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Aquaculture Reviewer

BS in Agricultural and Biosytems Engineering (Camarines Norte State College)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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AQUACULTURE ENGINEERING
AB 110 ENGR. PAUL JERVIN ADRIAS

AQUACULTURE RELATED LAWS

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 704 s, 1975
o “Fisheries Decree of 1975”
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9275 o Revising And Consolidating All Laws and
o Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 Decrees Affecting Fishing And Fisheries
o An act providing for a comprehensive water o To accelerate the integrated development of
quality management and for other purposes fisheries industry to keep the country resources
o Establishment of Water Quality Management at optimum condition.
Council (WQMC) o Creation and membership of the council

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 8435 (1997) PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 979

o “Agricultural and Fisheries Modernization Act of o “Marine Pollution Decree of 1976”
1997” o Providing for the revision of PDN 600 governing
o An Act Prescribing Urgent Related Measures To Marine Pollution
Modernize The Agriculture And Fisheries o The rules and regulations will be issued by
Sectors Of The Country In Order To Enhance National Pollution Control Commission (NEPC)
Their Profitability, And Prepare Said Sectors and Philippine Coast Guard (PCG)
For The Challenges Of Globalization Through o PCG as primary responsible for implementing
An Adequate, Focused And Rational Delivery the law.
Of Necessary Support Services, Appropriating
Funds, Therefor And For Other Purposes. FAO NO. 240 s, 2012
o Fisheries Administrative Order No. 240 series
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 8550 (1998) of 2012
o “Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998” o Rules and Regulations in the Implementation of
o It is an act providing for the development, Fisheries Observer Program in the High Seas
management, and conservation of fisheries and o Establishment of National Fisheries Observer
aquatic resources in the Philippines. Programme (NFOP)
o Creation of implementing body, Bureau of
Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) BFAR FAO NO. 233
o Fisheries Administrative Order No. 233, Series
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10654 (2015) of 2010.
o An Act to prevent, deter, and eliminate illegal, o Also known as the “Aquatic Wildlife
unreported, and unregulated fishing amending Conservation Act of 2010”
Republic Act 8550 and for other purposes. o A Philippine law that aims to protect and
o Amending access to fishery resources. conserve aquatic wildlife in the country.
o Issued on October 11, 2010.
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 1535 (1956)
o Amendment of R.A. No. 428 entitled “An Act to
declare illegal the possession, sale or
INTRODUCTION TO
distribution of fish or other aquatic animals AQUACULTURE
stupefied, disabled or killed by means of
dynamite or other explosive or toxic substance AQUACULTURE
and providing penalties therefor. • Defined as rearing and breeding of aquatic
o Ament the section 1 to 4 of RA 428 organisms in confined condition which is more
or less controllable by man.
EXECUTIVE ORDER NO. 240 s, 1995
o Creation of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Main groups of organisms used for aquaculture
Management Council (FARMCs) Finfish • Milkfish
o Creation of Special Agencies having • Tilapia
jurisdictions over Municipal Waters with Special • Carp
provisions. • Catfish
o Community-based planning and Crustaceans • Prawn
implementation of policies.
• Crab
• Giant freshwater shrimp
PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 1152, 1997
Mollusks • Oyster
o “Philippine Environmental Code”
o Comprehensive law that provides framework • Mussel
for the protection and management of the Seaweed • Eucheuma
country’s environment.

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TYPES OF WATER USED IN AQUACULTURE MILKFISH CULTURE

Freshwater • Spring • Milkfish or Bangus can grow in either salt
aquaculture • Streams water or freshwater
• River • Mainly cultured in brackish water ponds and in
• Rain fish pens like Laguna Lake, Taal Lake and
• Deep well Lake Buluan (in Mindanao).
• Lake • Brakishwater pond is tide dependent.
Species cultured • Milkfish farm consists
o Tilapia o Nursery ponds
o Carp o Transition ponds
o Catfish o Rearing ponds
o Mudfish • Extensive and intensive production
o Giant freshwater shrimp, • Usually takes 3-4 months of culture in rearing
etc. pond to grow them into market size.
Brackish water • Combination of • Monoculture although some try polyculture
(coastal) freshwater and seawater with prawn.
aquaculture • Usually located in
mangrove areas where PRAWN CULTURE
river flows and mixes • Sugpo or Black Tiger Prawn is mostly cultured
with the tidal water. in brackishwater
Species cultured • Semi-intensive method of production
o Milkfish • Some apply intensive method using pumps for
o Black tiger prawn water supply and paddle wheel for aeration
o Crab and apply commercial feeds
o Tilapia, etc. • Prawn farms consists
Mariculture (sea • Located in protected o Grow-out ponds
farming) coastal areas o Harvesting canals
• Uses only sea water • Stock prawn larvae or postlarvae are produced
be commercial hatcheries
CLASSIFICATION OF AQUACULTURE • 4 months to grow the postlarvae into market
PRODUCTION METHODS size prawn
EXTENSIVE METHOD • Prawn farming is capital intensive but highly
o rearing of organisms with minimal stocking profitable.
density
o natural feed TILAPIA CULTURE
o minimal water exchange • Nile Tilapia
• Mostly cultured in floating fish cages and in
SEMI-INTENSIVE METHOD freshwater ponds.
o moderate stocking density • Semi-intensive or intensive production using
o supplemental feed with fertilizer commercial feeds.
o partial water exchange
OYSTER CULTURE
INTENSIVE METHOD • Oyster farm is located in shallow protected and
o high stocking density flat coastal areas with clean water and free
o artificial feed from heavy waves.
o high water exchange rate • Uses oyster attachments
o maximum aeration system o Rocks
o Corals
TYPE OF FISH FEED
o Bamboo stakes and other materials
a) Natural food – plankton
• The oyster feed on plankton
b) Supplemental food – rice bran, home-mixed
feeds
MUSSEL FARMING
c) Artificial feed – commercially processed fish
• Farm located in protected and flat coastal
feeds such as fish pellets
areas with clean water and free from heavy
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SOME MAJOR waves.
AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES • Uses bamboo or wooden stakes as
attachment.

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• Mussel feed on plankton • The source, quality and adequacy of this

water supply have to be properly
SEAWEED FARMING determined during the survey.
• Farm located in protected and flat sandy • Ensure a stable supply throughout the year
coastal areas with clean water and free from • Must be free from any form of pollution
heavy waves and strong current.
2. TYPE OF SOIL
• Starter stocks are tied in ropes in long line or
• Areas with clay soil contribute to natural
floating rafts.
fertility and yield good vegetation growth.
• Philippines is the world’s leading producer of
Eucheuma seaweed, • Clay soil serves as good building material
o The biggest contiguous area of for linings and dikes of ponds.
seaweed farm can be found in Tawi- • Sandy, rocky and gravelly soils are not as
tawi, particularly in the shallow areas of desirable.
Sitangkay. 3. VEGETATION
• Heavily forested areas with large trees
would be difficult and expensive to develop.
• A good background knowledge on the • It may indicate fertility for proper growth of
principles and practices of aquaculture planning
potential food organisms on the site.
and implementation is very essential for a
successful aquafarm project. 4. NATURAL FERTILITY
• Dependent on nutrients and food
MAJOR ENGINEERING PROBLEMS OF organisms occurring in the water as well
FISHPONDS IN THE COASTAL AREAS as the soil nutrients.
• Nature of the existing upland or wetland
1. PROBLEMS DUE TO CLIMATE AND and aquatic vegetation, fauna and flora
HYDROLOGY may be used as an indirect method to
• Type of rainfall, occurrences of determine this quality.
typhoons, and prevailing tidal 5. TOPOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE
characteristics in the fishpond location • Generally, flat area with a slope of about 3%
can influence the nature of construction is considered ideal for development.
of fishpond in such area. • Highly sloping areas will require large
2. ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES excavation and, therefore, expensive to
• Nature of soil develop yet this will allow only a very limited
• Vegetation space for the ponds to be constructed.
• Elevation of site 6. NATURAL PROTECTION/EXPOSURE
• Topographic characteristics • Factors that affect run-off
• Availability of freshwater supply and » Duration of rainfall
occurrences of pollution » Intensity and distribution of rainfall
3. ENGINEERING SPECIFIC PROBLEMS in the area
• Shifting of management system » Size and shape of the watershed
▪ from one species to another » Water retention capacity of the
▪ from monoculture to watershed
polyculture » Topography and geology of the
• imbalanced cut and fill watershed.
• design of water control structure 7. ECONOMIC AND OTHER
• leakages and seepages CONSIDERATIONS
• Factors to be considered are
SELECTION OF FISHPONT SITE » Accessibility and transport
In venturing into any aquaculture enterprise, a lot of facilities
time, effort and financial investments are needed. » Availability of seed supply or
resource to be cultured
The criteria to be considered in the selection of » Presence of market outlets
fishpond site are the following: » Indigenous skilled manpower
» Pattern of land and water use
1. WATER SUPPLY AND QUALITY » Peace and order situation

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AQUACULTURE ENGINEERING
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TIDE AS SOURCE OF WATER FOR BRACKISH

WATER FISHPONDS 2. ACTUAL TIDE GAUGING
o Measurement and/or prediction for the
• Brackish water fishponds are primarily specific area using the tidal differences
dependent on tide. and constants of the tide table.
• The height of the tide and its range determine
the sufficiency of; SITE SURVEYING
o Water
ENGINEERING SURVEY EQUIPMENT
o Height of dikes
o Elevation of pond bottom and water The principal equipment for field survey work are
gates composed of the;
o Size of gate opening
o Construction cost and others o Engineer’s transit
o Levels
THE TIDAL PHENOMENON o Magnetic compass
o Surveying tape
• The periodic rising and falling of the water
o Leveling rod
surface of the oceans, seas, bays, mouths of
o Range poles
rivers, etc.
• Result of gravitational attraction of the moon MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE
and sun on the earth.
o Also known as astronomical tide. o Vertical distances or differences in elevation in
fish farms planning are usually determined by
1. SEMI-DIURNAL TIDE the use of level instrument and level rods
o Has a cycle of about one-half a tidal o Horizontal distances are determined in various
day. ways depending on the accuracy desired.
2. DIURNAL TIDE o Pacing
o Has only one high water and one low o Taping
water per tidal day. o Stadia method
3. MIXED TIDES
o Characterized by having;
▪ large inequality of either the MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS
high or low water heights
▪ with two high waters and two The instruments used to measure angles are
low waters o Compass
▪ occurring each tidal day o Transit
o either predominantly semi-diurnal or o Tapes
predominantly diurnal. o Plane-table alidade
SOURCE OF TIDAL INFORMATION o Sextant

1. TIDE TABLE Angles may be expressed in different ways, namely;

o Published by the government through o Bearing
the Bureau of Coast and Geodetic o Azimuth
Survey o Interior angles
o Compilation of tables of predicted time o Deflection angles
and height of high and low waters each o Angles to the right
day of the year for the tide stations of
the country. MEASUREMENT OF AREA
o The Philippines has 6 tide stations
Available methods are
» San Fernando, La Union
» Manila o Planimeter method
» Legaspi City o Double meridian-distance method
» Cebu City o Trapezoidal rule
» Davao City o By plotting the boundaries to scale and dividing
» Jolo, Sulu the tract into regular geometric figures

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TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY 2. PROVIDING ADEQUATE DRAINANGE

FACILITIES
o Determine the nature of the ground relief or its o Drainage facilities for a fish farm not
characteristics, such as only control the water level but should
» Difference in elevation also consider the requirement of
» Location and measurement of improving pond soils through periodic
boundaries draining and pond drying.
» Physical facilities 3. CREATING SUITABLE ENVIRONMENT FOR
o Topographic map provides the basic horizontal FISH AND ITS FOOD ORGANISMS
and vertical controls in the planning and design o Pond designing should be directed
of the fishpond. towards creating a suitable aquatic
o It determines the; environment to meet the maximum
» direction of water movement requirements for the growth of fish and
» locations of water control fish food organisms and
structures simultaneously to meet the minimum
» volume of earthwork and others. requirements for the rearing of fish.
POND DESIGNING AND LAYOUT

The designing criteria in the development of WATER QUALITY

aquaculture farm should be based on the following;
• Water is the second most important need for
1. PLANNED MANAGEMENT METHOD life to exist after air.
• “it is the physical, chemical, and biological
• the establishment and structure should create
characteristics of water”
an environment in which the production of
aquatic organisms can be improved in quantity • Measure of the condition of water relative to
and quality. the requirements of one or more biotic species
and or to any human need or purpose.
2. BIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
CLASSIFICATION OF WATER
• the environmental conditions best suited to the
growth of the cultured species should be • Ground water and surface water.
clarified. o Both can be exposed to contamination
risks from agricultural, industrial, and
3. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE AREA domestic activities, which may include
many types of pollutants such as
• flood, typhoon hazards, area contours and ▪ Heavy metals
other geographical features must be ▪ Pesticides
considered. ▪ Fertilizers
4. ECONOMIC AND ADMINISTRATIVE ▪ Hazardous chemicals
REQUIREMENTS ▪ Oils
1. POTABLE WATER
• the economic and administrative requirements o It is safe to drink
should be given due consideration from the o Pleasant to taste
engineering point of view. o Usable for domestic purposes
2. PALATABLE WATER
IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES OF POND DESIGNING o It is esthetically pleasing
1. QUANTIFYING THE WATER o It considers the presence of chemicals
REQUIREMENTS that do not cause a threat to human
o It is essential that the water health
requirement should be properly 3. CONTAMINATED WATER
estimated by considering the o It is the water containing unwanted
» Necessary pond water level physical, chemical, biological, or
» Water loss due to seepage and radiological substances
evaporation o Unfit for drinking or domestic use
» Water added due to rain 4. INFECTED WATER

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AQUACULTURE ENGINEERING
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o It is contaminated with pathogenic absorb more sun heat.

organism. Consequently, the
concentration of the dissolved
PARAMETERS OF WATER QUALITY oxygen (DO) can be
decreased since warm water
A. Physical Quality carries less dissolved oxygen
B. Chemical Quality than cold water.
C. Biological Quality o Measured by instrument called
nephelometric turbidimeter
PHYSICAL PARAMETERS OF WATER QUALITY
o Turbidity more than 5 NTU can be
1. TURBIDITY visible to the average person
o Cloudiness of water o Muddy water exceeds 100 NTU
o It is a measure of the ability of light to o Groundwater has very low turbidity due
pass through water. to natural filtration.
o Caused by suspended material such
as; [Link]
▪ Clay o Palatability, viscosity, solubility, odors,
▪ Silt and chemical reactions are influenced
▪ organic material by temperature.
▪ plankton and other particulate o Sedimentation and chlorination
material in water processes and biological oxygen
o impact of turbidity can be summarized demand are temp dependent.
in the following points o Affects the biosorption of the dissolved
▪ it can increase the cost of heavy metals in water.
water treatment for various o 10-15° most palatable
uses 3. COLOR
▪ the particulates can provide o Organic matter: vegetation and
hiding places for harmful inorganic matter: soil, stones and rock
microorganisms and thereby impart color to water
shield them from the o Measured by comparing the water
disinfection process sample with standard color solutions or
▪ suspended material can clog colored glass disks.
or damage fish gills, APPARENT COLOR
decreasing its resistance to o The entire water sample color and consists of
diseases, reducing its growth both dissolved and suspended components
rates, affecting egg and larval color.
maturing and affecting the TRUE COLOR
efficiency of fish catching o Measured after filtering the water sample to
method. remove all suspended material.
▪ Suspended particles provide o Color is graded on scale of 0 (clear) to
adsorption media for heavy 70 color units
metals such as; o Pure water is colorless (equal to 0 color
➢ Mercury units).
➢ Chromium
➢ Lead 4. TASTE AND ODOR
➢ Cadmium and o Can be caused by foreign matter such
➢ many hazardous as organic materials, inorganic
organic pollutants compounds or dissolved gasses.
such as o The numerical value of odor or taste is
➢ polychlorinated determined quantitatively by measuring
biphenyls (PCBs) a volume of sample A and diluting it with
➢ polycyclic aromatic a volume of sample B of an odor-free
hydrocarbons (PAHs) distilled water.
and many pesticides o TON or TTN = (A + B)/ A
▪ The amount of available food is o TON – threshold odor number
reduced because higher o TTN – threshold taste number
turbidity raises water
temperatures in light of the fact 5. SOLIDS
that suspended particles o Either solution or suspension

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These two types of solids can be identified by using a

glass fiber filter that the water sample passes through.
o Suspended solids are retained on the
top of the filter
o Dissolved solids pass through the filter
with the water.

o Total solid (TS) = Total dissolved solid

(TDS) + total suspended solids (TSS)
o Freshwater <1500 mg/L TDS
o Brackish water 1500-5000 mg/L TDS
o Saline water >5000 mg/L TDS
o The residue of TSS and TDS after
heating to dryness for a defined period
of time and at a specific temperature is
defined as fixed solids
o Volatile solids are those solids lost on
ignition (heating to 550°C)

TOTAL SOLIDS (mg/L) = [(TSA-TSB)] x 1000/sample (mL)

6. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
o Measure of the ability of a solution to
carry or conduct an electrical current.
o Conductivity increases as the
concentration of ions increases.
o It is one of the main parameters used
to determine the suitability of water
irrigation and firefighting.
▪ U.S. units = micromhos/cm
▪ S.I. units = milliSiemens/m
(mS/m) or dS/m
(deciSiemens/m)
where (mS/m) = 10 umho/cm (1000 μS/cm = 1 dS/m).

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o Pure water is not a good conductor of o Acidity of water is its quantitative

electricity. capacity to neutralize a strong base to
▪ Ultra-pure water: 5.5x10-6 S/m a selected pH level
▪ Drinking water: 0.005– o Usually due to carbon dioxide, mineral
0.05 S/m; acids and hydrolyzed salts such as
▪ Seawater: 5 S/m ferric and aluminum sulfates
o The electrical conductivity can be o carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or
used to estimate the TDS value of from the respiration of aquatic
water organisms causes acidity when
o TDS can be used to estimate the ionic dissolved in water by forming carbonic
strength of water in the applications of acid (H2CO3).
groundwater recharging by treated o
wastewater 3. ALKALINITY
o The normal method of measurement o Alkalinity of water is its acid-
is electrometric method neutralizing capacity comprised of the
total titratable bases.
CHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF WATER QUALITY o Determine the amount of lime and soda
needed for water softening.
1. pH o The high level of either acidity or
o the negative logarithm of the hydrogen alkalinity in water may be an indication
ion concentration. of industrial or chemical pollution.
o Dimensionless number indicating the o The acidity and alkalinity in natural
strength of an acidic or a basic solution waters provide a buffering action that
o Acidic water contains extra hydrogen protects fish and other aquatic
ions organisms from sudden changes in pH.
o Basic water contains extra hydroxyl o
ions. 4. CHLORIDE
o pH ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being o Chloride occurs naturally in
neutral. groundwater, streams, and lakes, but
o Less than 7 indicates acidity the presence of relatively high chloride
o Greater than 7 indicates base solution. concentration in freshwater (about
Pure water Neutral, close to 7.0 at 25° 250 mg/L or more) may indicate
Normal rainfall Approximately 5.6 (slightly acidic) wastewater pollution
Drinking water 6.5 – 8.5 safe range o Chlorides may enter surface water from
several sources including chloride-
containing rock, agricultural runoff, and
wastewater.
o It does not cause harmful effects on
public health, but high concentrations
can cause an unpleasant salty taste for
most people.
o however, the sodium part of table salt
has been connected to kidney and
heart diseases
5. CHLORIDE RESIDUAL
o Does not occur naturally in water but
is added to water and waste water for
disinfection.
o Chlorine is a toxic gas, in dilute
aqueous solution, it is not harmful to
human health.
o o Chlorine can react with organics in
water forming toxic compounds called
trihalomethanes or THMs, which are
2. ACIDITY carcinogens such as chloroform CHCl3
o Measure of acids in a solution o Chlorine residual is normally measured
by a color comparator test kit or
spectrophotometer
o

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AQUACULTURE ENGINEERING
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6. SULFATE BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OF WATER QUALITY

o Sulfate ions occur in natural water and
in wastewater. • One of the most helpful indicators of water
o If high concentration are consumed in quality may be the presence or lack of living
drinking water, there may be organisms.
objectionable tastes or unwanted • Biologists can survey fish and insect life of
laxative effects natural waters and assess the water quality on
o But there is no significant danger to the basis of a computed species diversity index
public health. (SDI).
7. NITROGEN • A water body with a large number of well-
o There are four nitrogen in water and balanced species is regarded as a healthy
wastewater system.
o Organic nitrogen • Some organisms can be used as an indication
o Ammonia nitrogen for the existence of pollutants based on their
o Nitrite nitrogen known tolerance for a specified pollutant
o Nitrate nitrogen
o A high concentration of nitrate in 1. BACTERIA
surface water can stimulate the rapid o Bacteria are considered to be single-
growth of the algae which degrades the celled plants because of their cell
water quality structure and the way they ingest food
o Nitrates can enter the groundwater o Three basic cell shapes
from chemical fertilizers used in the o Rod-shape or bacillus
agricultural areas o Sphere-shape or coccus
o nitrate ions react with blood o Spiral-shape or spirellus
hemoglobin, thereby reducing the o Bacteria that require oxygen for their
blood’s ability to hold oxygen which metabolism are called aerobic bacteria
leads to a disease called blue baby or o while those live only in an oxygen-free
methemoglobinemia environment are called anaerobic
o bacteria
8. FLUORIDE o facultative bacteria can live in either the
o A moderate amount of fluoride ions absence or the presence of oxygen.
(F−) in drinking water contributes to 2. ALGAE
good dental health. o Algae are microscopic plants, which
o The maximum allowable levels of contain photosynthetic pigments, such
fluoride in public water supplies as chlorophyll
depend on local climate. o They are autotrophic organisms and
o In the warmer regions of the country, support themselves by converting
the maximum allowable concentration inorganic materials into organic matter
of fluoride for potable water is by using energy from the sun, during
1.4 mg/L; in colder climates, up to this process they take in carbon dioxide
2.4 mg/L is allowed. and give off oxygen.
9. IRON AND MANGANESE o Algae are primarily nuisance
o organisms in the water supply because
10. COPPER AND ZINC of the taste and odor problems they
create
11. HARDNESS o
3. VIRUSES
12. DISSOLVED OXYGEN o Viruses are the smallest biological
structures known to contain all gene琀椀c
13. BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD) informa琀椀on necessary for their own
reproduc琀椀on
14. CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)
o They can only be seen by a powerful
15. TOXIC INORGANIC SUBSTANCES electronic microscope
o Viruses are parasites that need a host
16. TOXIC ORGANIC SUBSTANCES to live.
o They can pass through 昀椀lters that do
17. RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
not permit the passage of bacteria.

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o
4. PROTOZOA
o single-celled microscopic animal
o consume solid organic particles,
bacteria, and algae for food, and they
are in turn ingested as food by higher
level multicellular animals.
o Aquatic protozoa are floating freely in
water and sometimes called
zooplankton.
o They form cysts that are difficult to
inactivate by disinfection.

5. INDICATOR ORGANISMS
o Pathogenic coliforms always exist in
the intestinal system of humans, and
millions are excreted with body wastes.
o Consequently, water that has been
recently contaminated with sewage will
always contain coliform.
o A particular species of coliforms found
in domestic sewage is Escherichia coli
or E. coli
o There are roughly 3 million of E. coli
bacteria in 100 mL volume of untreated
sewage
5.1. TESTING FOR COLIFORMS:
MEMBRANE FILTER METHOD

WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS

o Water quality requirements differ depending on
the proposed used of water.
o Water quality requirements should be agreed
with the water quality standards, which are put
down by the governmental agency and
represent the legislation requirements.

THREE TYPES OF STANDARDS

a) In-stream
b) Potable water
c) Wastewater effluent

TOPIC
SUBTOPIC 1
SUBTOPIC 2
TYPE
Main idea
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