with the
organisation of strata into units based on
their fossil content,
5.6. ABRIDGED GUIDE TO 3. chronostratigraphy – the element of
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC stratigraphy that is concerned with the
NOMENCLATURE IN organisation of strata into units based on
AUSTRALIA their age relations, and
4. sequence stratigraphy – the element of
stratigraphy that is concerned with the
Introduction organisation of strata into units based on the
The Australian Code of Stratigraphic Nomen- unconformities and correlative conformities
clature (ACSN) (1973) was replaced by the (sequence boundaries) that contain them.
Inter-national Stratigraphic Guide (ISG)
(Hedberg, 1976) in 1978. An abridged version Distinguishing terminologies for each
of the ISG, interspersed with notes relating category
to Australian practice, was published as the For lithostratigraphy and chronostratigraphy the
Field Geologist’s Guide to Stratigraphic numerous terms represent different hierarchical
Nomenclature in Australia (FGG) (Staines, ranks; for biostratigraphic units they result from
1985). The second edition of the ISG (Salvador, the recognition of various kinds of biozones (see
1994) was adopted as the official guide by the Table 5.6.1).
Australian Stratigraphic Names Committee
(now the Australian Stratigraphy Commission), Chronostratigraphic and geochronologic
except for adaptations to Australian conditions units
as indicated by the Notes in Staines (1985) and Each interval of stratified rocks represents a
subsequent decisions of the Committee. certain interval of geologic time. Accordingly,
To provide a concise reference in the present each chronostratigraphic unit (interval of rock
volume the FGG has been further extensively strata) has a corresponding geochronologic unit
abridged. The complete FGG and/or ISG (interval of geologic time) (see Table 5.6.1).
should be consulted by workers wishing to
Note 1. Geochronologic and chronostrati-
establish new lithostratigraphic units. The FGG
graphic terms
concerns itself only with lithostratigraphic
nomenclature. In matters of biostratigraphic ‘Early’, ‘Middle’ and ‘Late’ should be used
or chronostratigraphic nomenclature, the ISG for time (geochronologic) terms and ‘Lower’,
should be consulted. ‘Middle’, and ‘Upper’ should be used for time-

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 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

Figure 5.6.1
Illustration of differences in position in a stratigraphic section of
division points for different properties or attributes of strata.
LIT CH
HO RO
N ST SEQU
RA
UN STRA BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC GEOPHYSICAL UN OSTR TIG ENC
I T S T. UNITS UNITS I T S AT R E
. UN APH
ITS IC

Formations Foraminifera Mollusks Spores Magnetic Seismic Vel. Series and Sequences
Members and Pollen Reversals (m/Sec.) Stages
Zone
S

Sequence 4
Member .

Stage K
Barren

3000
Zone
R
Fo r m a t i o n D

SERIES IV
Barren

Zone
Q

Sequence 3
Member .

Stage J
Biozone

3500
d

Zone
Fo r m a t i o n C

P
Biozone
Biozone

3200

Sequence 2
c

Stage G
Biozone
Fo r m .

SERIES III
Biozone
B

5100
y
b

Barren
Fo r m a t i o n A

Sequence 1
Biozone

N
Biozone

Stage F
4200
a

rock (chronostratigraphic) terms. Ideally, classes of rocks – igneous, metamorphic

all of these terms should be formalised by and sedimentary, consolidated and uncon-
capitalisation of the initial letter. Because of solidated.
the difficulties of global correlation it is not 2. Stratum. A geologic stratum is a layer of rock
always possible to unequivocally apply formal characterised by certain unifying characters,
chronostratigraphic terms to Australian properties, or attributes that distinguish it
sequences, and therefore informal usage, ie from adjacent layers.
with lower case initial letters, is allowable when 3. Stratigraphic classification is the systematic
necessary, but is discouraged. Care should be organisation of the Earth’s rock strata into
taken to avoid inadvertent formalisation, eg in units with reference to any of the characters,
all-upper-case typing and in written reporting properties, or attributes that rocks may
of an oral presentation.
possess.
Note 2. Abbreviation of ‘lower’ 4. A stratigraphic unit is a stratum or
assemblage of adjacent strata recognised as
The abbreviation ‘L’ or ‘l’ for ‘lower’ should not
a distinct entity in the classification of the
be used because the letter can also stand for
Earth’s rock sequence.
‘late’.
5. Stratigraphic terminology deals with the unit
terms used in stratigraphic classification,
Definitions and procedures
such as formation, stage, biozone. It can be
Definitions either formal or informal.

1. Stratigraphy is literally the descriptive Note 3. Formal and informal lithostrati-

science of rock strata, and covers all graphic units

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 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

TABLE 5.6.1
Summary of categories and unit terms in stratigraphic classification. If additional ranks are needed, prefixes
Sub and Super may be used with some unit-terms when appropriate. Although restraint is recommended to
avoid complicating the nomenclature unnecessarily.

Principal stratigraphic Equivalent

Stratigraphic categories
unit-terms geochronologic units
Group
Formation
Lithostratigraphic
Member
Bed(s)
Biozones
Assemblage zones
Range zones
Biostratigraphic (various kinds)
Acme-zones
Interval zones
Other kinds of biozones
Eonothem Eon
Erathem Era
System Period
Chronostratigraphic
Series Epoch
Stage Age
Chronozone Chron
Sequence stratigraphic Sequence
Other stratigraphic categories (mineralogic, Zone (with appropriate
environmental, seismic, magnetic, etc) prefix)

The ISG distinguishes between formal and Note 4. Subsurface units

informal lithostratigraphic units, but most of It is desirable that formal names not be given
the examples of informal units constitute such to formations that are identified in only one
casual usage that they do not fall within the borehole. At least two borehole sections are
definition of ‘stratigraphic nomenclature’. To required if surface sections are not available.
avoid confusion authors are strongly urged not
to establish informal units with the binomial
Publication
form of a geographic name followed by an
uncapitalised litho-logical term. Establishment of a formal stratigraphic unit
6. Stratigraphic nomenclature deals with the requires that an adequate description of the unit
proper names given to specific stratigraphic be published in a recognised scientific medium,
units. such as a regularly issued scientific journal.
7. A stratotype is the type representative of a
Note 5. Publications
named stratigraphic unit or of a stratigraphic
boundary. The following are not regarded as publications
for stratigraphic nomenclature purposes:
Procedures for establishment and
1. any source that may only be quoted with
description of stratigraphic units permission of the issuing body;
See Lithostratigraphic units and Sequence 2. preliminary edition maps of BMR, AGSO,
stratigraphic units sections. GA or State/Territory Geological Surveys;
3. reports and abstracts of addresses
Special requirements for establishment delivered to scientific meetings; and
and description of stratigraphic units 4. GSA Specialist Group newsletters, and
The same general rules for outcrop sections similar issues (The Australian Geologist is
apply to subsurface units. regarded as a publication).

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Quotation in a publication of a previously Uncertainty in assignment

unpublished name renders the name
‘published’, even if quotation marks are used. Note 7. Hyphenation of two unit names to
describe strata that cannot be certainly
Note 6. Recording of published names of units assigned to either
that are adequately described or defined This practice has not been followed in Australia
The Central Register of Stratigraphic Names in the past and it is strongly recommended that
records all names that consist of a geographic it should be avoided.
name and a lithological or stratigraphic term
(formation, group, member) and are published Abandoned names
in a recognised scientific or technical journal, A name for a stratigraphic unit, once applied
whether the name of the unit is valid or not. and then abandoned, should preferably not be
This information is available online in the revived, except in its original sense.
Australian Stratigraphic Units Database (see
Australian procedures section). Note 8a. Reuse of abandoned names
Because of the shortage of available geographic
Priority names in some areas, reuse of abandoned
Priority in publication of a properly proposed, names may be approved in some limited
circumstances, provided the name is used in a
named and defined unit should be respected.
different geological province, and there is no
possibility of confusion (Brakel, 1989). Validly
Synonymy defined abandoned names may be reused if
Before attempting to establish a new formal they have been absent from the literature for
stratigraphic unit, authors should refer to 25 years, with the following exceptions:
national, state or territory records of strati- 1. in the case of poorly known names that
graphic names to determine whether a name has are now disused because of hierarchical
been previously used. changes, the absence from the literature
must be 50 years before they can be
Revision or redefinition of previously reused;
established units 2. widely known names that are now disused
Revision or redefinition of an adequately because of hierarchical changes or because
established unit without changing its name the units have subsequently been found to
requires as much justification, and the same kind be geologically invalid may not be reused.
of information, as for establishing a new unit. For abandoned names that were published
invalidly for some reason, the situation is
Subdivision more complicated. The National Convener
of the Australian Stratigraphy Commission,
When a unit is divided into two or more units, the or the local State/Territory Subcommission,
original name should not be employed for any of can give advice on whether or not a particular
the subdivisions. However, it may be retained in abandoned name can be reused.
a higher category that includes the new units.
Duplication of names
Change in rank Duplication of names should be avoided. A name
Change in rank of a stratigraphic unit does not previously applied to any unit should not later be
require redefinition of the unit or its boundaries applied to another unless geographic separation
or alteration of its proper name. precludes confusion.

Note 8b. Duplication of names

Reduction in number of names through
Because of the shortage of available geographic
correlation names in some areas, some duplication of
If correlation has established the equivalence of names may be acceptable.
two named stratigraphic units, the later name The same geographic name should not be
should be replaced by the earlier. used for two units:

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 CHAPTER 5 – Geological Mapping

1. in the same or adjacent geological to find the stratotype easily in the field. The
provinces; or non-adjacent provinces geologic description should cover thickness,
where known closest occurrences of the lithology, palaeontology, mineralogy, structure,
units are less than 1000 km; or geomorphic expression and other geologic
2. of approximately the same age; or features of the type section. The boundaries and
3. of similar rock types. relations with adjacent units particularly should
Advice will be given on request by the be described in detail, and reasons for choice of
Convener of the Australian Stratigraphy boundaries should be given.
Commission whether duplication of a A unit-stratotype is the type section of strata
particular geographic name is acceptable. serving as the standard for the definition and
recognition of a stratigraphic unit. The upper
Stratotypes and lower limits of a unit-stratotype are its
boundary-stratotypes.
A stratotype (type section) is the original or
A boundary-stratotype is a specific point in a
subsequently designated type of a named
specific sequence or rock strata that serves as
stratigraphic unit or of a stratigraphic boundary,
identified as a specific interval or a specific the standard for definition and recognition of a
point in a specific sequence of rock strata, and stratigraphic boundary (see Figure 5.6.2b).
constituting the standard for the definition and A composite-stratotype is a unit-stratotype
recognition of the stratigraphic unit or boundary. formed by the combination of several specified
A complete exposure of all strata in the type intervals of strata known as component-
unit from bottom to top and throughout stratotypes.
its entire lateral extent would be the ideal The type locality of a stratigraphic unit,
stratotype. However, because it is impossible
boundary, or other feature is the specific
to find or establish such a comprehensive
stratotype, reliance is usually placed on a geographic locality in which its stratotype is
single section, as complete and well exposed situated, or lacking a designated stratotype, the
as possible. The description of a stratotype locality where is was originally defined or named.
should be both geographic and geologic. The The type area (or type region) is the geographic
geographic description should enable anyone territory surrounding the type locality.

Figure 5.6.2
(A) Unit-stratotype and boundary stratotypes for a lithostratigraphic unit (Formation B),
(B) boundary-stratotypes for chronostratigraphic units (upper boundary of stage A is lower boundary of stage B).

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Lithostratigraphic units less than a metre to several thousand

metres, depending on the size of units
Purpose of lithostratigraphic locally required to best express the lithologic
classification development of a region.
Formations may be composed of
The purpose of lithostratigraphic classification
sedimentary rocks, or extrusive igneous
is to organise systematically rock strata of the
rocks, or metamorphic rocks, or under some
Earth into named units that will represent the
circumstances associations of two or more of
principal variations of these rocks in lithologic
these types of rock.
character.
3. Member – a member is the formal
Definitions lithostratigraphic unit next in rank below a
formation and is always a part of a formation.
1. Lithostratigraphy is the element of It is recognised as a named entity within the
stratigraphy that deals with the lithology of formation because it possesses lithologic
strata and with their organisation into units characters distinguishing it from adjacent
based on lithologic character. parts of the formation. No fixed standard
2. Lithostratigraphic classification is the is required for the extent or thickness of a
organisation of rock strata into units on the member. A member may extend laterally
basis of their lithologic character. from one formation to another.
3. A lithostratigraphic unit is a body of 4. Bed – a bed is the smallest formal unit in the
rock strata that is unified by consisting hierarchy of lithostratigraphic units. It is a
dominantly of a certain lithologic type or unit layer in a stratified sequence of rocks that
combination of lithologic types. It may is lithologically distinguishable from other
consist of sedimentary, or igneous, or layers above and below. Customarily only
metamorphic rocks, or of an association distinctive beds (commonly known as marker
of two or more of these. The critical beds) are given proper names and considered
requirement of the unit is a substantial formal lithostratigraphic units. In relatively
degree of overall lithologic homogeneity. unexplored country, where a formal and
Lithostratigraphic units are recognised and properly surveyed hierarchy of formations
defined by observable physical features and and groups cannot always be established
not by inferred geologic history or mode initially, the use of a geographic name coupled
of genesis. Only major lithologic features with ‘beds’ (uncapitalised) will be accepted as
readily recognisable in the field should serve a temporary informal designation.
as the basis for lithologic units.
Note 9. Use of ‘Group’ or ‘beds’ for poorly
Kinds of lithostratigraphic units identified sequences
1. The conventional hierarchy of formal ‘Group’ should be used only where the upper
lithostratigraphic terms is as shown in and lower limits of the unit can be identified
Table 5.6.2. and specified. A unit should be named and
2. Formation – the formation is the designated as ‘… beds’ only when it is essential
primary formal unit of lithostratigraphic for stratigraphic classification or descriptive
classification. purposes (see Note 3). The geographic
The thickness of units of formation rank component should still be reserved with the
follows no standard and may range from Central Registry.

TABLE 5.6.2

Supergroup Two or more related groups (and formations)

Group Two or more related formations
Formation Primary unit of lithostratigraphy
Member Named lithologic entity within a formation
Bed Named distinctive layer in a member or formation

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Note 10. Status of former ‘Beds’ units 6. Supergroup and Subgroup – the term
The term ‘Beds’ was used under the provisions supergroup may be used for several
of the Australian Code (Article 27) for a associated groups, or for associated
sequence of poorly known strata, but in the formations and groups with significant
ISG ‘Beds’ has a very different connotation. All features in common. A group may on
occasion be divided into subgroups.
references to such units should be using the
informal term ‘beds’, and the unit should be 7. Complex – a complex is a lithostratigraphic
unit composed of diverse types of any class
regarded as an informal unit until further work
or classes of rock (sedimentary, igneous,
is carried out. Later work may enable the unit
metamorphic) and characterised by highly
to be redefined as a formation or as a group.
complicated structure.
5. Group – a group is the formal litho-
stratigraphic unit next in rank above Note 14. Complex
a formation. The term is applied most It is desirable to confine the term ‘Complex’
commonly to a sequence of two or more to a large mass of diverse rocks. Such a mass
contiguous associated with significant is unlikely to have the rank of formation
unifying lithologic features in common. The or member; rather it is likely to consist
proposal for recognition of a group should of sequences which, if mappable, would
outline clearly the unifying characteristics constitute a group, supergroup or number of
on which it is based and the formations of groups.
which it is composed.
8. Informal lithostratigraphic units – informal
Note 11. Establishment of a unit at group lithostratigraphic units include lithologic
level without constituent formations when bodies to which casual reference is made but
it is expected that formations will later be which cannot be justified as formal units (eg
established shaly zones, sandy beds, coal measures).
It is recommended that stratigraphers should Note 15. Coal measures
avoid establishing groups without constituent
Australian practice accepts ‘Coal Measures’ as
formations in anticipation of the possible
a formal unit name equivalent in rank to group,
action of future field workers. It is considered
subgroup, or formation. The term ‘seam’ is an
preferable to establish the unit as a formation
informal term. Where individual coal seams
and allow future workers to subdivide it,
are named with a geographic component they
establish constituent formations, and change
should be defined as formations or members,
the rank of the original formation to group.
and named accordingly, eg Bulli Coal,
The name of a group should preferably be Balgownie Coal Member.
derived from an appropriate geographic feature
9. Some special aspects of igneous rocks –
near the type areas of its component formations.
Igneous rock bodies of more or less tabular
Note 12. Lithologic term in name of group form, conforming to the general stratification
of the rock section, may constitute the basis
In the special circumstance where a group
for lithostratigraphic units. However, many
consists of formations of the same or similar
igneous rocks occur as bodies injected across
lithology, an appropriate lithologic term may the dominant stratification of the section.
be included in the name of the group if it is They are an important part of the lithologic
desired to indicate the character of the whole picture.
group.
The component formations of a group are Note 16. Names of cross-cutting igneous
not necessarily everywhere the same. bodies
Such bodies are normally quite distinct from
Note 13. Reduction in rank from group to the surrounding rock unit, and if named have
formation in lateral extensions of a unit names of the same style as stratigraphic units,
without constituent formations ie geographic name followed by lithological
It is recommended that the rank of group be term. For stratigraphic nomenclature pur-
retained, rather than the unit be permitted to poses they should therefore be treated as
carry the name of ‘... Group’ and ‘... Formation’. stratigraphic units and should be named as far

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as possible according to the principles in the name (Bowen, Turpentine) providing no

Naming of a lithostratigraphic unit section. confusion can arise; however, the essential
Igneous rock bodies may be grouped into suites part of the geographic name is regarded as the
and/or supersuites (see Igneous geochemical proper name. Authors are encouraged to use
units section). the proper name only.

Procedures for establishing Note 18. Abbreviation of formal name after

lithostratigraphic units first reference
1. Each named lithostratigraphic unit of Unit names are often used incorrectly by later
whatever rank should have a clear and authors; eg Kombolgie Subgroup also appears
precise standard definition based on the as Kombolgie Sandstone, or the incorrect
fullest possible knowledge of its lateral and rank is used. It is recommended that the
vertical variations. The designation of a type full stratigraphic name be used as much as
section (unit-stratotype) is essential in the possible.
definition of a lithostratigraphic unit. The
unit, as recognised elsewhere, may contain Note 19. Change of lithological term for local
a greater or lesser thickness of strata than or regional variation in a unit
in the stratotype, and may span a greater Change of the lithological term is undesirable
or lesser time interval than the stratotype.
for local variations in a unit, but may be
The only critical requirement of the unit as
desirable for regional variations. Reasons for
identified elsewhere is that it has essentially
the same lithology and relative stratigraphic any change should be fully explained.
position as in the stratotype. 1. Geographic component of name
2. A unit-stratotype section (holostratotype) a. Source – the geographic name should be
is often usefully supplemented by one or the name of a natural or artificial feature
more auxiliary reference sections (hypo- at or near which the lithostratigraphic
stratotypes). unit is typically developed (see Note 17).
3. Boundaries of lithostratigraphic units are
placed at positions of lithologic change. Note 20a. Scarcity of geographic names
The names of landholdings, parishes and
Procedures for extending
counties given on cadastral maps are a fruitful
lithostratigraphic units – source of names for stratigraphic units. Should
lithostratigraphic correlation there be no available or suitable geographic
A lithostratigraphic unit and its boundaries name, a name for an unnamed geographic
should be extended away from the type locality feature may be proposed to the relevant
only as far as the definitive lithologic features on authority. Where no other option is available,
which the unit was based in its type section are the use of non-geographic names may be
known to exist. allowed. Fossil names, geological ages or other
geological terms should not be used.
Naming of a lithostratigraphic unit b. Duplication – duplication of geographic
The name of a lithostratigraphic unit should names should be avoided (see Dupli-
be formed from the name of an appropriate cation of names section, also Notes 8,
local geographic feature, combined with the 17, and 20).
appropriate term for its rank (group, formation,
c. Names for parts of units. The same
member, bed), or with the name of the dominant
rock type of which the unit is composed, or name should not be applied both to the
with both. Descriptive adjectives should not be unit as a whole and to a part of it. The
included. terms lower, middle and upper should
not be used for formal subdivisions of a
Note 17. Geographic component of name lithostratigraphic unit.
Authors have the option of using the full d. Spelling – spelling of the geographic
geographic name, consisting of both proper component of a lithostratigraphic name
name and feature term (eg Mount Bowen, should conform to the usage of the State
Turpentine Creek), or using only the proper that contains the type locality.

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e. Changes in geographic names – change This usage is allowable provided there is no

in the name of a geographic feature does likelihood of confusion. The stratigraphic
not entail change of the corresponding name and the form name should apply to
name of a stratigraphic unit. precisely the same rock mass.
f. Inappropriate names – a name that 3. Preservation of traditional names
suggests some well-known locality, Although it is strongly urged that all
region, or political division should not, new lithostratigraphic units be named in
in general, be applied to a unit typically accordance with the recommendations of
developed in another less well-known this chapter, it is realised that there are many
locality of the same name. well-established and traditionally used
g. Names of off-shore lithstratigraphic lithostratigraphic units, of long historical
units – if the offshore well in which a standing, for which exception should be
new lithostratigraphic unit has been made.
penetrated has been given a name 4. Revision of lithostratigraphic units
taken from coastal, oceanographic, a. A change in the lithologic term applied
or other features, this name can be to a lithostratigraphic unit does not
used for a subsurface unit providing necessarily require a new geographic
that the requirements of the Special term. If the original designation is
requirements for establishment and not everywhere applicable, the term
description of stratigraphic units section ‘Formation’ may be preferable.
are followed.
b. Change in rank of a lithostratigraphic
Note 20b. Use of well names unit does not require alteration of the
geographic part of its name. It is possible
In Australia, this restricted use of well names
for a member to become a formation,
recommended by the ISG has been unable to
or vice versa, and for a formation to
supply enough geographic names for offshore
become a group or vice versa.
units. All wells are now regarded as geographic
localities in their own right and may be used
for naming lithostratigraphic units (see also Sequence stratigraphic units
Note 20a). Sequence stratigraphy is the study of
2. Lithologic component of name genetically related packages of sediments in a
Where a lithologic term is used in the name chronostratigraphic framework. In the most
commonly used scheme, the fundamental unit
of a lithostratigraphic unit, the simplest
is the sequence, which is bounded above and
generally acceptable term is recommended
below by unconformities and their correlative
(eg limestone, sandstone, granite, serpen- conformities (Van Wagoner et al, 1988).
tinite). Lithogenetic terms such as ‘turbidite’
There is at present no agreement within
or ‘flysch’ should be avoided.
Australia or elsewhere on how sequence units
Note 21. Use of ‘Volcanics and Metamorphics’ should be defined, what the hierarchy of those
as the lithological term of stratigraphic names units should be, or how they should be named.
It is apparent, however, that as a sequence
These terms are useful in Australian strati-
can extend from onshore subaerial deposits
graphy, and it is proposed to continue their
to shallow marine shelf and deep sea turbidite
use, but only as formation terms.
deposits, there can be no type sections as in
For intrusive igneous rocks, the lithologic lithostratigraphy. Instead, a sequence must be
terms should express the name of the dominant defined in terms of its sequence boundaries,
rock type, for example, Dido Granodiorite. It and these should have a type locality. A variety
is strongly recommended that International of units of different rank have been used, up to
Union of Geological Sciences Nomenclature at least sixth order, the most common being the
(IUGS) be used (LeMaitre, 2002). supersequence and the megasequence. Because
most authors have left their interpreted units
Note 22. Use of the same geographic name for in an informal state, the matter of how to name
a stratigraphic unit and a structural or form them has not arisen until recently. Although
feature (eg fault, batholith, dyke) no scheme for naming sequence units exists

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yet, the Australian Stratigraphy Commission nomenclature of igneous geochemical units, and
recommends that the names not make use of changes and elaborations to the guidelines are
geographic names as in lithostratigraphy, and possible. The local Divisional State or Territory
that the names of lithostratigraphic units not Stratigraphy Subcommission or the National
be reused for sequence units, particularly if the Convener, should be contacted for the latest
correspondence between the two types of units developments.
is not precise.
Workers wishing to set up formal sequence Australian procedures
stratigraphic units should contact their local
Divisional State or Territory Stratigraphy Administrative structure
Subcommssion, or the National Convener, for
The machinery set up to provide orderly use of
any news on progress in setting up guidelines for
stratigraphic nomenclature in Australia consists
these units.
of:
1. Australian Stratigraphy Commission of
Igneous geochemical units the Geological Society of Australia, which
The study of the geochemistry of igneous consists of all members of the respective
units, particularly granitoids and their related Divisional Subcommissions administered by
volcanics, has led to the grouping of lithological its Convener.
igneous units into higher rank geochemical units 2. Divisional Stratigraphy Subcommissions,
called suites and supersuites. which are responsible for stratigraphic
nomenclature matters within their own
A suite is a body or bodies of igneous rocks Divisions.
in whatever form they occur (eg pluton, dyke, 3. The Central Register of Stratigraphic
sill, flow) that is considered co-magmatic on Names, which is maintained by Geoscience
the basis of some, but not necessarily all, of Australia, Canberra, and is compiled from
the criteria of field evidence, petrography, all publications received in the Geoscience
geochemistry, geochronology and geophysics. Australia Library. All names added
In defining a suite, the same general principles to the Central Register since 1979 are
apply as in defining a group in lithostratigraphy, publicly accessible though the Australian
ie the component units should be listed, the Stratigraphic Units Database (ASUD) search
characteristics on which the suite is based should page which can be found from the Geoscience
be outlined, and the name should be derived Australia web site Stratigraphy page:
from an appropriate geographic locality followed [Link]
by the term Suite. Usually one of the component data-applications/reference-databases/
units is designated as the type unit of the suite. [Link]
A supersuite is a group of suites and individual
formation rank units that are considered to Reservation of names for proposed units
be of similar petrogenesis, but not necessarily 1. The Australian Stratigraphic Units Database
co-magmatic, on the basis of some, but not (ASUD) should first be searched. If the name
necessarily all, of the criteria of field evidence, is found here it is available only for the unit
petrography, geochemistry, geochronology and to which the published name refers.
geophysics. In defining a supersuite, the same 2. If the proposed name is not found in the
general principles apply as in defining a suite. ASUD, then the relevant State or Territory
Usually one of the component suites is designated Stratigraphy Subcommssion may be asked
as the type unit of the supersuite. for advice on the availability of the name.
Although it has been the practice in some Their contact details can also be found
regions to give suites and supersuites the same through the same web page listed above.
geographic name as the designated type units, 3. If the above searches do not locate any prior
this is not recommended by the Australian usage of the proposed name, the name should
Stratigraphy Commission. However, existing be referred to the ASUD staff who will advise
suite and supersuite names should not be whether the name is available or not. Current
changed solely for this reason, especially if doing contact details are: stratnames@[Link]
so would cause confusion. or by mail to the Australian Stratigraphic
At the time of writing, there is still an Units Database, Geoscience Australia, GPO
ongoing debate regarding the classification and Box 378, Canberra ACT 2601.

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4. If the name is pre-empted, the author The Australian Stratigraphic Units Database is
is invited to submit alternatives. Where kept as up to date as resources allow. Advice on
there is room for doubt, or a judgement is any errors or omissions is welcomed.
required, the ASUD staff refer the inquiry
to the National Convener of the Australian Acknowledgements
Stratigraphy Commission.
5. If the name is available, it is reserved for Dr E K Carter was the initiator of the Field
five years for the author, who is invited Geologist’s Guide to Stratigraphic Nomenclature
to complete a definition form and obtain in Australia and a major contributor to several
approval for the completed definition from draft versions. Committee members, Geological
the relevant Divisional Subcommission. Society members and Geological Survey staff
all offered comments that helped to mould the
6. Application may be made for the reuse
Guide into its published form (Staines, 1985).
of abandoned names, and in some
The publishers of the ISG, John Wiley and Sons,
circumstances approval may be given (see
gave permission to reproduce extracts from
Abandoned names section, Note 8a).
Chapters 2 to 5 of the ISG, after representations
Approval of definitions of units before by Dr Hollis D Hedberg and Dr Amos Salvador.
publication
The completed digital definitions form should
5.7. CHECK LISTS FOR RECORDING
be sent to the Subcommission for the State or OUTCROP INFORMATION
Territory in which the unit occurs. Once the A description of a rock unit should convey to the
definition is approved, it is lodged with the reader a factual picture (in words) of the unit, its
Central Register, where it is available for reference inherent properties and its characteristics. The
through the ASUD search page. Reservation of a description should be systematic and concise.
name and getting approval for the definition of Completeness should not suffer at the expense
a unit give no standing to that unit. Priority and of brevity, however, because it is from the
standing are established only by publishing in description of the rock unit that the correlation
a recognised scientific or technical publication and history are inferred. While it is not practical
(see ISG, 3.B.4 and Note 5). Definitions should to impose a fixed system or order for describing
be published, if possible, in the form approved lithologic units, especially in the individual’s
by the Divisional Subcommission, and preferably notebook in the field, uniformity in sequence of
in the same publication in which the name of the description makes for clarity. A logical procedure
in describing an outcrop is to first record the
unit is first used.
location, the nature of the outcrop, the attitude of
Central register of stratigraphic names the bed, the rock-type (eg sandstone). Following
the rock-type, list those characteristics and
All information indexed prior to 1979 is held on properties that make it distinctive (Moran, 1958).
cards. All articles indexed since 1969, and some
The following list of observations may be
from previous years, have been entered into the
followed in sequence:
ASUD. All unit definitions held on definition
cards have been entered into the ASUD. Other 1. Location – a full grid reference, the location
older information is now only likely to be added method; map or GPS. The map datum and
to the database in special cases, but ASUD staff assumed accuracy of the GPS position.
can assist with researching older information Sufficient extra description so that a person
unfamiliar with the area may find the
when necessary.
outcrop being described.
Searches of the ASUD are quite flexible and
2. Topography – relief, shapes and arrange-
can be done from a stratigraphic unit or indexed
ment of topographic units, linearity of
article perspective. Search options include:
features, relationship of lithological types
•• author, to topographic forms, depth of weathering
•• stratigraphic name, and typical weathering profile, maturity of
•• 1:250 000 sheet area, topography.
•• subject (using AMF or GEOREF Thesaurus 3. Nature of the vegetation – dominant species
for key words), and present, open or closed forest, woodland,
•• reserved name. shrubland, grassland, heath or nil vegetation.

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4. Nature of the outcrop to be described; 8. For a metamorphic rock, note further – record
including dimensions, form and shape. mineralogy, grade and facies, protolith type
5. Lithological observations at outcrops – (if this can be determined). In a deformed,
colour of weathered and fresh surface, colour metamorphosed rock these should be
banding, degree and depth of weathering, recorded in conjunction with descriptions
grain size, mineral com-position, field of the structural elements as outlined above.
rock name (in capitals or underlined), 9. For a sedimentary rock, note further –
relationship to units above and below
whether detrital (clastic, fragmental),
(contact relationship and type). Presence of
chemical, or organic; mode of occurrence
‘economic’ minerals, degree of weathering,
(bed, lens, clastic pipe, clastic dyke); dimen-
visual estimate of grade, position, type,
sions (thickness, lateral extent, etc); attitude;
description and dimensions of samples if
direction of face in regions of intense folding;
taken.
breadth of outcrop; degree of consolidation
6. For an igneous rock, note further – mode
(unconsolidated, loose, compacted only by
of occurrence; dimensions of igneous
adhesive properties of some constituents,
bodies; attitude (for dykes, sills, etc);
consolidated by virtue of a cement);
fracture systems; lithologic structures
composition, shape, size, and arrangement
(flow structure, schlieren, flow banding,
of constituents in detrital (fragmental)
segregations, etc); contact relations; contact
metamorphism; and inclusions (kind, shape, rocks (larger fragments, matrix, cement);
size, arrangement and source). lithologic structures (cross-bedding, ripple-
marks, sun cracks, local unconformity,
7. For a deformed rock, note further –
contemporaneous deformation, etc); inclu-
record foliation attitude, style (planar,
anastomosing, differentiated (ie has sions (concretions, nodules, geodes); kinds,
banded appearance), intensity (eg weak attitude, distribution and abundance of
– noticeably present, but not prominent; fossils; stratigraphic sequence. Possible
moderate – pervasive and obvious; strong economic value, and for a possible petroleum
– dominant feature in the outcrop) as source or reservoir horizon, details of
relative descriptions; younging directions porosity, petroliferous odour.
where present in the host rock; fold axis 10. For veins, note further – record vein
(hinge) orientations, axial surface fabric morphology and dimensions (eg planar
orientation, fold style (see section 5.9), margins, parallel-sided veins, pinch and
interlimb angle of folds; mineralogy of swell, boudinage, folded, etc), attitude(s)
foliation defining elements (eg biotite, including boudins and fold axes (hinges);
chlorite, preferred orientation of a particular fold style; vein assemblage, vein grain
mineral, etc); lineation orientation size, textures and textural zoning, if
preferably as a plunge, but define what present; wall rock alteration assemblages.
type, eg intersection, mineral (preferred In foliated environments it is important to
alignment of prismatic minerals), stretching.
record angular relationships of veins with
For faults record attitude, fill (eg veining,
respect to the fabric, including whether a
clay gouge, breccia, cataclasite), splay
foliation is axial surface to any folds present.
dimensions and orientations.
Also record overprinting foliations/cleavages
and fold interference patterns including
notebook sketches.

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5.8. CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS1 to the left). For horizontal faults, describe the
direction of movement of the hanging wall block;
for example, horizontal north-east slip fault.
Classification of faults based on slip
Oblique-slip
Translational movement
Dip- and strike-slip terms in combination: for
Dip-slip example, normal right-slip fault, or, for a vertical
fault, vertical oblique-slip fault, north side down
Normal-slip fault (hanging wall block down).
Reverse-slip fault (hanging wall block up). For and westward.
vertical faults, specify the movement of one block
relative to the other; for example vertical dip-slip Rotational movement
fault, east side down.
Plane fault2
Strike-slip Clockwise-rotational fault (opposite block clock-
Right-slip (dextral) fault (opposite block to the wise). Anticlockwise-rotational fault (opposite
right). Left-slip (sinistral) fault (opposite block block anticlockwise).

Figure 5.8.1
Classification diagrams for translation faults. (A) Dip-pitch triangular grid. (B) Fault categories on the
dip pitch triangles. The special cases of dip-slip and strike-slip faults are shown shaded; the oblique-slip
categories are blank.

1. From: Ragan, D M, 1973. Structural Geology (John Wiley: New York), after Rickard (1972).
2. Slip on curved fault surface may also occur.

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5.9. CLASSIFICATION OF FOLDS BY DIP ISOGONS AND BY HINGE SURFACE

By dip isogons1

( a) ( b)
Construction of dip isogons

FOLD ORIENTATION

1. From Ramsay, J G, 1967. Folding and Fracturing of Rocks (McGraw-Hill: New York).

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By hinge surface1

Terms describing the attitude of folds

Angle Term Dip of hinge surface Plunge of hinge line
0° Horizontal Recumbent fold Horizontal fold
1°- 10° Sub-horizontal
10° - 30° Gentle Gently inclined fold Gently plunging fold
30° - 60° Moderate Moderately inclined fold Moderately plunging fold
60° - 80° Steep Steeply inclined fold Steeply inclined fold

Example Dip of hinge surface Plunge of hinge line Description of fold

a 85° 20° Upright gently plunging
b 70° 45° Steeply inclined moderately plunging
c 56° 55° Moderately inclined reclined

1. From Ragan, D M, 1973. Structural Geology (John Wiley: New York), after Rickard (1971).

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5.10. GRAPH SHOWING ANGLE OF TRUE DIP OR SLOPE, VERTICAL

EXAGGERATION, AND EXAGGERATED DIP1
Example – with a vertical exaggeration of v/h = 10, a true dip of 6° is represented by an exaggerated
dip of about 45°.

1. From Ragan, D M, 1968. Structural Geology (John Wiley: New York).

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5.11. NOMOGRAM FOR ESTIMATING AREA1

1. From Moran, W R, 1958. Handbook for Geologists (Union Oil Company of California), with amendments.

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5.12. NOMOGRAM FOR ESTIMATING TRUE WIDTH1

1. From Palmer, H S, 1918. New graphic method for determining the depth and thickness of strata and the
projection of dip. USGS Prof paper 120-G, pp 123-128.

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