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Chapter 3

Mineral and Rock

Information

3.1. MINERAL INDEX

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Acanthite Ag2S Mon 7.2 - 7.4 2 - 2½ Low temperature Ag2S,
87% Ag
Achroite Colourless tourmaline
3+
Acmite NaFe Si2O6 Mon 3.4 - 3.6 6 - 6½ A pyroxene
Actinolite Ca2(Mg,Fe)5(Si8O22) (OH)2 Mon 3.0 - 3.24 5-6 Tremolite with >2% Fe
Adularia KA1Si3O8 Clear orthoclase
3+
Aegirine NaFe Si2O6 Impure acmite,
generally green to black
in colour
Agate Banded chalcedony
Alabandite MnS Iso 3.95 - 4.04 3½ - 4 Black
Alabaster Massive [Link]. gypsum
Albite NaAlSi3O8 Tric 2.6 - 2.65 6 - 6½ Na rich plagioclase,
Ab100 to Ab90 An10
Alexandrite Gem chrysoberyl
Allanite (Ce,Ca,Y) (Al,Fe)(Si2O3) Mon 3.5 - 4.2 5½ - 6 About 28% REO
(SiO4)O(OH)
Allemontite AsSb Trig 5.8 - 6.2 3-4 One cleavage
Allophane Al2O3(SiO2)1.3-2.0·2.5-3.0H2O Amor 1.85 - 1.89 3 Claylike mineral
2+
Almandine (Fe )3Al2(SiO4)3 Iso 4.318 7 - 7½ A red garnet
Altaite PbTe Iso 8.19 2-3 Tin – white, rare
Alumstone Alunite
Alunite K Al3(SO4)2(OH)6 Trig 2.6 - 2.9 3½ - 4 11.4% K2O, 37% Al2O3
Amazonite Green to blue green
microcline
Amblygonite LiAlPO4F Tric 3.04 - 3.11 5½ - 6 About 10% Li2O,
48% P2O5

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Amethyst SiO2 Purple quartz. The
colour is caused by iron
impurities in the 10s to
100s parts per million
range
Amosite Fe,Mg,Si,O,OH A fibrous variety of
grunerite
Amphibole See actinolite, antho-
group phyllite, arfvedsonite,
cummingtonite, glauco-
phane, horn-blende,
riebeckite, tremolite
Analcime Na(AlSi2)O6)·H2O Tric 2.24 - 2.29 5 - 5½ A zeolite
Anatase TiO2 Tet 3.79 - 3.97 5½ - 6 Low temperature TiO2
Anauxite Al2OSiO4 Mon 2.6 2 Si-rich kaolinite
Andalusite Al2SiO5 Orth 3.13 - 3.16 7½ Often as square prisms.
63% Al2O3
Andesine (Na,Ca)(Si,Al)4O8 Tric 2.69 6 - 6½ A plagioclase feldspar
Andradite Ca3(Fe3+)2(SiO4)3 Iso 3.8 - 3.9 6½ - 7 Calcium-iron garnet
Anglesite PbSO4 Orth 6.37 - 6.39 2½ - 3 Secondary, often
banded. 68% Pb
Anhydrite CaSO4 Orth 2.89 - 2.98 3 - 3½ 41% CaO
2+
Ankerite CaFe (CO3)2 Rho 2.93 - 3.1 3½ - 4 Dolomite with Fe>Mg
Annabergite Ni3(AsO4)2·8H2O Mon 3.07 1½ - 2½ Nickel bloom. 29% Ni,
25% As
Anorthite CaAl2Si2O8 Tric 2.74 - 2.76 6-6½ Ca-rich plagioclase,
An100 to An90 Ab10
Anorthoclase (Na,K)AlSi3O8 Tric 2.58 6 - 6½ Like orthoclase, with
Na>K
Anthophyllite []Mg7Si8O22(OH)2 Orth 2.85 - 3.57 5½ - 6 White, greenish grey,
green, clove brown,
or brownish green
amphibole var. of
asbestos
Antigorite Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 Mon 2.5 - 2.6 3½ - 4 Platy serpentine
Antimony Sb Trig 6.61 - 6.71 3 - 3½ Cl (0001)
Antlerite (Cu2+)3SO4(OH)4 Orth 3.9 3½ - 4 Secondary Cu mineral
of arid regions
Apatite Ca5(PO4,CO3)3(F,OH,Cl) Hex 3.15 - 3.20 5 38 - 42% P2O5
Apophyllite (K,Na)Ca4Si8O20(F,OH)· Tet 2.33 - 2.37 4½ - 5 Secondary, in basic
8H2O lavas
Aquamarine Be3Al2Si6O18 Pale greenish-blue
transparent beryl
Aragonite CaCO3 Orth 2.95 3½ - 4 Cl (010), (110).
56% CaO
Arfvedsonite NaNa2[(Fe2+)4Fe3+] Mon 3.3 - 3.5 6 Na amphibole
Si8O22(OH)2

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Argentite Ag2S Mon 7.2 - 7.4 2 - 2½ Sectile, 87% Ag
Arsenic As Trig 5.63 - 5.78 3½ Cl (0001)
Arsenopyrite FeAsS Mon 6.07 5½ - 6 Pseudo-orth. 46% As
Asbestos See amosite, antho-
phyllite, chrysotile,
crocidolite, tremolite
Asbolite Cobaltian wad Amor 2.9 - 4.3 To 15% Co
Atacamite Cu2Cl(OH)3 Orth 3.75 - 3.77 3 - 3½ Cl (010). 59% Cu
Augite (Ca,Mg,Fe)2(Si,Al)2O6 Mon 3.19 - 3.56 5½ - 6 Common pyroxene
Aurichalcite Zn5(CO3)2(OH)6 Mon 3.96 1-2 14 - 23% Cu,
36 - 47% Zn
Autunite Ca(UO2)2(PO4)2·10-12H2O Orth 3.05 - 3.2 2 - 2½ Yellow-green,
fluorescent, 67% U3O8
Awaruite Ni3Fe Iso 7.8 - 8.2 4-5 Magnetic
Axinite Ca2(Mn,Fe,Mg)Al2BSi4O15 Tric 3.27 - 3.35 6½ - 7 Crystal angles acute
(OH)
Azurite Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2 Mon 3.77 3½ - 4 Always blue. 55% Cu
B
Baddeleyite ZrO2 Mon 5.4 - 6.02 6½ Minor Zr source
Balas ruby Red gem spinel
Baryte BaSO4 Orth 4.5 3 - 3½ Cl (001), (110).
65.7% BaO
Bastnäsite (Ce,La)(CO3)(F) Hex 4.9 - 5.2 4 - 4½ 75% REO
Bauxite A mixture of
aluminium hydroxides/
oxides
Beidellite (Na,Ca)0.3Al2(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2 Mon 2.6 1-2 Al-rich montmorillonite
•nH2O
Bentonite An impure
clay, primarily
montmorillonite
Beryl Be3Al2(Si6O18) Hex 0.63 - 2.92 7½ - 8 14% BeO
Biotite K(Mg,Fe2+)3(Si3Al) Mon 2.7 - 3.3 2½ - 3 Common black mica of
O10(OH,F)2 the biotite-phlogopite
series
Bismite Bi2O3 Mon 8.64 - 9.22 4½ 72% Bi
Bismuth Bi Trig 9.7 - 9.8 2 - 2½ Cl (0001)
Bismuthinite Bi2S3 Orth 6.78 2 - 2½ Cl (010). 81% Bi
Bismutite Bi2O2(CO3) Orth 6.7 - 7.4 2½ - 3½ 75% Bi
Black Jack Sphalerite
Blende Sphalerite
Bloodstone A dark green/greenish-
blue chalcedony with
small red blood-like
spots
Blue vitriol Chalcanthite

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Böehmite AlO(OH) Orth 3.02 - 3.05 3½ In bauxite. 85% Al2O3
Boracite Mg3B7O13Cl Orth 2.91 - 3.1 7 - 7½ 62% B2O3
Borax Na2B4O5(OH)4·8H2O Mon 1.7 2 - 2½ Cl (100). 36.5% B2O3
Bornite Cu5FeS4 Orth 5.06 - 5.09 3 Purple-blue tarnish.
63.3% Cu
Boulangerite Pb5Sb4S11 Mon 6.2 2½ - 3 55% Pb, 25% Sb
Bournonite PbCuSbS3 Orth 5.83 2½ - 3 Easily fusible. 13% Cu,
42% Pb, 25% Sb
Brannerite (U4+,REE,Th,Ca) Mono 4.2 - 5.43 4½ - 5½ 30 - 50% U3O8
(Ti,Fe3+)2(O)6
Braunite Mn2+(Mn3+)6SiO12 Tet 4.72 - 4.83 6 - 6½ 64% Mn
Bravoite (Ni,Fe)S2 Iso 4.62 - 4.72 6½ Steel gray. 24% Ni
Brazilian Green tourmaline
emerald
Brittle mica See chloritoid,
margarite, ottrelite
Brochantite Cu4(OH)6SO4 Mon 3.97 3½ - 4 A common secondary
copper hydroxy sulfate.
56% Cu
Bromargyrite AgBr Iso 6.474 2½ Chlorargyrite Group.
57 - 65% Ag
Bronzite Ca(Mg,Al)3(Al,Si)4O10(OH)2 Orth 3.1 - 3.3 5½ Enstatite with 5 - 13%
FeO
Brookite TiO2 Orth 4.08 - 4.18 5½ - 6 Adamantine lustre
Brucite Mg(OH)2 Trig 2.39 2½ - 3 Cl (0001). 69% MgO
Bytownite (Ca,Na)(Si,Al)4O8 Tric 2.74 6 - 6½ A plagioclase feldspar
C
Cairngorm Smoky to black quartz
Calamine Zn4Si2O7(OH)2·H2O Hemimorphite
Calaverite AuTe2 Mon 9.1 - 9.4 2½ - 3 Easily fusible. 42% Au
Calcite CaCO3 Trig 2.7102 3 Fluorescent, Cl (1011),
56% CaO
Californite Gem idocrase
Calomel HgCl Tet 7.15 1½ - 2 85% Hg
Cancrinite (Na,Ca,[])8(Al6Si6) Hex 2.42 - 2.51 5-6 A feldspathoid
O24(Co3,SO4)2·2H2O
Capillary Millerite
pyrites
Carnallite KMgCl3·6H2O Orth 1.6 2½ Deliquescent. 16.8%
K2O, 14.6% MgO
Carnelian Red chalcedony
Carnotite K2(UO2)2(VO4)2·3H2O Mon 4.7 2 50% U3O8, 20% V2O5
Cassiterite SnO2 Tet 6.98 - 7.01 6-7 Lustre adamantine.
78.6% Sn
Cat’s-eye Gem variety of
chrysoberyl or quartz

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Celestine SrSO4 Orth 3.96 - 3.98 3 - 3½ 56% SrO
Celsian BaAl2Si2O8 Mon 3.10 - 3.39 6 - 6½ Feldspar with 41% BaO
Cerargyrite AgCl Iso 5.5 - 6 2½ Perfectly sectile.
65 - 75% Ag
Cerussite PbCO3 Orth 6.53 - 6.57 3 - 3½ Effer. in HNO3. 77% Pb
Cervantite Sb2O4 Orth 6.6 4-5 After stibnite. 79% Sb
Chabazite (Ca,K,Na)(Si,Al)3O6·3H2O Tric 2.05 - 2.2 4-5 Chabazite now is the
name of a series of
related minerals
Chalcanthite CuSO4·5H2O Tric 2.286 2½ Soluble in water.
35% Cu
Chalcedony 2.6 - 2.64 Cryptocrystalline quartz
Chalcocite Cu2S Mon 5.5 - 5.8 2½ - 3 Imperfectly sectile.
79.8% Cu
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 Tet 4.1 - 4.3 3½ - 4 Brittle, yellow.
31 - 34.5% Cu
Chalcotrichite Cu2O 3½ - 4 Fibrous cuprite
Chalk Fine grained calcite
Chalybite FeCO3 Siderite
Chert SiO2 2.65 7 Cryptocrystalline quartz
Chessylite Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2 Azurite
Chiastolite Andalusite with dark
cruciform inclusions
Chloanthite Nickel skutterudite, 3.5
- 6.5% Co, 14.5 - 21.5%
Ni, 71.5 - 73.5% As
Chlorargyrite AgCl Iso 5.556 1½ - 2½ AgCl, 75% Ag, member
of chlorargyrite group
Chlorite (Mg,Al,Fe,Li,Mn,Ni)4- Mon 2.6 - 3.3 2 - 2½ Differentiated by
6 (Si,Al,B,Fe)4O10(OH,O)8 chemical analyses and
optical properties into
clinochlore, penninite
and prochlorite
Chloritoid Fe2+Al2OSiO4(OH)2 Mon 3.4 - 3.8 6½ Brittle micas of the
chloritoid group
Chondrodite Mg5(SiO4)2F2 Mon 3.16 - 3.26 6 - 6½ Similar species are
clinohumite, humite,
norbergite
Chromite Fe2+Cr2O4 Iso 4.5 - 4.8 5½ Lustre submetallic, dark
brown streak. 43 - 68%
Cr2O3
Chrysoberyl BeAl2O4 Orth 3.75 8½ Crystals tabular.
19.8% BeO
Chrysocolla (Cu,Al)2H2Si2O5(OH)4·nH2O Orth 1.93 - 2.4 2½ - 3½ Bluish green. 36% Cu
Chrysolite Olivine
Chrysoprase An apple-green variety
of chalcedony
Chrysotile Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 Serpentine asbestos

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Cinnabar HgS Trig 8.176 2 - 2½ Red streak. 86% Hg
Cinnamon Grossularite
stone
Citrine SiO2 7 Pale yellow quartz
Clay See kaolin,
montmorillonite, illite
Cleavelandite NaAlSi3O8 Tric 2.6 - 2.65 6 - 6½ White, platy albite
Cliachite Very fine grained to
colloidal Al hydroxides
in bauxite
Clinochlore Mg6Si4O10(OH)8 Mon 2.6 - 3.02 2 - 2½ Most common member
of the chlorite group
Clinoclase Cu3(AsO4)(OH)3 Mon 4.38 2½ - 3 Sec. mineral
Clinoenstatite MgSiO3 Mon 3.19 5-6 Monoclinic form
of enstatite –
clinopyroxene subgroup
Clinoferrosilite Fe2+SiO3 Mon 3.6 5-6 Clinopyroxene
subgroup
Clinohumite Mg9(SiO4)4F2 Mon 3.1 - 3.2 6 Humite group
Clinozoisite Ca2Al3(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH) Mon 3.3 - 3.4 7 Crystals striated –
epidote group
Cobaltite CoAsS Orth 6.33 5½ In pyritohedrons. 29 -
35% Co, 43 - 45% As
Coffinite U[SiO4·(OH)4] Tet 7.2 Black U mineral of sed/
sandst. deps.
Cogwheel ore Bournonite
Colemanite CaB3O4(OH)3·H2O Mon 2.423 4 - 4½ Cl (010) perfect.
50.9% B2O3
Collophane A variety of carbonate-
rich apatite
Columbite (Mn,Fe,Mg)(Nb,Ta)2O6 Orth 5.2 - 6.7 6 Lustre submetallic. 31
with Nb>Ta - 79% Nb2O5, max 52%
Ta2O5 (with Nb = Ta)
Common salt NaCl Iso 2.168 2½ Halite
Copper Cu Iso 8.9 2½ - 3 Malleable
Copper glance Cu2S Mon 5.5 - 5.8 2½ - 3 Chalcocite
Copper nickel Niccolite
Copper pyrites CuFeS2 Tet 4.1 - 4.3 3½ - 4 Chalcopyrite
Cordierite Mg2Al4Si5O18 Orth 2.60 - 2.66 7 - 7½ In m. to high grade
metamorphics
Corundum Al2O3 Rho 3.98 - 4.14 9 Rhomb. parting
52.9% Al
Cotton-balls Ulexite
Covellite CuS Hex 4.6 - 4.76 1½ - 2 Blue. 66.4% Cu
Cristobalite SiO2 Tet 2.32 - 2.36 6-7 High temperature
quartz, in volcanic rocks
(>1470°C)

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Crocidolite Na2(Fe,Mg)3(Fe3+)2Si8O22 Mon 3.2 - 3.3 5 - 5½ Blue asbestos variety of
(OH)2 riebeckite
Crocoite PbCrO4 Mon 5.97 - 6.02 2½ - 3 Orange-red streak. 23%
Cr2O3, 64% Pb
Cryolite Na3AlF6 Mon 2.96 - 2.98 2½ White. 54.4% F
Cubanite CuFe2S3 Orth 4.03 - 4.18 3½ 23% Cu
Cumming- []Mg7Si8O22(OH)2 Mon 3.1 - 3.6 5-6 An amphibole
tonite
Cuprite Cu2O Iso 6.14 3½ - 4 Brownish red streak.
88.8% Cu
Cyanite Al2OSiO4 Tri 3.53-3.65 5½ - 7 Kyanite
Cymophane BeAl2O4 Orth 3.75 8½ Chrysoberyl
D
Danaite (Fe,Co)AsS Mon 5.9 - 6.2 5½ - 6 Cobaltian arseno-pyrite,
to 12% Co
Danburite CaB2(SiO4)2 Orth 2.97 - 3.02 7 In crystals. 28.4% B2O3
Datolite CaB(SiO4)(OH) Mon 2.96 - 3 5 - 5½ Usually in crystals.
21.8% B2O3
Davidite Ce(Y,U)Fe2(Ti,Fe,Cr,V)18 Th brannerite. To
(O,OH,F)38 9% U3O8
Demantoid Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3 Iso 3.8 - 3.9 6½ - 7 Green gem andradite
Diallage Ca,Mg,Si,O An old name refering
to amphibole, pyroxene
and/or hypersthene
Diamond C Iso 3.5 - 3.53 10 Adamantine lustre,
fluorescent
Diaspore AlO(OH) Orth 3.2 - 3.5 6½ - 7 85% Al2O3
Diatomite 0.4 - 0.6 2 (5½ - Siliceous tests of
(2.2) 6½) diatoms
Dichroite (Mg,Fe)2Al4Si5O18 Orth 2.6 - 2.66 7 - 7½ Cordierite
Dickite Al2Si2O5(OH)4 Mon 2.6 2 - 2½ Kaolin group clay
mineral
Digenite Cu9S5 Iso 5.546 2½ - 3 Chalcocite-digenite
group. 75 - 79% Cu
Diopside CaMgSi2O6 Mon 3.22 - 3.38 5½ - 6½ Pyroxene group -
clinopyroxene subgroup
Dioptase CuSiO3·H2O Trig 3.28 - 3.35 5 Emerald green
Disthene Al2OSiO4 Trig 3.53 - 3.65 5½ - 7 Kyanite
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 Trig 2.84 - 2.86 3½ - 4 Cl (1011). 30.4% CaO,
21.7% MgO, 54.3%
CaCO3
Dry-bone ore ZnCO3 Trig 4.42 - 4.44 4 - 4½ Smithsonite
Dumortierite (Al,[])Al6BSi3O16(O,OH)2 Orth 3.26 - 3.36 7 Radiating fibrous
E
Edenite Ca2NaMg5(AlSi7O22) (OH)2 Mon 3.0 5-6 Pale iron-free
hornblende from the
amphibole group

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Electrum Au,Ag Iso 13.5 - 17.5 3 Natural Au-Ag alloy
with >20% Ag
Eleolite (Na,K)AlSiO4 Hex 2.55 - 2.66 5½ - 6 Nepheline
Embolite Ag(Cl,Br) with Cl = Br Iso 5.6 1½ - 2 Intermediate between
cerargyrite and
bromyrite
Emerald Be3Al2Si6O18 Hex 2.63 - 2.92 7½ - 8 Green gem beryl
Emery Corundum with spinel
magnetite and hematite
Enargite Cu3AsS4 Orth 4.43 - 4.45 3 Cl (110). 48.3% Cu,
19.1% As
Endlichite Arsenical vanadinite, As
replacing V
Enstatite MgSiO3 Orth 3.2 - 3.9 5-6 A pyroxene
3+
Epidote Ca2Fe Al2(Si2O7)(SiO4) Mon 3.38 - 3.49 6 The Al2Fe3+ analogue of
O(OH) clinozoisite Cl (001)
Epsomite MgSO4·7H2O Orth 1.675 - 2 - 2½ Bitter taste. 16.3% MgO
1.679
Epsom salt Epsomite
Erythrite Co3(AsO4)2·8H2O Mon 3.06 1½ - 2½ Pink cobalt bloom.
37% Co
Essonite Grossularite
Euclase BeAlSiO4(OH) Mon 2.99 - 3.1 7½ Cl (010). 17% BeO
Eucryptite LiAlSiO4 Trig 2.657 - 6½ Phenakite group. After
2.666 spodumene, fluorescent
Euxenite (Y,Ca,Ce,U,Th)(Nb,Ta,Ti)2O6 Orth 5.3 - 5.9 5½ - 6½ 22 - 30% REO, max.
8% U3O8, 30 - 50%
(Nb2O5+Ta2O5)
F
Fahlore (Cu,Fe,Ag,Zn)12Sb4S13 Iso 4.97 3½ - 4 Tetrahedrite
Fayalite Fe2SiO4 Orth 4.14 6½ Iron olivine
Feather ore Pb4FeSb6S14 Mon 5.63 2½ Jamesonite
Feldspar group MAl(Al,Si)3O8, M = K,Na,Ca, See plagioclase, celsian,
Ba,Rb,Sr,Fe potassium feldspar
Feldspathoid See cancrinite, lazurite,
group leucite, nepheline,
petalite, sodalite
Ferberite Fe2+WO4 Mon 7.58 4 - 4½ Wolframite series,
76.3% WO3
Fergusonite (RE,Fe)(Nb,Ta,Ti) O4 Tet 4.2 - 5.8 5½ - 6½ Max 46% REO,
10% U3O8, 54% Nb2O5
Ferrimolybdite (Fe3+)2(Mo6+O4)3·7H2O Orth 2.99 1-2 39% Mo commonly
formed from
the alteration of
molybdenite
Ferrosilite (Fe2+)2(SiO3)2 Orth 3.60 - 4.00 5-6 A pyroxene enstatite-
ferrosilite series
Fibrolite Al2OSiO4 Orth 6½ - 7½ Fibrous sillimanite

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Flint SiO2 2.65 7 Cryptocrystalline
quartz
Florencite CeAl3(PO4)2(OH)6 Hex 3.6 5 The original name
given to the cerium-
dominant member of
what is now a group of
related phosphates and
arsenates
Flos ferri A stalactitic variety of
aragonite
Fluorite CaF2 Iso 3.175 - 3.56 4 Cl octahedral,
fluorescent, 48.9% F
Formanite YTaO4 5½ - 6½ Fergusonite with Y
Forsterite Mg2SiO4 Orth 3.27 7 Magnesian olivine
Fowlerite (Mn,Zn)SiO3 Zinc-bearing rhodonite
Franklinite Zn(Fe3+)2O4 Iso 5.07 - 5.22 5½ - 6 Spinel group, dark
brown streak, 5 - 19%
Zn
Freibergite Ag6Cu4Fe2Sb4S13 5.41 3½ - 4 Argentiferous
tetrahedrite
Fuchsite K(Al,Cr)2(AlSi3O10)(OH,F)2 Mon 2.76 - 2.88 2 - 2½ Cr rich muscovite
G
Gadolinite Be2Fe2+Y2Si2O10 Mon 4.0 - 4.5 6½ - 7 Nom. 48% REO,
10% BeO
Gahnite ZnAl2O4 Iso 4.62 7½ - 8 Zn spinel, green
octahedrons
Galaxite Mn2+Al2O4 Iso 4.03 7½ - 8 Mn spinel
Galena PbS Iso 7.4 - 7.6 2½ Cl cubic. 86.6% Pb
Garnet group A3B2(SiO4)3 Iso 3.5 - 4.3 6½ - 7½ See almandite,
A = Ca,Mg,Fe2+,Mn2+; andradite, grossularite,
B = Al,Fe3+,Mn3+,Cr pyrope, spessartite,
uvarovite
Garnierite (Ni,Mg)3Si2O5(OH)4 Amor 2.2 - 2.8 2-3 Generic name for a
green nickel ore. 25 -
30% Ni
Gaylussite Na2Ca(CO3)2·5H2O Mon 1.991 2½ Easily fusible. 20%
Na2O
Gedrite []Mg5Al2(Si6Al2)O22(OH)2 Orth 5½ - 6 Al-rich anthophyllite
Geocronite Pb14(Sb,As)6S23 Orth 6.46 2½ - 3 69% Pb, 8% Sb, 5% As
Gersdorffite NiAsS Iso 5.9 5½ 35% Ni, 45% As
Geyserite Opal of hot spring
deposits
Gibbsite Al(OH)3 Mon 2.38 - 2.42 2½ - 3 65.4% Al2O3
Glauberite Na2Ca(SO4)2 Mon 2.75 - 2.85 2½ - 3 22% Na2O
Glaucodot CO0.5Fe0.5AsS Danaite – a Co-bearing
variety of arsenopyrite
Glauconite (K,Na)(Al,Fe3+,Mg)2 Mon 2.4 - 2.95 2 Green sand mica of
(Al,Si)4O10(OH)2 marine sediments

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Glaucophane []Na2(Mg3Al2)Si8O22(OH)2 Mon 3.0 - 3.2 5-6 Na amphibole
Gmelinite (Na,Ca)(Si8Al4)O24·11H2O Hex 2.04 - 2.17 4½ Zeolite group, var. of
chabazite
Goethite FeO(OH) Orth 4.27 - 4.29 5 - 5½ Diaspore group, Cl
(010), 62% Fe
Gold Au Iso 15.0 - 19.3 2½ - 3 Yellow, soft
Goslarite ZnSO4·7H2O Orth 1.978 2 - 2½ Sol. in water. 22% Zn
Graphite C Hex 2.09 - 2.23 l-2 Black, platy
Grey copper (Cu,Fe,Ag,Zn)12Sb4S13 Iso 4.97 3½ - 4 Tetrahedrite
Greenockite CdS Hex 4.8 - 4.9 3 - 3½ Yellow-orange.
77.8% Cd
Grossular Ca3Al2(SiO4)3 Iso 3.594 6½ - 7 A garnet
Gummite UO3·nH2O 3.9 - 6.4 2½ - 5 Field name for hydrous
U oxides. 60 - 80%
U3O8
Gypsum CaSO4·2H2O Mon 2.312 - 2 Cl (010), (100), (011).
2.322 32.5% CaO
H
Halite NaCl Iso 2.168 2½ Natural salt. 53% Na2O
equiv.
Halloysite Al2Si2O5(OH)4 Mon 2 - 2.6 1-2 Clay mineral
Harmotome Ba2(Si12Al4)O32·12H2O Mon 2.41 - 2.47 4-5 Zeolite group,
harmotome-phillipsite-
Ca series
Hastingsite Na,Ca2[(Fe2+)4Fe3+](Si6Al2) Mon 3.2 5-6 Amphibole group,
O22(OH)2 calcic clino-amphibole
subgroup
Hausmannite Mn3O4 Tet 4.83 - 4.85 5½ 72% Mn
Haüyne Na3Ca(Si3Al3)O12(SO4) Iso 2.44 - 2.5 5½ - 6 Sodalite group
Heavy spar BaSO4 Orth 4.5 3 - 3½ Barite
Heazlewoodite Ni3S2 Trig 5.82 4 Brassy yellow, to 73%
Ni
Hectorite Na0.3(Mg,Li)3Si4O10(F,OH)2 Mon 2.5 1 - 1½ Li montmorillonite
·nH2O
Hedenbergite CaFe2+(Si2O6) Mon 3.56 5½ - 6½ End member of
diopside series
Heliotrope Synonym of
bloodstone, green and
red chalcedony
Helvite Mn4Be3(SiO4)3S Iso 3.2 - 3.44 6 - 6½ Helvite group, danalite-
helvite series, in
pegmatites
Hematite Fe2O3 Trig 5.26 5-6 Brownish red streak.
70% Fe
Hemimorphite Zn4(Si2O7)(OH)2·H2O Orth 3.475 4½ - 5 Cl (110). 54% Zn
2+
Hercynite Fe Al2O4 Iso 4.39 7½ Iron spinel

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Hessite Ag2Te Mon 8.24 - 8.45 3 Grey
Heulandite Na,Ca4(Si27Al9)O72·24H2O Mon 2.1 - 2.2 3 - 3½ Heulandite now refers
to a group of related
minerals
Hiddenite LiAlSi2O6 Mon 3.1 - 3.2 6½ - 7 Green spodumene
Holmquistite []Li2Mg3Al2Si8O22(OH)2 Orth 5½ Lithium-bearing
glaucophane,
amphibole group
Hornblende (Ca,Na)2(Mg,Fe)4Al(Si7Al) Mon 3 - 3.4 6 Common amphibole
O22(OH,F)
Horn silver AgCl Iso 5.556 1½ - 2½ A synonym for
chlorargyrite
Hübnerite Mn2+WO4 Mon 4 4½ Ferberite-hübnerite
series. 76.6% WO3
Humite Mg7(SiO4)3(F,OH)2 Orth 3.1 - 3.2 6 Humite group
Hyacinth Brownish to red-orange
zircon
Hyalite Globular, colourless
opal
Hyalophane (K,Ba)(Al,Si)4O8 Mon 2.8 6 Ba-rich orthoclase
Hydromica K,Al,Mg,Si,H2O Variety of Illite very low
in K and high in water
Hydrozincite Zn5(CO3)2(OH)6 Mon 3.5 - 4 2 - 2½ Alteration product
generally of sphalerite,
also of hemimorphite,
and smithsonite. 59%
Zn
Hypersthene (Mg,Fe)SiO3 Orth 3.4 - 3.5 5-6 Regarded as a
synonym of enstatite or
ferrosilite
I
Ice H2O Hex 0.917 1½
Iceland spar Optically clear calcite
Iddingsite MgOFe2O33SiO2·4(H2O) Orth 3.5 - 3.8 3 After olivine
Idocrase (Ca,Na)19(Al,Mg,Fe)13(SiO4)10 Tet 3.35 - 3.45 6½ Prismatic crystals
(Si2O7)4 (OH,F,O)10
Illite (K,H3O)Al2(Si3Al) Mica-like clay mineral,
O10(H2O,OH)2 about 38% Al2O3
Ilmenite FeTiO3 Rho 4.7 5½ - 6 Slightly magnetic.
52.6% TiO2
Ilmenorutile (Ti,Nb,Fe)O2 5.1 6 - 6.5 Black, end member of
struverite series
Ilvaite CaFe3+(Fe2+)2O(Si2O7)(OH) Orth 4.0 5½ - 6 Black or brown
Indicolite Dark blue tourmaline
Iodobromite Ag(Cl,Br,I) Iso 5.7 1 - 1½ To about 15% I, 60% Ag
Iodyrite AgI Hex 5.7 1 - 1½ Sectile. 45% Ag
Iolite Cordierite (gem var.)

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Iridium Ir Iso 22.7 6-7 Platinoid metal
Iridosmine Ir,Os Rho 19.3 - 21.1 6-7 Platinoid. Max. 77% Ir,
max. 80% Os
Iron pyrites Pyrite
J
Jacinth Hyacinth
Jacobsite Mn2+(Fe3+)2O4 Iso 4.75 5.5 - 6.5 A black magnetic spinel
Jade See nephrite and
jadeite
Jadeite NaAlSi2O6 Mon 3.3 - 3.5 6½ - 7 Green pyroxene jade
Jamesonite Pb4FeSb6S14 Mon 5.5 - 6.0 2-3 50.8% Pb, 29.5% Sb
Jargon Clear, yellow or smoky
zircon
Jarosite K(Fe3+)3(SO4)2(OH)6 Rho 2.91 - 3.26 3 6 - 9% K2O
Jasper Red cryptocrystalline
quartz
Johannsenite CaMn2+Si2O6 Mon 3.4 - 3.6 5-6 Brownish-greenish grey
K
Kainite MgSO4·KCl·3H2O Mon 2.1 3 19% K2O, 16% MgO
Kalinite KAl(SO4)2·11H2O Potash alum
Kaliophilite K(AlSiO4) Hex 2.61 6 Dimorph. with kalsilite.
30% K2O, 32% Al2O3
Kalsilite KAlSiO4 End member of
nepheline series
Kaolin group LiAlSi2O6 Family of clay minerals,
see anauxite, dickite,
kaolinite, nacrite, with
39.5% Al2O3
Kaolinite Al2(Si2O5)(OH)4 Mon 2.6 - 2.65 2 - 2½ Earthy
Kernite Na2B4O6(OH)2·3(H2O) Mon 1.95 3 22.7% Na2O, 51% B2O3
Krennerite (Au,Ag)Te2 Orth 8.62 2-3 Basal cleavage
Kunzite Pink spodumene
Kyanite Al2SiO5 Tric 3.56 - 3.66 5-7 Blue, Cl (100) perfect,
bladed xals. Marked
hardness anisotropy
L
Labradorite (Ca,Na)(Si,Al)4O8 Tric 2.71 6 A plagioclase feldspar
Langbeinite K2Mg2(SO4)3 Iso 2.83 2½ - 3½ 22.7% K2O, or 42%
K2SO4
Lapis lazuli Impure lazurite
Larsenite PbZnSiO4 Orth 5.9 3 Rare olivine
Laumontite Ca(Si4Al2)O12·4H2O Mon 2.28 4 A zeolite
Lawsonite CaAl2(Si2O7)(OH)2·H2O Orth 3.09 8 In gneisses and schists
Lazulite MgAl2(PO4)2(OH)2 Mon 3.0 - 3.1 5 - 5½ Blue gemstone
Lazurite Na3CaAl3Si3O12S Iso 2.4 - 2.45 5 - 5½ A feldspathoid

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Lechatelierite SiO2 Amor 2.2 6-7 Fused silica
Lepidocrocite Fe3+O(OH) Orth 4.09 5 With goethite. 62% Fe
Lepidolite K(Li,Al)3(Si,Al)4O10(F,OH)2 Mon 2.8 - 3.0 2½ - 4 Lithium mica with
about 5% Li2O
Leucite K(AlSi2O6) Iso? 2.45 - 2.50 5½ - 6 A feldspathoid
Leucoxene FeTiO3 to TiO2 3.6 - 4.3 Whitish, opaque
ilmenite alteration
products
Libethenite Cu2(PO4)(OH) Orth 4 4 53% Cu, 29% P2O5
Liddicoatite Ca(Li,Al)3Al6(BO3)3Si6O18 Hex 3 - 3.1 7 - 7½ Uncommon form of
(OH)4 tourmaline
Limonite Fe3+O(OH) Amor 3.6 - 4.0 5 - 5½ Field name for brown
amorphous hydrous
iron oxides, yellowish
brown streak, about
60% Fe
Linarite PbCu(SO4)(OH)2 Mon 5.3 2½ Deep blue. 15% Cu,
51% Pb
Linnaeite Co3S4 Iso 4.8 4½ - 5½ 58% Co, to 7% Ni
Lithia mica Lepidolite
2+
Lithiophilite Li(Mn )PO4 Orth 3.5 5 End member of triphy-
lite series. 9.5% Li2O,
45% P2O5
Loellingite FeAs2 Orth 7.4 - 7.5 5 - 5½ 72.8% As
M
Magnesio- MgCr2O4 Iso 4.2 5½ End member of
chromite chromite series, with
21% MgO, 79% Cr2O3
Magnesio- MgFe3+2O4 Iso 4.5 5½ - 6½ A spinel. 20% MgO,
ferrite 56% Fe for MgFe2O4
Magnesite MgCO3 Rho 3.0 - 3.2 3½ - 5 Commonly massive,
sticks to thetongue,
47.6% MgO
Magnetic Pyrrhotite
pyrites
Magnetite Fe3+2Fe2+O4 Iso 5.18 6 Iron spinel, strongly
magnetic, black streak.
72.4% Fe for Fe3O4
Malachite Cu2CO3(OH)2 Mon 3.9 - 4.03 3½ - 4 Green. 57.3% Cu
3+
Manganite Mn O(OH) Orth 4.3 4 Prismatic crystals, dark
brown streak. 62% Mn
Manganosite MnO Iso 5.0 - 5.4 5½ 77% Mn
Mangano- Mn2+Ta2O6 Orth 7.3 4½ Tantalite with Mn: Fe
tantalite :: 3:1, 10% Mn, 84%
(Nb2O5+Ta2O5)
Marcasite FeS2 Orth 4.89 6 - 6½ White iron pyrites.
46.5% Fe
Margarite CaAl4Si2O10(OH)2 Mon 3.0 - 3.1 3½ - 5 A brittle mica

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Marialite Na4Al3Si9O24Cl Tet 2.7 5½ - 6 End member of
scapolite series
Marmatite (ZnFe)S Iron rich sphalerite, to
20% Fe
Martite Haematite octahedrons
after magnetite
Meerschaum Sepiolite
Meionite Ca4Al6Si6O24(CO3) Tet 2.7 5½ - 6 End member of
scapolite series
Melaconite CuO Tenorite
3+
Melanite Ca3Fe 2 (SiO4)3Ti Black andradite
Melanterite FeSO4·7H2O Mon 1.90 2 Green-blue
Melilite (Na,Ca)2(Mg,Al)(Si,Al)2O7 Tet 2.9 - 3.1 5
Menaccanite Ilmenite
Meneghinite Pb13CuSb7S24 Orth 6.36 2½ Jamesonite family
Mercury Hg 13.6 Fluid, quicksilver
Miargyrite AgSbS2 Mon 5.2 - 5.3 2½ Cherry red streak.
36% Ag, 41% Sb
Mica group See biotite, brittle mica,
lepidolite, muscovite,
phlogopite
Microcline K(AlSi3O8) Tric 2.54 - 2.57 6 Triclinic K feldspar
Microlite (Na,Ca)2Ta2O6(O,OH,F) Iso 6.33 5½ End member of
pyrochlore series,75 -
80% (Nb2O5+Ta2O5)
Microperthite Microcline and albite
micro layers
Millerite NiS Rho 5.3 - 5.7 3 - 3½ Capillary crystals 64.7%
Ni
Mimetite Pb5Cl(AsO4)3 Hex 7.0 - 7.2 3½ Like pyromorphite.
69% Pb, 15% As
Minium Pb3O4 8.9 - 9.2 2½ 90% Pb
Mispickel Arsenopyrite
Molybdenite MoS2 Hex 4.62 - 4.73 1 - 1½ Platy. 60% Mo
Molybdite MoO3 Ferrimolybdite
Monazite (Ce,La,Nd,Th)PO4 Mon 5.0 - 5.3 5 - 5½ Max 30% ThO2, max
65% REO
Monticellite CaMgSiO4 Orth 3.2 5 Rare olivine
Montmorill- (Na,Ca)0,3(Al,Mg)2Si4O10 Mon 2.5 1 - 1½ Clay mineral
onite (OH)2·n(H2O)
Montmorill- Family of clay minerals with 39.5% Al2O3, see beidellite,
onite group hectorite, montmorillonite, nontronite and saponite
Moonstone Opalescent albite or
orthoclase
Morganite Rose beryl

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Mullite Al4+2xSi2-2xO10-x(x~0.4) Orth 3.23 6-7 Formed by heating
andalusitekyanite or
sillimanite
Muscovite KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH)2 Mon 2.76 - 3.1 2 - 2½ Common clear mica
N
Nacrite Al2(Si2O5)(OH)4 Mon 2.6 2 - 2½ Kaolin group clay
mineral
Nagyagite [Pb(Pb,Sb)S2][(Au,Te)] Mon 7.4 1 - 1½ Rare
Natroalunite Alunite with Na>K
3+
Natrojarosite NaFe 3 (SO4)2(OH)6 Hex 3.1 - 3.3 3 - 3.5 Only in tiny crystals
Natrolite Na2(Al2Si3O10)·2H2O Mon 2.25 5 - 5½ A zeolite
Nepheline Ca2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2 Hex 2.55 - 2.65 5½ - 6 A feldspathoid. 22%
Na2O, 36% Al2O3
Nephrite Jade-like var. of
tremolite
Niccolite NiAs Hex 7.78 5 - 5½ Copper-red. 43.9% Ni
Nickel bloom Annabergite
Nickel iron Ni,Fe Iso 7.8 - 8.2 5 In meteorites, 5 - 15%
Ni
Nickel NiAs2-3 Iso 6.1 - 6.9 5½ - 6 2 - 6% Co, 12 - 20% Ni,
skutterudite 73 - 78% As
Nitre KNO3 Orth 2.09 - 2.14 2 Saltpetre
Nontronite Na0.3(Fe3+)2(SiAl)4O10(OH)2 Mon 2.5 1 - 1½ Montmorillonite group
·nH2O clay mineral
Norbergite Mg3SiO4F2 Orth 3.1 - 3.2 6 Chondrodite group
Nosean Na8Al6Si6O24·(SO4)·H2O Iso 2.25 - 2.4 6 A feldspathoid
(Noselite)
O
Octahedrite TiO2 Anatase
Oligoclase (Na,Ca)(Si,Al)4O8 Tric 2.65 6 A plagioclase feldspar
Olivine group (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 (Forsterite-Fayalite
series), alsorarer
members larsenite,
monticellite, tephroite
Omphacite (Ca,Na)(MgFe2+,Fe3+,Al) Mon 3.3 - 3.4 5-6 Light to dark green
Si2O6
Onyx Layered chalcedony
Opal SiO2·nH2O Amor 1.9 - 2.2 5-6 Conchoidal fracture
Orpiment As2S3 Mon 3.49 1½ - 2 Yellow. 61% As
Orthite (Ce,Ca,Y)2(Al,Fe3+)3 Allanite
(SiO4)3OH
Orthoclase K(AlSi3O8) Mon 2.57 6 Common K feldspar
Osmiridium (Ir,Os) Hex. iridosmine
Otavite CdCO3 Hex 5 3½ - 4 In cadmium deposits
2+
Ottrelite (Mn )Al2O(SiO4)(OH)2 Mon 3.5 6-7 Mn chloritoid

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 Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes
P
Palladium Pd Iso 11.9 4½ - 5 With platinum
Paradamite Zn2(AsO4)(OH) Tric 4.5 3½ Pale to dark yellow
Paragonite NaAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 Mon 2.85 2 Na muscovite
Pargasite NaCa2(Mg4Al) (Si6Al2) Mon 3 - 3.5 5½ Greenish Na
O22(OH)2 hornblende
Patronite VS4 Vanadium ore (Peru)
Peacock ore Cu5FeS4 Bornite
Pearceite Cu(Ag,Cu)6Ag9As2S11 Mon 6.15 3 Var. of polybasite
Pectolite NaCa2Si3O8(OH) Tric 2.7 - 2.8 5 Crystals acicular
Penninite Chlorite variety
Pentlandite (Fe,Ni)9S8 Iso 4.6 - 5.3 3½ - 4 With pyrrhotite.
34 - 35% Ni
Periclase MgO Iso 3.6 - 3.9 5.5 - 6 Contact met. mineral
Peridot Gem olivine
Perovskite CaTiO3 Iso 4.03 5½ 58% TiO2, variable REO
Perthite Microcline and
albiteintergrowth
Petalite Li(AlSi4O10) Mon 2.4 6 - 6½ A feldspathoid. 5% Li2O
Petzite Ag3AuTe2 Iso? 8.7 - 9.0 2½ - 3
Pezzottaite Cs(Be2Li)Al2Si6O18 Hex 2.9 - 3 8 Pink to red
Phenacite Be2SiO4 Rho 2.97 - 3.00 7½ - 8 In pegmatites.
45.6% BeO
Phillipsite (Na6,K6,Ca3)(Si10Al6) Mon 2.2 4½ - 5 Var. of stilbite
O32·12H2O
Phlogopite K(Mg)3AlSi3O10(OH)2 Mon 2.86 2½ - 3 Brown mica
Phosgenite Pb2Cl2CO3 Tet 6.0 - 6.3 3 Easily fusible. 75% Pb
Phosphurany- KCa(H3O)3(UO2)7(PO4)4 Tet 2½ Yellow secondary U
lite O4·8(H2O) mineral
Picotite Cr spinel
Piedmontite (Ca,Pb,Ce)2(Mn,Fe)Al2(Si2O7) Mon 3.4 6½ Reddish brown
(SiO4)(O,OH)2
Pigeonite (Ca,Mg,Fe)SiO3 Mon 3.2 - 3.4 5-6 Pyroxene in basic
volcanics
Pinite K,Al,Si,O(?) Muscovite after other
minerals
Pitchblende UO2 Uraninite
Plagioclase NaAlSi3O8 (albite-Ab100 An0) Tric 2.62 - 2.76 6 See albite, oligoclase,
to CaAl2Si2O8 (anorthite- andesine, labradorite,
Ab0An100) bytownite, anorthite
Plagionite Pb5Sb8S17 Mon 5.56 2½ Jamesonite series
Platinum Pt alloy Iso 14 - 19 4 - 4½ Grains in placers
Pleonaste Iron spinel
Plumbago Graphite
Polianite MnO2 Tet 5.0 6 - 6½ Crystalline pyrolusite

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Pollucite Cs(Si2Al)O6·nH2O Iso 2.9 6½ Colourless > 42% Cs2O
Polybasite Cu(AgCu)6Ag9Sb2S11 Mon 6.0 - 6.2 2-3 74% Ag, 10% Sb, to
12% Cu
Polycrase AB2(O,OH)6 Orth 4.7 - 5.9 5½ - 6½ 14 - 30% REO, max
A = Y,Ce,Ca,U,Th 13% U3O8, max 26%
B = Ti,Nb,Ta,Fe (Nb2O5+Ta2O5)
Polyhalite K2Ca2Mg(SO4)4·2H2O Tric 2.78 2½ - 3 Bitter taste. 15.6% K2O
Potash alum KAl(SO4)2·12H2O Iso 1.75 2 - 2½ 6 - 10% K2O
Potassium KAlSi3O8 See orthoclase,
feldspar microcline
Potash mica Muscovite
Powellite CaMoO4 Tet 4.23 3½ - 4 Fluorescent. 48% Mo
Prase Dull green jasper
Prehnite Ca2Al2(Si3O10)(OH)2 Orth 2.8 - 2.95 6 - 6½ Tabular crystals
Prochlorite Chlorite variety
Proustite Ag3AsS3 Rho 5.55 2 - 2½ Light ruby silver, red
streak. 65.4% Ag, 15.2%
As
Psilomelane (Ba,H2O)2Mn5O10 Field name for massive,
hard-manganese
minerals. About 50% Mn
Purple copper Bornite
ore
Pyrargyrite Ag3SbS3 Rho 5.85 2½ Dark ruby silver, red
streak. 22.3% Sb,
59.9% Ag
Pyrite FeS2 Iso 5.02 6 - 6½ Crystals striated. 46.5%
Fe
Pyrochlore Ca2Nb2O7 Iso 4.2 - 4.5 5 Infusible. 3 - 6% REO,
56 - 73% Nb2O5
Pyrolusite MnO2 Tet 4.75 1-2 Sooty. 63.2% Mn

Pyromorphite Pb5(PO4)3Cl Hex 6.5 - 7.1 3½ - 4 Adamantine lustre. 49 -

76% Pb, max 8% As
Pyrope Mg3Al2(SiO4)3 Iso 3.51 7 Dark red garnet
Pyrophyllite Al2Si4O10(OH)2 Mon 2.8 - 2.9 1-2 Resembles talc
Pyroxene See aegerine, augite,
group diopside, enstatite,
jadeite, spodumene
Pyrrhotite (1) Fe7S8 Mon 4.58 4 Magnetic, 59.5% Fe
Pyrrhotite (2) Fe11S12 Hex 4.65 4 Nonmagnetic, 62% Fe
Q
Quartz SiO2 Rho 2.65 7 46.7% Si
R
Rammelsber- NiAs2 Orth? 7.1 5½ - 6 28% Ni
gite
Rasorite Kernite

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Realgar AsS Mon 3.48 1½ - 2 Red. 70% As
Red copper ore Cu2O Cuprite
Red ochre Fe2O3 Haematite
Rhodochrosite MnCO3 Rho 3.45 - 3.6 3½ - 4½ Pink. 49% Mn
Rhodolite (Mg)3Al2(SiO4)3 Iso 3.84 7 Pale red or purple
garnet
Rhodonite (Mn2+)SiO3 Tric 3.58 - 3.70 5½ - 6 Pink. 42% Mn
Riebeckite []Na2Fe2+3Fe3+2(Si8O22)(OH)2 Mon 3.44 4 Amphibole,
end member of
glaucophane series
Rock crystal Euhedral clear quartz
Rock salt Halite
Roscoelite K(V,Al)3Si3O10(OH)2 Mon 2.97 2½ Vanadium mica
Rubellite Red or pink tourmaline
Ruby Al2O3 Red gem corundum
Ruby copper Cu2O Cuprite
Ruby silver Pyrargyrite or proustite
Rutile TiO2 Tet 4.18 - 4.25 6 - 6½ Adamantine lustre
S
Saleeite Mg(UO2)2(PO4)2·10H2O Platy sec. U mineral,
autunite series,
fluorescent
Samarskite (Y,Ce,U,Fe,Nb)(Nb,Ta,Ti)O4 Orth 4.1 - 6.2 5-6 10 - 22% REO, 28 -
46% Nb2O5, 2 - 27%
Ta2O5, 0 - 12% U3O8
Sanidine (K,Na)(Si,Al)4O8 High temperature
orthoclase
Saponite (Ca,Na)0.3(Mg,Fe)3(Si,Al)4O10 Mon 2.5 1 - 1½ Montmorillonite group
(OH)2·4H2O clay mineral
Sapphire Al2O3 Blue gem corundum
Satin spar Fibrous gypsum
Scapolite (Na,Ca)4(Si,Al)12O24 Tet 2.65 - 2.74 5-6 Metamorphic,
(Cl,CO3,So4) fluorescent
Scheelite CaWO4 Tet 5.9 - 6.1 4½ - 5 Fluorescent. 70 - 80%
WO3
Schorlite Common black
tourmaline
Scolesite Ca(Al2Si3O10)·3H2O Mon 2.16 - 2.4 5 - 5½ A zeolite
2+
Scorodite Fe AsO4·2H2O Orth 3.1 - 3.3 3½ - 4 Green to brown.
About 32% As
Scorzalite (Fe)Al2(PO4)2(OH)2 Mon 3.35 5½ - 6 End member of lazulite
series
Selenite Clear crystalline
gypsum
Semseyite Pb9Sb8S21 Mon 5.8 2½ Jamesonite series

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Sepiolite Mg4(Si2O5)3(OH)2·6H2O Mon? 2.0 2 - 2½ Meerschaum, light, sec.
Withserpentine
Sericite K,Al,Si,O Fine-grained muscovite
Serpentine Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 Mon 2.2 2-5 43% MgO
Siderite FeCO3 Rho 3.83 - 3.88 3½ - 4 48.2% Fe
Siegenite CoNi2S4 Iso 4.8 4½ - 5½ Linnaeite series.
29% Co, 29% Ni
Sillimanite Al2SiO5 Orth 3.23 6-7 Cl (010) perfect.
63.2% Al2O3
Silver Ag Iso 10.5 2½ - 3 White, malleable
Silver glance CoAs3-x Argentite
Sklodowskite Mg(UO2)2(SiO3OH)2 ·6H2O Orth 3.54 ? 64% U3O8
Skutterudite (Co,Ni,Fe)As3 Iso 6.1 - 6.9 5 11 - 21% Co, 73 - 79%
As, 0 - 9% Ni
Smaltite Skutterudite variety. 13
- 24% Co,63 - 71% As,
1 - 15% Ni
Smithsonite ZnCO3 Rho 4.35 - 4.40 5 52% Zn
Soapstone Talc
Sodalite Na4Al3Si3O12Cl Iso 2.15 - 2.3 5½ - 6 A feldspathoid
Soda nitre NaNO3 Rho 2.29 1-2 36.5% Na2O
Spathic iron FeCo3 Siderite
Specular iron Foliated haematite
Sperrylite PtAs2 Iso 10.50 6-7 54% Pt
Spessartite Mn3Al2(SiO4)3 Iso 4.18 7 Brown to red garnet
Sphaero- CoCO3 Hex 4.13 3.5 - 4 Pink to red
cobaltite
Sphalerite ZnS Iso 3.9 - 4.1 3½ - 4 38 - 67% Zn, max 5%
Cd

Sphene CaTiO(SiO4) Mon 3.40 - 3.55 5 - 5½ Wedge-shaped xals.

40% TiO2. Titanite
Spinel group (Mg,Fe,Zn,Mn)Al2O4 Iso 3.6 - 4.0 8 In octahedrons
Spodumene LiAl(Si2O6) Mon 3.15 - 3.20 6½ - 7 A pyroxene. 8% Li2O
Stannite Cu2FeSnS4 Tet 4.4 4 Easily fusible. 29 - 31%
Cu, 27% Sn, 12 - 14% Fe
Staurolite (Fe2+)2Al9Si4O23(OH) Orth 3.65 - 3.75 7 - 7½ In cruciform twins.
56% Al2O3
Steatite Talc
Stephanite Ag5SbS4 Orth 6.2 - 6.3 2 - 2½ 68.5% Ag, 15.2% Sb
Sternbergite AgFe2S3 Orth 4.1 - 4.2 1 - 1½ 34% Ag, 35% Fe
Stibnite Sb2S3 Orth 4.52 - 4.62 2 71.7% Sb
Stilbite (NaCa)3(SiAl)18O36·12H2O Mon 2.1 - 2.2 3½ - 4 A zeolite
Stillwellite (Ce,La,Ca)BSiO5 Rho 4.57 58% REO, 11% B2O3

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Stishovite SiO2 Tet 4.3 7½ - 8 Found only at
meteorite sites
Stolzite PbWO4 Tet 8.3 - 8.4 2½ - 3 45% Pb, 50% WO3
Stromeyerite (Cu,Ag)S Orth 6.2 - 6.3 2½ - 3 53% Ag, 31% Cu
Strontianite SrCO3 Orth 3.7 3½ - 4 Efferv. in HCl. 90% SrO
Struverite (Ti,Ta,Nb,Fe)O2 Ta rich ilmenorutile
Sulfur S Orth 2.05 - 2.09 1½ - 2½ Burns with blue flame
Sunstone Brilliant translucent
oligoclase
Sylvanite (Au,Ag)Te4 Mon 8.0 - 8.2 1½ - 2 Cl (010) perfect.
25% Au, 15% Ag
Sylvite KCl Iso 1.99 2 Cl cubic perfect.
63% K2O
T
Talc Mg3(Si4O10)(OH)2 Mon 2.7 - 2.8 1 Greasy feel
Tantalite (Mg,Mn2+)Ta2O6 Orth 6.2 - 8.0 6 - 6½ 52 - 86% Ta2O5, max
31% Nb2O5 (with Ta
= Nb)
Tapiolite (Fe,Mn)(Ta,Nb)2O6 Tet 7.3 - 7.8 6 Dimorphous with
tantalite
Tennantite Cu12As4S13 Iso 4.6 - 5.1 3 - 4½ Max 11% Fe, 9% Zn,
14% Ag, 4% Pb, 13% Bi,
1% Co, 30 - 53% Cu
Tenorite CuO Tric 5.8 - 6.4 3-4 Black. 79.9% Cu
Tephroite (Mn2+)2SiO4 Orth 4 - 4.1 6 Light grey, rare olivine
Tetrahedrite Cu12Sb4S13 Iso 4.6 - 5.1 3 - 4½ In tetrahedrons. Max.
45% Cu, 13% Fe, 8%
Zn, 18% Ag, 17% Hg,
16% Pb, 4% Ni, 4% Co,
4% Bi
Thenardite Na2SO4 Orth 2.68 2½ In saline lakes
Thomsonite NaCa2Al5Si5O20·6H2O Orth 2.3 5 A zeolite
Thorianite ThO2 Iso 9.7 6½ To 17% U3O8
Thorite Th(SiO4) Tet 5.3 5 Usually hydrated
Thorogummite (Th,U)[(SiO4),(OH)4] Tet 4 - 4.5 4½ A replacement of
thorite
Thulite Pink-red zoisite
Tiger’s-eye Yellow brown quartz
aftercrocidolite
Tin Sn Tet 7.3 2 Very rare
Tincalconite Na2B4O5(OH)4·3H2O Hex 1.88 1 A pseudomorph of
borax
Tinstone SnO2 Cassiterite
Titanic iron Ilmenite
ore

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Titanite CaTiSiO5 Sphene
Topaz Al2(SiO4)(F,OH)2 Orth 3.4 - 3.6 8 Cl (001) perfect
Torbernite Cu(UO2)2(PO4)2·12H2O Tet 3.22 2 - 2½ Green. 61% U3O8, 13.5 -
15% P2O5 ,6 - 7% Cu
Tourmaline XY3Al6(BO3)3(Si6O18)(OH)4 Rho 3.0 - 3.25 7 - 7½ Trigonal section
X = Na,Ca
Y = Al,Fe,Li,Mg
Tremolite []Ca2Mg5(Si8O22)(OH)2 Mon 3.0 - 3.3 5-6 Ca amphibole, short
fibre asbestos
Tridymite SiO2 Orth 2.26 7 In volcanic rocks (870 -
1470°C)
Triphylite Li(Fe)PO4 Orth 3.42 - 3.56 4½ - 5 9.5% Li2O, 45% P2O5
Troilite FeS Pyrrhotite
Trona Na2CO3·NaHCO3·2H2O Mon 2.13 3 Alkaline taste.
41% Na2O
Troostite Manganiferous
willemite
Tungstite WO3·H2O Orth? ? 2½ Sec. mineral
Turgite ? 4.2 - 4.6 6½ With goethite
Turquoise CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8.4H2O Tric 2.6 - 2.8 6 Blue-green. 5.5 - 7.8%
Cu, 28 - 35% P2O5
Tyuyamunite Ca(UO2)2(VO4)2·5-8H2O Orth 3.7 - 4.3 2 Ca analogue of
carnotite. About 56%
U3O8, 20% V2O5
U
Ulexite NaCaB5O6(OH)6·5H2O Tric 1.69 1 7.7% Na2O, 43% B2O3
Uralian Green gem andradite
emerald
Uralite Ca2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2 Hornblende after
pyroxene
Uraninite UO2 Iso 9.0 - 9.7 5½ Pitchy lustre, nom.
U3O8
Uranophane Ca(UO2)2(SiO3OH)2·5H2O Orth 3.81 - 3.90 2-3 63% U3O8
Urano- Bi(UO2)O2(OH) Orth 6.36 2-3 61% U3O8, 42% Bi2O3
sphaerite
Uvarovite Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3 Iso 3.45 7½ Green garnet
Uvite CaMg3(Al5Mg) Hex 3 - 3.2 7½ A rare form of
(BO3)3(SiAl)6O18(OH)3F tourmaline
V
Vanadinite Pb5(VO4)3Cl Hex 6.7 - 7.1 3 19.4% V2O5, 68 - 73%
Pb
Variscite Al(PO4)·2H2O Orth 2.4 - 2.6 3½ - 4½ Green, massive. 43 -
45% P2O5
Verde antique Variegated serpentine
and whitemarble
Vermiculite Mg0.7(Mg,Fe,Al)6(Si,Al)8O20 Mon 2.4 1½ Altered biotite
(OH)4·8H2O

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Name Composition Xal Sys D H Notes

Vesuvianite (Ca,Na)19(Al,Mg,Fe)13(SiO4)10 Idocrase
(Si2O7)4(OH,F,O)10
Violarite Ni2Fe S4 Iso 4.8 4½ - 5½ 34 - 43% Ni, 15 - 18%
Fe
Vivianite (Fe2+)3(PO4)2·8H2O Mon 2.58 - 2.68 1½ - 2 Cl (010) perfect. 28%
P2O5
W
Wad Hyd. Mn oxides 25 - 48% Mn
Wavellite Al3(OH)3(PO4)2·5H2O Orth 2.33 3½ - 4 35% P2O5, 38% Al2O3
Wernerite (Na,Ca)4(Si,Al)12O24 Scapolite
(Cl,CO3,SO4)
White iron Marcasite
pyrites
White mica Muscovite
Willemite Zn2SiO4 Rho 3.9 - 4.2 5½ Fluorescent, 58.5% Zn
Witherite BaCO3 Orth 4.3 3½ Efferv. in HCl. 77.7%
BaO
Wolframite (Fe,Mn,Mg)WO4 Mon 7.0 - 7.5 5 - 5½ About 75% WO3
Wollastonite Ca(SiO3) Tric 2.8 - 2.9 5 - 5½ Cl (001), (100)
Wood tin SnO2 Cassiterite
Wulfenite PbMoO4 Tet 6.5 - 7.5 3 Orange-red. 56% Pb,
26.6% Mo
Wurtzite ZnS Hex 4.0 4 Max. 67% Zn, 8% Fe,
3.6% Cd
X
Xenotime YPO4 Tet 4.4 - 5.1 4-5 61.4% REO, 38.6% P2O5
Y
Yellow copper Chalcopyrite
ore
Z
Zeolite group See analcime,
chabazite, heulandite,
natrolite, stilbite.
Zinc blende Sphalerite
Zincite ZnO Hex 5.68 4 - 4½ 80% Zn, orange-yellow
streak
Zinc spinel ZnAl2O4 Gahnite
Zinkenite Pb6Sb22S42 Hex 5.3 3 - 3½ Jamesonite series
Zinnwaldite K(Al,Fe,Li)3(Si,Al)4O10(OH)F Mon 3 2.5 - 3 About 5% Li2O
Zircon ZrSiO4 Tet 4.68 7½ 67.2% ZrO2
Zoisite Ca2Al3Si3O12(OH) Orth 3.3 6 Orth var. of clinozoisite

Sources: Gary, M, McAfee, R Jr and Wolf, C L, 1972. Glossary of Geology (American Gelogical Institute: Wash-
ington, DC), reprinted with permission; Hurlburt, C S, 1961. Dana’s Manual of Mineralogy (Wiley: New York),
reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc; Palache, C, Berman, H and Frondel, C, 1944. Dana’s System
of Mineralogy, seventh edition (Wiley: New York); <[Link]
A more detailed list is available from the IMA Database of Mineral Properties: <[Link]

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

3.2. LIST OF COMMON MINERALS IN ORDER OF DENSITY

Density (g/cm3) Mineral name Density (g/cm3) Mineral name

0.3 - 0.6 (2.2) Diatomite 2.47 Leucite
1.59 Melanterite 2.51 Variscite
1.60 Carnallite
2.55 Lechatelierite, Phillipsite,
1.71 Borax Serpentine
1.75 Epsomite, Potash, Alum 2.56 Microcline, Orthoclase
1.90 Allophane, Kernite 2.56 - 2.70 Marialite, Meionite
1.9 - 2.3 Opal 2.58 Kaliophilite
1.96 Ulexite 2.59 Anorthoclase
1.98 Goslarite
2.60 Nepheline
1.99 Sylvite, Gaylussite
2.6 Chalcedony, Kaolinite, Nacrite
2 Sepiolite
2.6 - 3.0 Pennine, Chlorite, Clinochlore
2.0 - 2.65 Halloysite
2.62 Albite
2.02 - 2.17 Gmelinite
2.65 Cordierite, Vivianite
2.07 Sulfur
2.65 - 2.66 Quartz, Flint, Oligoclase, Chert
2.10 Chabazite, Kainite
2.67 Andesine, Eucryptite, Scapolite
2.11 Niter
2.69 Plagioclase, Thenardite
2.14 Trona
2.15 Chrysocolla, Stilbite 2.70 Labradorite

2.15 - 2.60 Anauxite, Dickite, Beidellite 2.70 - 2.75 Turquoise, Alunite

2.17 Halite 2.7 - 4.3 Limonite, Spinel

2.20 Heulandite 2.71 Bytownite, Calcite

2.21 Chalcanthite 2.74 Anorthite
2.25 Natrolite 2.75 - 2.86 Pectolite, Talc
2.25 - 2.29 Analcime 2.77 Beryl
2.27 - 2.35 Cristobalite, Graphite, 2.78 Glauberite, Polyhalite
Glauconite, Thomsonite
2.78 - 2.85 Dolomite, Paragonite
2.28 Scolecite
2.80 Phlogopite
2.29 Sodalite, Soda Nitre
2.81 Hyalophane
2.30 Gypsum, Laumontite
2.83 Langbeinite, Muscovite
2.30 - 2.50 Bentonite, Hectorite,
Montmorillonite, Nontronite, 2.85 Garnierite, Pyrophyllite,
Saponite Wollastonite
2.31 Tridymite 2.85 - 2.90 Datolite, Lepidolite
2.35 Gibbsite, Apophyllite, 2.85 - 3.45 Amphibole
Wavellite 2.88 Prehnite
2.40 Brucite, Lazurite
2.90 Boracite, Pollucite
2.4 - 2.5 Haüyne 2.9 - 4.3 Asbolane
2.42 Colemanite 2.93 - 3.12 Aragonite, Erythrite
2.43 Petalite, Vermiculite 2.95 Melilite
2.45 Cancrinite, Harmotome 2.96 - 3.0 Phenakite

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Density (g/cm3) Mineral name Density (g/cm3) Mineral name

2.97 Anhydrite, Roscoelite 3.45 - 3.55 Hemimorphite, Hypersthene
2.98 - 3.05 Ankerite, Cryolite 3.46 - 3.54 Piemontite
3.0 Danburite 3.49 Orpiment
3.00 - 4.25 Annabergite, Edenite, 3.50 Hydrozincite
Ferrimolybdite, Zinnwaldite 3.5 - 3.8 Iddingsite
3.0 - 3.08 Actinolite, Glaucophane, 3.5 - 4.3 Garnet
Magnesite
3.54 Sklodowskite
3.0 - 3.25 Tourmaline
3.55 Hedenbergite, Topaz
3.04 Boehmite, Euclase
3.56 Realgar
3.05 Amblygonite, Lazulite,
Margarite, Tremolite 3.57 Grossular

3.05 - 3.24 Sillimanite, Mullite 3.60 Rhodonite

3.09 Lawsonite 3.62 Kyanite

3.10 Biotite, Jarosite 3.67 Chrysoberyl

3.13 Fluorite, Pargasite 3.69 Rhodochrosite

3.15 Andalusite 3.71 Staurolite

3.15 - 3.19 Apatite, Spodumene 3.75 Allanite, Pyrope

3.15 - 3.26 Autunite, Chondrodite, 3.77 Atacamite, Aurichalcite

Clinohumite, Humite, 3.80 Goethite, Malachite,
Norbergite Tyuyamunite
3.20 Bronzite, Enstatite, Scorodite, 3.80 - 4.03 Alabandite, Ilvaite,
Torbernite Libethenite, Wurtzite
3.20 - 3.38 Hornblende, Monticellite, 3.83 Azurite
Forsterite, Hastingsite
3.84 Rhodolite
3.2 - 3.4 Crocidolite, Diopside
3.90 Andradite, Uranophane
3.2 - 3.78 Pyroxene, Strontianite
3.90 - 3.97 Anatase, Anterlite, Brochantite
3.21 Anthophyllite
3.9 - 4.11 Marmatite
3.25 Celsian
3.9 - 4.18 Brookite, Sphalerite
3.26 Helvite
3.9 - 6.4 Gummite
3.27 Scorzalite
3.95 Hercynite
3.28 Axinite
3.95 - 4.07 Clinoferrosilite, Ferrosilite
3.30 Jadeite
3.96 Siderite
3.30 - 3.32 Dioptase, Zoisite
3.96 - 3.98 Celestine
3.32 Olivine
3.98 - 4.26 Perovskite, Galaxite
3.32 - 3.43 Diaspore, Epidote, Idocrase
4.03 - 4.18 Cubanite
3.34 - 3.52 Chloritoid, Diamond, Ottrelite,
Lithiophilite 4.05 Corundum, Willemite

3.35 Clinozoisite, Cummingtonite, 4.05 - 4.13 Lepidocrocite

Dumortierite 4.1 - 4.2 Sternbergite
3.38 - 3.40 Augite, Pigeonite 4.1 - 4.3 Chalcopyrite,
3.40 Clinoenstatite, Riebeckite Magnesiochromite
3.40 - 3.6 Acmite, Aegerine, Titanite 4.18 Spessartine
3.42 - 3.56 Triphylite 4.20 Almandine, Gadolinite
3.45 Arfvedsonite, Uvarovite 4.20 - 4.25 Carnotite, Tephroite

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Density (g/cm3) Mineral name Density (g/cm3) Mineral name

4.25 Rutile 5.35 - 5.40 Thorite, Linarite, Zinkenite
4.30 Clinoclase, Gahnite, 5.43 Brannerite
Manganite, Witherite 5.54 - 5.58 Plagionite
4.3 - 4.5 Stannite 5.54 - 5.70 Embolite, Digenite
4.34 Powellite 5.5 - 5.8 Chalcocite
4.39 Fayalite 5.56 - 5.63 Cerargyrite, Jamesonite
4.43 - 4.45 Enargite 5.57 Proustite
4.45 Smithsonite 5.57 - 5.78 Arsenic, Iodobromite, Iodyrite
4.48 - 4.65 Barite, Magnesioferrite 5.64 - 5.68 Zincite
4.49 Greenockite 5.7 Samarskite
4.50 - 4.4 Braunite, Linnaeite, Siegenite, 5.82 Pyrargyrite
Violarite
5.83 Bournonite
4.5 - 4.8 Chromite
5.9 Gersdorffite, Larsenite
4.58 - 4.65 Pyrrhotite
5.9 - 6.33 Cobaltite, Microlite
4.59 Stillwellite
6.0 Crocoite, Scheelite
4.6 - 4.76 Covellite
6.07 Arsenopyrite, Danaite
4.6 - 5.0 Pentlandite
6.10 Polybasite
4.62 - 4.72 Bravoite
6.14 Cuprite
4.62 - 4.73 Molybdenite
6.15 - 6.20 Phosgenite, Boulangerite
4.62 - 4.97 Tennantite, Tetrahedrite
6.45 Tenorite
4.63 Stibnite
6.47 Bromyrite
4.65 Zircon
6.5 Cervantite, Skutterudite,
4.68 - 4.76 Ilmenite Smaltite
4.75 Xenotime 6.15 Pearceite
4.76 Jacobsite 6.2 - 6.3 Stephanite, Stromeyerite
4.8 - 5.0 Pyrite 6.30 Anglesite
4.84 Hausmannite 6.35 - 6.37 Uranosphaerite, Menaghinite
4.85 Euxenite 6.46 Geocronite
4.89 Marcasite 6.58 Cerussite
4.9 - 5.2 Bastnaesite 6.61 - 6.71 Antimony
5.01 Polycrase 6.65 - 8.0 Argentite, Manganotantalite,
5.04 - 5.08 Polianite, Pyrolusite Tantalite, Tin metal
5.06 - 5.08 Bornite 6.75 Wulfenite
5.07 - 5.22 Franklinite 6.78 Bismuthinite
5.10 - 6.45 Fergusonite 6.85 Pyromorphite
5.15 Monazite 6.90 Cassiterite
5.18 Magnetite, Manganosite 6.95 Vanadinite
5.2 - 6.7 Columbite 7.0 Bismutite
5.25 Miargyrite 7.0 - 7.5 Wolframite
5.26 Hematite 7.1 Rammelsbergite
5.30 Pyrochlore 7.12 - 7.18 Huebnerite
5.3 - 5.5 Millerite 7.15 Calomel

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Density (g/cm3) Mineral name Density (g/cm3) Mineral name

7.17 Mimetite 8.95 Copper
7.2 - 7.4 Acanthite 9.00 Bismite
7.40 Galena, Nagyagite 9.1 - 9.4 Calaverite
7.43 Loellingite 9.7 Thorianite
7.45 Ferberite 9.7 - 9.83 Bismuth
7.78 Nickeline 10.1 - 11.1 Silver, Sperrylite
8.00 Awaruite, Nickel iron 10.63 - 10.95 Uraninite
8.05 Stolzite 11.55 Palladium
8.10 Cinnabar, Sylvanite 13.5 - 17.5 Electrum
8.15 Altaite 13.6 Mercury
8.24 - 8.45 Hessite 14 - 19 Platinum
8.53 Krennerite 15.0 - 19.3 Gold
8.9 - 9.2 Minium 19.3 - 21.1 Iridosmine
8.92 Petzite 22.7 Iridium

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[Link] 47

3.3. DESCRIPTION OF HEAVY LIQUIDS

Name Bromoform Tetrabromoethane (TBE) LST heavy liquid Sodium polytungstate

(acetylene tetrabromide)

CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Maximum specific 2.89 at 20°C 2.96 at 20°C 2.95 at 25°C 3.1 at 25°C
gravity 3.6 at 87°C
Miscible with Acetone, alcohol, NN- Acetone, alcohol, NN- Water Water
dimethylformamide dimethylformamide
Composition CHBr3 CHBr2.CHBr2 Aq. soln of lithium Aq. soln of 3Na2WO4.9WO3.
heteropolytungstates H2O
Preparation Ex lab. stock Ex lab. stock, available in bulk Ex lab. stock Simple
Concentrated by Water washing, air sparging, Water washing, air sparging, Evaporation Evaporation
distillation distillation
Toxicity hazard by Low Low Very low Very low
contact
Toxicity hazard by High High Very low Very low
vapour inhalation
Decomposed by Heat, sulfur Heat Metals, calcium ions Metals, calcium ions
Acts on filter paper No No No No
Field Geologists’ Manual

Disadvantages More viscous than bromoform More viscous than TBE and
LST
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47
[Link] 48

48
Field Geologists’ Manual

Name Thoulet solution Di-iodomethane Klein solution Rohrbach solution Clerici solution
(methylene iodide)
Maximum specific 3.19 3.32 at 20°C 3.55 3.59 4.28 at 20°C

CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

gravity 4.76 at 90°C
Miscible with Water Acetone, alcohol, NN- Water Water with difficulty Water
dimethylformamide
Composition Aq. soln of mercuric CH2I2 Aq. soln of Aq. soln of barium Aq. soln of thallium
potassium iodide cadmiumborotungstate mercuric iodide formate and malonate
Preparation Reasonably simple Ex lab. stock Complex Reasonably simple Simple
Concentrated by Evaporation Water washing, air sparging, Evaporation Evaporation Evaporation
distillation
Toxicity hazard by Very corrosive Moderate Low High High
contact
Toxicity hazard by Low Moderate Low Low Moderate
vapour inhalation
Decomposed by Rubber, metal Heat, sulfur Carbonate, lead, zinc, Metals
iron
Acts on filter paper Yes No No Yes No
Disadvantages Deteriorates with use Oily, rarely available Hygroscopic Toxicity
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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

3.4. CLASSIFICATION OF PLUTONIC Rocks with M less than 90 per cent are
ROCKS – IUGS FIELD SYSTEM1 classified primarily according to their light-
coloured constituents; rocks with M = 90 - 100
according to their mafic minerals.
Minerals and mineral groups
Rocks with M less than 90 per cent are
Q quartz classified and named according to their positions
A alkali feldspars (orthoclase, microcline, in the QAPF double triangle, the light-coloured
perthite, anorthoclase, albite An00-06) constituents being calculated to the sum 100 (ie
P plagioclase An06-100, scapolite Q + A + F = 100 or, A + P + F = 100)
F feldspathoids or foids (leucite and pseudo-
leucite; nepheline, sodalite, nosean, hauynite, Succession of minerals in rock names
cancrinite, analcime, etc) The IUGS Subcommission recommends that the
M mafic and related minerals (micas, amphi- minerals in composite rock names be arranged
boles, pyroxenes, olivines, opaque minerals, in the order of increasing amounts; ie a more
accessories (zircon, apatite, titanite, etc), abundant mineral falls closer to the root name of
epidote, allanite, garnets, melilites, monti- the rock than a less abundant mineral.
cellite, primary carbonates, etc)
Example: hornblende-biotite granodiorite
Q + A + F = 100, or A + P + F = 100 contains more biotite than hornblende.

Figure 3.4.1 Figure 3.4.2

0 - 90 volume per cent mafic minerals. Rocks with M <90 per cent.
Q ROCKS WITH M < 90%
0- 90
volume %
mafic minerals
90 quartzolite
quartz-
rich
granitoids
60
alkalia-
feldspar
granite anorthosite
ton

granite grano-
diorite An<50
alit

diorite
alkalai- gabbro An>50
e

feldspar monzo-
syenite diorite
An>50
A syenite monzonite monzo- P
10 35 65 gabbro 90
10 An<50
foid monzo-
foid

diorite
foid monzo- An<50
syenite foid diorite
sye

foid An<50
nite

monzo-
gabbro
An>50 foid gabbro
An>50
60

foidolites An = % anorthosite
Q:5-20 add prefix in plagioclase
quartz
F:0-10 add prefix
foid-bearing

1. From Anon, 1973. Classification and

nomenclature recommended by the IUGS
Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous
Rocks, Geotimes, October 1973, pp 26-30, by
permission.

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Figure 3.4.3 3.5. CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANIC

Gabbroic rocks. ROCKS – IUGS SYSTEM1

1. From Steickeisen, A, 1979. Classification

Figure 3.4.4 and nomenclature of volcanic rocks,
Ultramafic rocks (M = 90 - 100 per cent). lamprophyres, carbonatites, and melitic rocks:
recommendations and suggestions of the IUGS
Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous
Rocks, Geology, 7:331-335.

3.6. BROAD CLASSIFICATION OF

IGNEOUS ROCKS BY COLOUR
AND GRAIN SIZE1

% Dark minerals
0 - 35 Leucocratic
35 - 65 Mesocratic
65 - 90 Melanocratic
90 + Ultramafic
Average grain diameter:
<1 mm – fine grained
1 - 5 mm – medium grained
5 - 30 mm – coarse grained
>30 mm – pegmatitic

1. From Anon, 1973. Classification and

nomenclature recommended by the IUGS
Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous
Rocks, Geotimes, October 1973, pp 26-30.

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 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

3.7. CLASSIFICATION OF PYROCLASTIC ROCKS – IUGS SYSTEM1

FIGURE 3.7.1
Subdivision of tuffs and ashes according to their composition.

TABLE 3.7.1
Granulometric classification of pyroclasts and of unimodal, well-sorted pyroclastic deposits.

Clast size (mm) Pyroclast Pyroclastic deposit

Mainly unconsolidated: Mainly consolidated:
tephra pyroclastic rock
64 mm Bomb, block Agglomerate, bed of blocks Agglomerate,
or bomb, block tephra pyroclastic breccia
2 mm Lapillus Layer, bed of lapilli Lapilli tuff
or lapilli tephra
1/16 mm Coarse ash grain Coarse ash Coarse (ash) tuff
Fine ash grain Fine ash (dust) Fine (ash) tuff (dust tuff)
(dust grain)

TABLE 3.7.2
Terms for mixed pyroclastic-epiclastic rocks.

Pyroclastic* Tuffites(mixed Epiclastic(volcanic Average clast

pyroclastic-epiclastic) and/or nonvolcanic) size (mm)
Agglomerate, agglutinate Tuffaceous conglomerate, Conglomerate, breccia 64
pyroclastic breccia tuffaceous breccia
Lapilli tuff Coarse Tuffaceous sandstone Sandstone 2
(Ash) tuff Fine Tuffaceous siltstone Siltstone 1/16
Tuffaceous mudstone, Mudstone, shale l/256
shale
100 75 25 0% by volume
Pyroclasts
Volcanic + non-volcanic epiclasts (+ minor amounts of biogenic,
chemical sedimentary an authigenic constituents).
** Terms according to Table 3.7.1.
1. From Schmid, R, 1981. Descriptive nomenclature and classification of pyroclastic deposits and fragments:
recommendations of the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks, Geology, 9:41-43, by
permission.

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3.8. DIAMOND INDICATOR diamonds (see Pearson et al, 2005). DIMs have
MINERALS (DIMs) characteristic major element compositions. Trace
elements in DIMs are also playing an increasing
DIMs derive from upper mantle rocks, mostly role in diamond exploration, particularly in
peridotite or eclogite. They can be transported to garnets and chromian spinels (see Griffin and
the earth’s surface by intrusives (most commonly Ryan, 1995). Diamond host rocks often do not
kimberlites and lamproites) originating in carry a full suite of DIMs (eg garnet and ilmenite
the upper mantle which may potentially carry are rare in lamproite and some kimberlites).

Mineral and typical Comment

composition
Pyrope garnet: Peridotitic lherzolitic garnets, together with eclogitic garnets, are the
(a) Peridotitic: most common type of pyrope garnet in kimberlites and lamproites.
a) Dunitic Lherzolitic garnets are characterised mostly by 18 - 21 wt % MgO,
b) Harzburgitic 6 - 10 wt % FeO, 1 - 12 wt % Cr2O3, 4 - 7 wt % CaO and 0 - 2.0 wt % TiO2.
c) Lherzolitic
Eclogitic garnets have lower MgO (4 - 18 wt %), variable but higher
d) Wehrlitic
FeO (up to ~22 wt %) and CaO (up to ~25 wt %) than peridotitic
(b) Eclogitic
garnets, and typically low Cr2O3 (0 - 0.5 wt %).
(c) Megacrystic
Megacrystic garnets are large pyropes (~1+ cm) with variable
See Cr2O3-CaO plot, with composition, typified by high TiO2 (often >1 wt %).
estimated mantle isobars Subcalcic peridotitic garnets, which are similar to garnets found as
(Figure 3.8.1) for compositional diamond inclusions, seldom have more than 4 wt % CaO with Cr2O3
ranges. generally 5 - 14 wt % and low TiO2, mostly less than 0.2 wt %. These
subcalcic peridotitic garnets are similar to those defined by Fipke,
Gurney and Moore for their ‘G10’ garnets (see Gurney, 1984; Fipke et
al, 1995) – a classification based on Dawson and Stephens (1975) for
their Group 10 garnets. Since many subcalcic peridotitic garnets can
(but not exclusively) form under the same pressure and temperature
conditions as diamond, they suggest that the transporting rocks may
be diamond bearing if the upper mantle source was carbon rich.
Grutter et al (2006) have shown that it is possible to attribute
minimum mantle pressures to peridotitic garnets assuming reasonable
cratonic geotherms (see Figure 3.8.1). In general, the higher the
minimum pressure for a suite of peridotitic garnets from a kimberlite
or lamproite, or in prospecting samples, the more likely the primary
source will be diamond-bearing, especially if some garnets plot above
the diamond stability field.
Chromian spinel Chromites found in kimberlites and lamproites can be difficult to
(‘chromite’) distinguish from common chromites.
(a) Low TiO2 (<1 wt %) ‘Low TiO2 chromites’ are common in mafic and ultra-mafic rocks
chromite DIMs are typified including both kimberlites and lamproites.
by high MgO (6 - 18 wt %)
‘Low TiO2 chromites’ with 12 - 16 wt % MgO and 63 - 69 wt % Cr2O3
with variable Cr2O3
are similar, but not exclusive, to chromites included in diamond.
(25 - 70 wt %) but
The ‘low TiO2 - high Cr2O3 chromites’ which fall in the diamond
displaying a negative
inclusion field (Figure 3.8.2), if known to be derived from a kimberlite
MgO-Cr2O3 relationship
or lamproite, may have formed under the same pressure and
if TiO2 is less than 1 wt %,
temperature conditions under which diamond forms. Their presence
the so-called ‘mantle trend’
is an indication that the transporting kimberlite and lamproite may be
spinels, (Figure 3.8.2a).
diamond bearing if the upper mantle source was carbon rich.

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(b) High TiO2 (approximately ‘High TiO2 chromite’ often occurs as rims to ‘Low TiO2 chromite’ cores
1 - 5 wt %) chromite with and less commonly as whole grains. ‘High TiO2 chromite’ is brittle and
high MgO (6 - 18 wt %) seldom found more than 1 - 2 km (often much less) distance from the
and high Cr2O3 (>40 wt % rock from which it was liberated in an abrading environment.
and often >55 wt %) are
distinctive of kimberlites
and lamproites
(Figure 3.8.2b).
Picroilmenite – high Mg Not always present in kimberlite and rarely present in lamproite,
ilmenite megacrystic ilmenite with high MgO (often >8 wt %) and high
(a) High Cr2O3 (>0.5 wt %) Cr2O3 (>0.5 wt %) remains one of the most diagnostic indicators of
megacrystic ilmenite with kimberlite (but not diamond prospectivity).
high MgO (generally Low Cr2O3 megacrystic picroilmenite is likely to derive from
5 - 16 wt %). kimberlite unless high in MnO (>1 wt %), which indicates a possible
(b) Low Cr2O3 (<0.15 wt % carbonatite or skarn source.
Cr2O3) megacrystic
See Wyatt et al (2004).
ilmenite with high MgO
(9 - 12 wt %), high Al2O3
(>0.5 wt %). (Figure 3.8.3)
Chromian diopside Distinctive apple green colour.
High Cr2O3 contents (often Fragile, seldom found more than 5 km (often less than 2 km) from
1 - 3+ wt %) the rock from which it was liberated in an abrading environment. It
is possible to obtain temperature and pressure estimates of a suite of
chromian diopsides from their mineral chemistry (Nimis and Taylor,
2000; Nimis, 2002; Nimis and Grutter, 2010; and references therein),
thereby assessing whether they may derive from within the diamond
stability field.
Zircon When zircon is found in kimberlites and lamproites, it often has less
Low U than 50 ppm U.
Olivine Olivine, although present in virtually all primary diamond source
High MgO rocks, is susceptible to chemical weathering and in Australia is rarely
recovered during exploration. Olivine from potential diamond host
rocks is usually rich in MgO having a forsterite content of about 90%
or higher.
Rutile and other Rutile, a metasomatic mineral present in some upper mantle xenoliths
‘metasomatic’ titanates and occasionally found in kimberlites and lamproites, is often
characterised by high Cr2O3 (>0.5 wt %) and may be enriched in Nb
(>1 wt % Nb2O5). Other exotic metasomatic titanates, characterised by
oxides such as, high Cr2O3, ZrO2, BaO, Nb2O5 and rare earth oxides are
also occasionally found in kimberlites and lamproites (see Haggerty,
1987).
Phlogopite

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FIGURE 3.8.1
Cr2O3-CaO plot showing typical compositional fields for a variety of peridotitic garnets typically found in
kimberlites and lamproites. Data from the Brockman Creek kimberlite, Pilbara Craton, Australia (Wyatt et al,
2003), are given as an example. Symbols show rock type after Gurney (1984) and Griffin et al (1992). Lherz
= Lherzolite, harz = Harzburgite. dashed line is the lherzolite field after Sobolev et al (1973). The diagonal
lines show isobars (lines of equal pressure) in Kbars estimated by Grutter et al (2006) assuming a normal
conductive ‘cool’ cratonic geotherm of 38 mW/m2. The 43 Kbar line approximates the diamond stability
field under these conditions. A pressure attributable to any garnet is a minimum pressure (so called PMin38.).
The higher the maximum PMin38 and the more garnets that plot above the diamond stability field, the more
likely the primary source will be diamond bearing. Note that eclogitic garnets would plot in a low Cr2O3 (less
than 1.5 wt per cent Cr2O3) band along the CaO axis. The Brockman kimberlite is weakly diamondiferous,
despite having a significant proportion of peridotitic garnets plotting above the 43 kilobar line, and perhaps
a better grade would have been anticipated. While we believe that the geotherm at the time of kimberlite
emplacement was close to 40 mW/m2 (Wyatt et al, 2003), it is stressed that this application fundamentally
only suggests that some of the garnets derive from within the diamond stability field, and therefore only
the potential for the kimberlite or lamproite to host diamonds can be inferred. It does not predict the extent
to which the mantle was conducive to diamond growth and preservation (eg carbon rich and having the
favourable oxygen fugacity).

BROCKMAN CREEK-01: ALL :Tot-N= 1940 : CaO * Cr2O3

PMin38 PMax38= 55.0 gem_01

16 n= 1940
Gurney (1984) Ca-harz (737)
15 Lherz (345)
Low-Ca harz (834)
14 Low-Cr (1)
Wehrlite (23)
13
67 NA (0)
12
63
11

10 59
Cr2O3 (wt%)

9 55

8
51
7
47
6
43
5
39
4
35
3
31
Sobolev et al. 1973
2 27
23
1
19
0 lhz w ehr

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

CaO (wt%)

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FIGURE 3.8.2
(A) MgO plot showing approximate upper mantle field for chromian spinels (‘chromites’) associated with
kimberlites and lamproites. Tie-lines show core-rim associations. Non-kimberlitic spinels often display negative
MgO-Cr2O3 trends at right angles to the mantle trends, but can overlap extensively with upper mantle spinels.
(B) TiO2-Cr2O3 plot showing the ‘elbow’ shaped pattern for high-TiO2 chromian spinels found in kimberlites
and lamproites. Note that rim compositions usually have the higher TiO2 content. An example from the Timber
Creek 04 kimberlite, NT, Australia (Berryman et al, 1999) is given. (Timber Creek 04 has a possible diamond
grade of 100 ct/100 t.)

FIGURE 3.8.3
TiO2 – MgO plot showing compositional range of kimberlitic ilmenites (see Wyatt et al, 2004). Kimberlitic
ilmenites typically plot to the right (high-MgO side) of the kimberlitic reference line (solid line), and most
non-kimberlitic ilmenites generally plot to the left (low-MgO side) of the non-kimberlitic reference line (dashed
line). Marginally kimberlitic ilmenites plot between the two lines. The light dotted lines are wt per cent Fe2O3
estimates in the ilmenites. Plotted points are representative data from the Skerring kimberlite, NT and the
Lake Bullenmerri basanite, Vic, Australia.
BULLENMERRI (NK) SKERRING (K): ALL :Tot-N= 353 : MgO * TiO2

60 ~%FeO3 n= 353

58

56

54

0
52

50
5
48
TiO2 (wt%)

10
46

44 15

42
20
40

38

36

34
occurrence
32 BULLENMERRI (92)
SKERRING (261)
30 NA (0)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

MgO (wt%)

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3.9. METAMORPHIC FACIES DIAGRAM1

1. From Turner, F J, 1981. Metamorphic Petrology (McGraw Hill: New York).

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3.10. SUMMARY OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

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Zeolite facies Prehnite-pumpellyite Glaucophane schist facies

facies
heulandite-analcite-qtz, qtz-albite-prehnite, qtz-muscovite-chlorite-glaucophane,
laumontite-albite-qtz, qtz- pumpellvite, epidote, jadeite, stilpnomelane, lawsonite, albite,
albite-adularia calcite, actinolite, chlorite, crossite, almandine, aragonite, epidote,
stilpnomelane, muscovite omphacite, riebeckite, pumpellyite
METAVOLCANICS, METAGRAYWACKES, ECLOGITE
PHYLLITE, SCHIST
Greenschist facies Epidote-Amphibolite Almandine-Amphibolite Granulite
facies facies facies
Chlorite Biotite Garnet Staurolite Kyanite Sillimanite As for
granulite
facies below
qtz-albite- microline, qtz- qtz- kyanite (+ as qtz-
epidote, chloritoid muscovite- plagioclas- for staurolite muscovite-
muscovite, (+as for biotite, muscovite- zone) biotite,
chlorite, chlorite almandine, biotite- almandine-
calcite, zone) plagioclase, almandine- staurolite-
actinolite chlorite, staurolite, sillimanite-
epidote, hornblende orthoclase,
hornblende, clinozoisite, oligoclase,
dolomite calcite actinolite,
grossular,
diopside
PHY LLITE, SCHIST SCHIST GNEISS
Almandine-Amphibolite facies Granulite facies
Andalusite Cordierite-Orthoclase Sillimanite
qtz-albite- andalusite-cordierite sillimanite- qtz-perthite-garnet,
biotite, garnet-mica-plagioclase cumming- hypersthene plagioclase,
garnet, hornblende, K spar-qtz, tonite kyanite, sillimanite
andalusite, anthophyllite cordierite diopside, calcite, biotite,
cordierite, (+ as for cordierite, spinel, corundum
staurolite cord. -orth.)
PHYLLITE, SCHIST GNEISS AMPHIBOLITE GNEISS,
SCHIST GRAN-
ULITE
Hornblende hornfels facies, qtz-muscovite- Pyroxene homfels facies, Sanidinite facies,
biotite-cordierite, plag, andalusite, sillimanite (andalusite)- corundum-mullite-
microcline, hornblende, grossularite, cordierite – K spar, haematite-cristobalite,
diopside, anthophyllite diopside-hypersthene, hercynite, cordrerite,
staurolite, qtz., plagioclase, lamite, melilite, calcite
garnet, spinel, corundum
HORNFELS XENOLITHS BUCHITE

Key:
Common minerals
Diagnostic minerals.

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3.11. Classification of additional features related to physical and

alteration, veins and chemical accumulation of metals and volcanic
breccia in ore systems rocks at the surface, but commonly still show
veins or feeders in the subsurface, and extensive
The key ingredients of a mineralised hydro- footwall (and sometimes hanging wall) alteration.
thermal system are commonly arranged in a
Such descriptions of hydrothermal system
spatial sense that indirectly or directly assists
zonation form the core of good exploration
exploration. Every hydrothermal ore deposit models, ore deposit models, and also ore resource
is surrounded by a ‘halo’ comprising veins, calculations once mining is imminent.
alteration and/or breccias (Figure 3.11.1), with a
zonation that potentially provides indications as
to the proximity of the ore deposit. This section Alteration
summarises the ways in which a field description Alteration is synonymous with metasomatism,
of alteration, veins and breccias can assist and is the process whereby the composition of a
with identifying these key ingredients, with an rock, and its mineralogy, is changed in response
emphasis on subsurface hydrothermal deposits to interaction with a through-going fluid.
(eg lode-style, breccia pipes, vein stockworks However, the term alteration has some broader
including porphyries, epithermal deposits, meanings within geoscience. It is used here to
skarns and other replacement-dominated refer to an event (and product of that event)
deposits). Near-surface hydrothermal deposits, that adds or subtracts elements from a starting
such as volcanic-hosted massive sulfides, have rock composition, and in applying this criterion
FIGURE 3.11.1
Idealised and schematic cross-section of a subsurface hydrothermal deposit displaying a zonation of different
veins, alteration and breccia, loosely based on breccia-hosted iron-oxide-copper-gold deposits (eg from the
Cloncurry District in Queensland) and shear-hosted lode gold deposits (eg from Southern Cross district in
Western Australia). Although there are clearly many variations on these themes, the coincidence of high
concentrations of veins, breccia and intense alteration are common features around such deposits.

1. Orebody chaotic sulfide‐oxide breccia

2. Footwall oxide crackle breccia
3. Deep footwall vein sets
4. Main ore‐related alteration halo
4
8 5
5. F t ll disseminated
Footwall di i t d mineralisation
i li ti and d
alteration with veins
6. Foliation – change in orientation and intensity
7. Hanging wall alteration – proximal
8. Hanging wall alteration – distal
3 9. Post‐mineralisation veins
7 10. Post‐mineralisation fault and cataclasite

5 2 9
1

10

20 ‐ 2000 m

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the volatiles such as H2O, CO2 and H2S are Alteration can be recognised by changes in
generally ignored. For example, this definition colour, texture, geochemistry, geomorphology,
would exclude much serpentinisation if it could and geophysics. Alteration can produce mineral
not be demonstrated that there was a chemical assemblages that are mechanically harder or
change other than hydration. In considering softer than the precursor rock, which may
hydrothermal mineral deposits, supergene result in subsequent strain partitioning during
processes may be included or excluded from this protracted geological histories – ‘hard’ alteration
definition, because weathering does produce zones (eg skarns) may show little subsequent
chemical changes that influence mineralogy; deformation, whereas ‘soft’ alteration zones (eg
normally, however, an effort should be made to sericite-chlorite alteration) may preferentially
try to distinguish hydrothermal alteration from develop high strains during later deformation
supergene alteration or weathering. Another (note the use of ‘sericite’ can be misleading, see
word commonly used interchangeably with Table 3.11.1). Similarly, exposure of alteration
alteration is replacement, whereby the minerals zones to surface processes my produce gullies,
(and commonly textures) of the original rock ridges or different soils or regolith depending
are replaced by new minerals at grain scale. on the chemistry of the alteration and its
Alteration intensity commonly increases with susceptibility to weathering. Alteration can be
proximity to hydrothermal mineral deposits, recognised geophysically by spectral methods
and some deposits themselves are characterised that detect the specific alteration minerals, or
by alteration in which extractable sulfide by magnetic, gravity or electrical methods if
minerals are part of the alteration assemblage. alteration produces an anomalous response. It
Alteration typically occurs at scales ranging can be detected geochemically by conventional
from millimetres to tens of kilometres, and is exploration geochemical methods but also by
commonly associated with fractures, veins, faults biogeochemical anomalies, from bore water
or shear zones, although at broad scale it is rare chemistry, from ions released during soil
that all rocks are visibly altered. Key ingredients formation and from radiometric surveys if the
used to describe alteration are summarised in alteration of interest has anomalously low or
Table 3.11.1 and Figure 3.11.2. high U, Th, and K. The use of geochemically-
TABLE 3.11.1
Alteration classification: features that can be used to describe alteration around hydrothermal
mineral deposits. ‘Xmas tree’ refers to a branching pattern of alteration where certain layers have been
preferentially replaced, ‘deformed’ means the geologist can see that a foliation wraps around, or has folded or
sheared, the alteration minerals (depending on whether they are relatively hard or soft, respectively). ‘Sericite’
here is used to represent fine-grained potassic-dominant white mica, although sodic and some other micas
can have similar appearances in the field. Premetamorphic alteration may be recognised by the development
of textures and minerals consistent with the surrounding metamorphism, although with a mineralogy that
reflects the composition of the alteration zone, for example, sericite (potassic)-chlorite alteration can become
K-feldspar-biotite at amphibolite facies, low temperature silica-carbonate alteration could become a pyroxene-
dominant calc-silicate assemblage in the granulite facies. Post-metamorphic alteration can be recognised
by retrograde mineralogy, or non-aligned mineral textures where the metamorphism previously developed a
foliation.

Alteration description Examples

Scale mm, cm, dm, m, 100 m, km
Geometry Tabular, sheetlike, irregular, lensoidal, banded
Intensity Extreme, strong, moderate, weak, disseminated,
pseudomorphous
Relation to veins or fractures Symmetrical, asymmetrical, related, unrelated
Relation to fabrics (bedding, foliation) Xmas-tree, deformed, aligned, discordant
Mineralogy Sericite-chlorite, carbonate, silica, feldspathic, clinopyroxene-
garnet, micaceous, phyllic, argillic, propylitic
Chemistry Potassic, calcic, mafic, siliceous, carbonated
Metamorphosed or not? Post-metamorphic, pre-metamorphic

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FIGURE 3.11.2
Schematic zonation of features and textures around a hydrothermal vein, showing different
terminology used and the variation in textures and alteration intensity around the vein.
Vein Alteration
(infill) (replacement)

Textures preserved,
one mineral
pseudomorphed by
new ones
Intense
alteration Textures partly
preserved,, but most
p
original minerals
Strong destroyed
alteration
All textures and
original minerals
destroyed

Weak or
disseminated
alteration

Vein:
commonly
coarser and
simpler than
Original
Selvage
g surrounding
rockk
(alteration alteration
zones)

1 cm to 50 m
defined alteration indices, and statistical of the locations indicated in the vein/alteration
evaluation of exploration geochemical data, are zones shown in Figures 3.11.1 and 3.11.2.
common methods used to assess alteration, but However, veins do represent a concentration of a
these methods must always be combined with a simple chemistry into a relatively confined space,
rigorous analysis of the field relations. and a very rich hydrothermal deposit commonly
contains abundant, sulfide- or oxide-rich vein
minerals.
Veins
Despite the tendency for rich hydrothermal
Veins are the product of mineral precipitation deposits to have many veins (or related breccia
into fractures, driven by processes ranging infill, see below), veins can form in many
from diffusion of elements from the immediate environments and need not bear any specific
wall rocks, through to those processes causing relationship to hydrothermal mineral deposits
saturation of dissolved components in the (eg Oliver, 1996). Simple deformation-induced
through-going fluid, particularly pressure or processes of dissolution and re-precipitation
temperature drops, boiling or other fluid phase at sub-mm scales can produce veins without
separation (immiscibility). The process of the need for large volumes of through-going,
veining typically produces distinctive textures potentially metal-rich fluid (eg Oliver and Bons,
of minerals infilling fluid-filled cavities (infill, eg 2001). The main challenge for the explorationist
Dong et al, 1995; Taylor, 2009), usually different when examining veins is to try to decide whether
from textures of both fresh and altered rocks or not the vein may represent part of a broader
(Figure 3.11.2). In mineralised hydrothermal hydrothermal system, and whether patterns
systems, veins can represent ore or gangue, and within or between veins allow construction of
ore minerals could potentially be found in any potential vectors towards mineralisation. Once

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the scale of interest has been established (ie the Breccias

piece of drill-core, the outcrop, the tenement), it With progressive fracturing and/or fluid pressure
is convenient to try to separate ‘closed system’ cycling, veins form in isolation, sheets, arrays,
veins from ‘open system’ veins, on the basis of and stockworks (Figure 3.11.5), and if fracturing
whether or not the minerals in the vein can and/or spalling and transport are sufficient,
be seen to potentially represent the product breccias may arise, in which individual veins are
of precipitation from local processes or from no longer easily distinguishable, but rather merge
more regional ones (Figures 3.11.3 and 3.11.4). to become part or all of the matrix of a breccia.
Ideally this procedure should be carried out for The description and classification of breccias
each recognisable vein component (eg silica, is extremely challenging but fortunately there
sulfur, copper, carbonate), and at different are several good papers that describe different
scales, because it is quite common to have local approaches. It is very difficult to describe
dissolution-reprecipitation acting in tandem with breccias without genetic connotations, because
precipitation of component from an externally- breccias form in many different environments
derived fluid (Figure 3.11.4). by various mechanisms (Laznicka, 1988; Taylor,
2009). Surficial or near-surface breccias form by
Other descriptions to classify veins and place rapid sedimentation, explosive volcanic activity,
them in a broader context include geometry (and meteorite impact, dissolution and cavity collapse,
the potential to relate this to stress fields and fluid or cave-fill. Subsurface breccias can form in situ
pressures acting during veining), overprinting, by fragmentation, or by transport and deposition
internal textures, mineralogy, and relationship of clasts, and mechanisms for producing
to alteration in the wall rock (Table 3.11.2, fragmentation and transport range from
Figure 3.11.5). Vein arrays with three or more magmatic, through hydrothermal, to mechanical,
orientations of intersecting veins are referred and with several combinations. The distinction
between these two general types of subsurface
to as stockworks, and this term is somewhat
breccias (eg Sillitoe, 1985; Woodcock and Mort,
interchangeable with the simplest type of breccia
2008) has been demonstrated to be particularly
termed a crackle breccia, in which the infill important in hydrothermal brecciation processes
(vein) component isolates portions of wall rocks (Table 3.11.3). Breccias formed by fragmentation
between the veins, forming clasts. or implosion can form crackle or mosaic
FIGURE 3.11.3
Recognition of whether a vein and related alteration selvage relate to a bigger hydrothermal system depends
on inferring (or determining) geochemical changes associated with the vein and the alteration, and observing
these over a range of scales (eg Oliver and Bons, 2001). In this example, both closed system and open system
behaviour can be inferred, depending on the scale of observation.

CLOSED SYSTEM

.
quartz-haematite quartz-haematite
rock vein
bedded
siltstone
(Fe-poor)

haematite-rich
vein & alteration OPEN
zone SYSTEM

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FIGURE 3.11.4
Flow chart for attempting to identify whether veins (or breccias) represent part of a large, potentially
mineralised hydrothermal system (‘open system’) or local, ‘closed system’ redistribution driven by diffusion,
adapted from the principles outlined in Oliver (1996) and Oliver and Bons (2001). ‘Open system’ is most
desirable for defining large potentially mineralised hydrothermal [Link] type of chart should always be
used interactively, not rigidly or mathematically, preferably with geochemical datasets in combination with
many examples of veins in the field or mine. Not all selvages around veins necessarily require open system
mass transport, because the removal of soluble material (eg quartz, carbonates) from a rock by diffusion into
a vein can leave behind a less soluble (eg micas, carbonaceous material) residue, thus producing a selvage.
If the mineralogy is relatively simple, it is possible in the field (or with geochemical analyses) to construct
schematic profiles of components across vein/selvage/wall rock zones, to try to determine which elements
could have been redistributed locally, or which were derived from an external reservoir (see also Oliver, 2010).
vein
Isolated at scale of interest part of an array
Fibrous? Fibrous?

yes no yes No (blocky, elongate

blocky, drusy,
colloform, laminated,
Minerals same
irregular)
as wallrock?
yes no Is there a selvage around the vein(s)?

no yes
Can selvage be explained by
Do the vein minerals
residual enrichment of
mimic the wallrock?
components moved to vein?

yes partly no yes partly no

Do the vein minerals Separate closed system

represent a very large from open system
( 10x))
concentration (> components
relative to proximal
wallrocks?
open system at
yes cm‐ to m‐scales
no
How far to nearest supply
pp y of p
possible vein
Closed system at components given relative concentrations
cm‐ to m‐scales in veins and rocks?
< 100 m > 100 m
Possible remobilisation, Broad open system
or local open system

patterns (Figure 3.11.5); breccias formed by many varieties of ore deposits particularly in
transport and/or deposition are chaotic, and it (100 m to 5 km) shallow arc environments (eg
is generally not possible to piece together the Sillitoe, 1985), but also because such patterns
original source of the fragments in a meaningful require very large gradients in energy in order to
way. Many mineral deposits are hosted in crackle induce the fragmentation, transport, abrasion
breccias, because these form by cycles of fluid and deposition of the clastic material within,
overpressure and underpressure (commonly and such energy gradients can promote (or
but not always fault-related), particularly terminate) rapid mineral deposition. Although
favourable for stimulating metal dissolution some of the world’s largest hydrothermal
then precipitation. Chaotic breccias formed in deposits are hosted in breccias, many other
the subsurface are particularly important for hydrothermal deposits are cut by barren or
mineral deposits, both by their association with poorly mineralised breccias.

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TABLE 3.11.2
Vein classification: features that can be used to describe veins. Probably the most important to decide whether
particular veins are related to large, potentially mineralised hydrothermal systems is the combination of scale
and intensity, together with mineralogy and relationships to alteration, as described in Figure 3.11.4.

Vein description Examples

Scale and intensity Vein thickness and spacing: mm, cm, dm, m, 10 m, 100 m, km, >10 km
Geometry Isolated, sheeted, en echelon, branching, intersecting/crossing,
stockwork (and thence breccias), orientation
Overprinting/paragenesis Mutual overprinting, systematic overprinting, sequence, relation to
bedding, foliation, other features
Mineralogy, relation to alteration Presence or absence of selvages, mineralogy of vein relative to wall rock
and alteration, identify infill and replacement components
Internal textures Fibrous, blocky/massive, crustiform/drusy, cockade, colloform, moss,
comb, zonal, laminated, wall rock seams, recrystallised
Metamorphosed or not? Post-metamorphic, pre-metamorphic

FIGURE 3.11.5
Patterns of vein and breccia geometry, suitable for classification and use in assisting with determination of
proximity to potential mineralised zones. Breccia definitions adapted from Woodcock and Mort (2008). From left
to right within ‘veins’, the increasing connectivity and number of veins corresponds with greater volumes of fluid
and/or greater fluid pressure decreases upon fracturing, both of which increase the potential for mineralisation
(eg Cox et al, 1987). Breccias represent even greater connectivity and fluid pressure changes, although all three
of these varieties can host rich, large mineral deposits (eg Phillips, 1972; Sillitoe, 1985; Woodcock et al, 2006).

VEINS

mutually
isolated branching sheeted en échelon cross‐cutting stockwork

BRECCIAS

..

Crackle Mosaic Chaotic

(>75% large (60 ‐ 75% (30 to 60%
clasts) large clasts) large clasts)

Large clasts Angular, jigsaw fit Angular, poor fit Angular, rounded or
(> 2 mm): variable no fit
variable,

Infill and/or Microclasts

Matrix Infill dominant
microclasts and/or infill
(infill, micro‐clasts)

The general approach to breccia classification akin to veins – ie infill, or microclastic material.
in subsurface environments is to describe the When combined with other attributes (shape, form,
proportions and attributes of the three main mineralogy, clast shape-size-roundness attributes)
components (Woodcock and Mort, 2008) – large it is possible to categorise breccias in any particular
clasts (>2 mm), and two parts of the matrix, district in a way that can assist with determining
whether composed of hydrothermal precipitates what role they played in mineral deposition

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and the concentration of ore minerals. More to mineral precipitation, or whether brecciation
sophisticated approaches to breccia classification was an active dynamic mechanism for inducing
have used specific attributes of clasts (in particular) mineral precipitation from physico-chemical
following traditions of sedimentologists, and changes. These two types of processes may act in
these include clast roughness, sphericity, particle tandem in creating the largest and richest breccia-
size distributions, and fractal dimensions of any hosted deposits, of which there are many examples.
of these, but these are usually outside the realm In general, it would be a foolhardy geologist
of the field geologist. More useful to consider by who underplayed the importance of breccia
detailed observation is whether the breccia can characteristics in the search for mineral deposits –
be determined to be a passive, permeable host they are mostly a ‘good thing’.
TABLE 3.11.3
Breccia classification: features that can be used to describe breccias, in particular those used to determine
whether a subsurface breccia formed by in situ fragmentation, or by some degree of transport, rotation
and abrasion of clasts prior to deposition and cementation. This simplified scheme is loosely based on
the principles described by Woodcock and Mort (2008). The reader is also referred to Sillitoe (1985) for a
comprehensive description of a wide range of mineralised or mineralisation-related breccias, Laznicka (1988)
for the full breadth of breccia types and a scheme to try to classify them, and Taylor (2009) for excellent
images of various breccias, mostly in hydrothermal environments.

Breccia description In situ breccias (crackle) Transported or milled

breccias
Geometry Commonly tabular Commonly pipe-like
Clast/matrix relationship Clast or matrix supported Clast or matrix supported
Clast composition Monomictic Polymictic
Clast size distribution Regular to variable Variable
Clast angularity Angular Rounded to variable
Clast roughness Smooth Variable
Matrix composition and per cent Infill dominant Microclasts and/or infill
Infill textures As for veins As for veins

3.12. CLASSIFICATION OF ARENITES AND TERRIGENOUS SEDIMENTS1

Figure 3.12.1
MLQ diagrams for arenites on Packham’s classification (1954). Depositional environment unknown.

1. From: Crook, K A W, 1960. Classification of arenites, Am Jour Sci, 258:419-428.

Packham, G H, 1954. Sedimentary structures as an important feature in the classification of sandstones,
Am Jour Sci, 252:466-476.

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Figure 3.12.2
MLQ diagrams for arenites on Packham’s classification (1954).
Depositional environment known from sedimentary structures.

Figure 3.12.3
Classification of terrigenous sediments1.

1. From Pettijohn, F J, Potter, P E and Siever, R, 1972. Sand and Sandstones, p 158 (Springer-Verlag: New
York).

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3.13. CLASSIFICATION OF CARBONATE SEDIMENTS

Figure 3.13.1
Compositional terminology1.

1. Leighton, M W and Pendexter, C, 1962. Carbonate rock types, in Classification of Carbonate Rocks – A
Symposium, Memoir 1 (ed: W E Ham), p 51 (American Association of Petroleum Geologists: Tulsa,
Oklahoma).
See also: Prothero, D R and Schwab, F, 1996. Sedimentary Geology (Freeman: New York), pp 237-245, for a
more detailed classification of carbonate sediments.

TABLE 3.13.1
Classification by textural maturity1.

Over 2/3 lime mud matrix Subequal Over 2/3 spar cement
spar and
Per cent 0 - 1% 1 - 10% 10 - 50% over 50% lime mud Sorting Sorting Rounded and
allochems poor good abraded
Represent- Micrite Fossil- Sparse Packed Poorly Unsorted Sorted Rounded
ative rock and iferous biomicrite biomicrite washed biosparite biosparite biosparite
terms dismicrite micrite biosparite

1. From Folk, R L, 1962. Spectral subdivision of limestone types, in Classification of Carbonate Rocks –
A Symposium, Memoir 1 (ed: W E Ham), pp 62-84 (American Association of Petroleum Geologists: Tulsa,
Oklahoma).
Allochems = organised carbonate aggregates, comprising intraclasts; oolites, pisolites and spherulites;
fossils; and pellets.
Micrite = microcrystalline calcite.
Sparite = sparry calcite + 4 microns dia.
Qualifying adjectives describing colour, hardness, bedding, sedimentary structures, etc should be added.

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TABLE 3.13.2
Classification according to depositional texture1.

Depositional texture recognisable Depositional texture

Field Geologists’ Manual

Original components not bound together during deposition Original components were bound together not recognisable
during deposition … as shown by intergrown Crystalline carbonate (subdivide
Contains mud (particles of clay and fine silt size) Lacks mud according to classifications
and is grain- skeletal matter, lamination contrary to gravity, or
Mud-supported Grain sediment-floored cavities that are roofed over by designed to bear on physical
supported supported texture or diagenesis)
Less than More than organic or questionably organic matter and are

CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

10% grains 10% grains Grainstone too large to be interstices.
Packstone
Mudstone Wackestone Boundstone
1. From Dunham, R J, 1962. Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional texture, in Classification of Carbonate Rocks (ed: W E Ham), AAPG Mem 1,
pp 108-122.

3.14. ROUNDNESS AND SPHERICITY, RELATIVE RESISTANCE TO ABRASIVE ROUNDING , AND PARTICLE SIZE
TERMINOLOGY FOR SEDIMENTARY AND PYROCLASTIC PARTICLES
Figure 3.14.1
Roundness and sphericity.

Relative resistance to abrasive rounding

Quartz (most resistant), tourmaline, microcline, staurolite, titanite, magnetite, garnet, ilmenite, epidote, zircon, hornblende, rutile, diallage, hypersthene,
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spodumene, apatite, monazite, augite, haematite, bronzite, kyanite, enstatite, fluorite, siderite, barite (least resistant).
 CHAPTER 3 – mineral and rock information

Figure 3.14.2
Particle size terminology1.

¼8

¼16

¼32
¼64
¼128
¼256

1. From Pettijohn, F J, Potter, P E and Siever, R, 1972. Sand and Sandstone (Springer-Verlag: New York), p 71.

3.15. BEDDING THICKNESS TERMINOLOGY

Average thickness of beds or splits (mm)

Bedding term Splitting term Anon1 Payne2
Very thinly laminated Fissile – 2
Laminated Fissile 10 2 - 10
Very thinly bedded Flaggy 10 - 30 10 - 100
Thinly bedded Flaggy 30 - 100
Medium bedded Slabby 100 - 300
Thickly bedded Blocky 300 - 1000
Very thickly bedded Massive 1000 >100

1. Anon, 1971. Report of subcommittee on sedimentary terminology, Rec Geol Surv NSW, 13(2):109-114.
2. Payne, T G, 1942. Stratigraphic analysis and environmental reconstruction, Amer Assoc Petrol Geol Bull,
26:1697-1770.

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3.16. A GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES1

Primary inorganic
Current formed Tool marks
Erosional Depositional
•• Channels and rills •• Stratification •• Grooves and striations
•• Flute marks •• Ripplemarks and cross laminations •• Roll and slide marks
•• Scour scoops •• Flaser and lenticular bedding •• Bounce, brush and prod
•• Stratification •• Cross bedding (tabular and trough) marks
•• Graded bedding
•• Current lineations (clast imbrication)
Secondary inorganic – mechnical
Quasi-solid Quasi-liquid Hydroplastic
(thixotropic response)
•• Impact marks (eg •• Fluidisation (complex distortion to •• Slump structures
raindrop imprints) homogenisation) •• Convolute lamination
•• Gas pits (may resemble •• Intrusions (dykes and sills) •• Load structures
raindrop imprints) •• Extrusions (volcanoes) •• Founder structures
•• Ice crystals •• Dewatering structures (eg dish and flame (eg dish and flame
•• Faults structures) structures)
•• Pull aparts •• Folds
•• Dessication •• Boudinage
•• Differential compaction
folds
Secondary inorganic – chemical
•• Enterolithic folds (due to expansion)
•• Concretions (due to differential
cementation)
•• Leisegang bands (iron oxide
concentrations)
•• Stylolites (due to differential solution)
•• Crystallisation structures (salt or ice
crystals, nodule growths)
Biogenic structures
Biostratification Borings Coprolites
•• Stromatolites, biogenic •• Mechanical and/or chemical •• Preserved fecal ejecta
graded bedding, others excavations into solid substrates of invertebrates and
vertebrates

Bioturbation traces
Resting Crawling Grazing Feeding Dwelling Escape

Lebensspuren (individually distinctive traces)

1. From Lewis, D W, 1984. Practical Sedimentology (Hutchinson Ross: Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania), with kind
permission from Springer Science+Business Media B V.

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3.17. DIAGRAMS REPRESENTING VARIOUS PERCENTAGES OF GRAINS1

1. From Terry, R D and Chilingar, G V, 1955. Summary of ‘Concerning some additional aids in studying
sedimentary formations’, by M S Shvetsov, J Sedim Petrol, (25)3:229-234.

3.18. REGOLITH TERMINOLOGY

Regolith is the weathered and transported earth in lower parts of the landscape. Hence many
material that covers fresh rock. It includes in situ duricrusts indicate topographic inversion, ie
weathered rock and sediments transported by what were valleys are now hills. In other cases
various means (eg colluvium, alluvium, aeolian duricrusts (particularly ferricrete and bauxite)
materials, lacustrine deposits, till). In places are thought to form by relative accumulation,
the regolith may contain cemented materials by removal during weathering of all components
that form duricrusts (silcrete, ferricrete, manag- less soluble than ferric oxides-oxyhydroxides
anocrete, calcrete, dolocrete). and alumina.
Most regolith materials have a spatial
Depositional parts of the regolith generally
relationship with the landscape. Hard rocks
occur in the lower parts of the landscape, but
and regolith materials maintain hills, and
softer materials form valleys. In many places ancient depositional regolith may occur in
the presence of a duricrust protects hills from topographically high locations if it is protected
erosion, so duricrusts commonly occur high in from erosion (covered or cemented). In situ
a landscape – although they are the result of weathering profiles (Figure  3.18.1) occur
cementing processes, and the fluids that carry the throughout the landscape, but are likely to be
cement must move downslope and precipitate observed in the higher parts, where they are not

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commonly covered by more recent sedimentary The terms ‘laterite’ and ‘ferricrete’ are widely
regolith. Areas with steep slopes normally used for surface iron-rich materials. Workers
feature eroded remnants of regolith, or fresh on the Yilgarn, and elsewhere, consider ‘laterite’
rock. Figure 3.18.2 illustrates the distribution to be a residual accumulation of iron oxides,
of regolith in a typical landscape. Figure 3.18.3 and ferricrete to result from the absolute
illustrates a more complex regolith-landscape accumulation of iron oxide in a previously
association in the Yilgarn, particularly showing existing regolith material. Profiles that have
the distribution of ferruginous materials. relative Fe- or Al-rich duricrusts are typically
FIGURE 3.18.1
A typical in situ weathering profile with an explanation of the terms for parts of the profile.

FIGURE 3.18.2
Schematic diagram of regolith-landscape relations in the central Broken Hill block, after Figure 9 in Hill, S M
and Kohn, B P, 1999. Morphotectonic evolution of the Mundi Mundi range front, Broken Hill region, Western
NSW, Regolith ‘98, pp 319-334 (CRC LEME: Perth).

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related to a weathering profile with a particular minerals, from pure calcite to dolomite, and have
set of characteristics as shown in Figure 3.18.4. recently become an important gold exploration
Calcretes (regolith carbonates or RCs) take sampling medium. Figure 3.18.5 offers a class-
many forms. They contain a variety of carbonate ification and a genetic model for RCs.

FIGURE 3.18.3
Types of ferruginous materials, from Taylor, G and Butt, C R M, 1998. The Australian regolith
and mineral exploration, AGSO Journal of Australian Geology and Geophysics, 17(4):55-67.

FIGURE 3.18.4
Examples of various types of ferruginous regolith materials in a landscape context from the Yilgarn, Western
Australia, from Taylor and Butt (op cit).

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FIGURE 3.18.5
Genetic classification of calcrete, from Taylor and Butt (op cit).

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