UC San Diego

UC San Diego Previously Published Works

Title
Recent Advances in Skin-Inspired Sensors Enabled by Nanotechnology

Permalink
[Link]

Journal
JOM, 64(7)

ISSN
1047-4838

Authors
Loh, Kenneth J
Azhari, Faezeh

Publication Date
2012-07-01

DOI
10.1007/s11837-012-0358-5

Peer reviewed

[Link] Powered by the California Digital Library

University of California
 Recent Advances in Skin-inspired Sensors Enabled by Nanotechnology
Kenneth J. Loh1,* and Faezeh Azhari1
1
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering
University of California, Davis, 95616-5294, USA
*
E-mail: kjloh@[Link]

Abstract
The highly optimized performance of nature’s creations and biological assemblies has inspired the
development of their bio-inspired artificial counterparts that can potentially outperform conventional
systems. In particular, the skin of humans, animals, and insects exhibit unique functionalities and
properties and has subsequently led to active research in developing skin-inspired sensors. This paper
presents a summary of selected work related to skin-inspired tactile, distributed strain, and artificial hair
cell flow sensors, with a particular focus on technologies enabled by recent advancements in the
nanotechnology domain. The purpose is not to present a comprehensive review on this broad subject
matter but rather to use selected work for outlining the diversity of current research activities.

Keywords: bio-inspired sensors; flow sensors; nanocomposite; nanotechnology; sensing; skin; smart
materials; tactile sensors.

1. Introduction
Nature’s creations, ranging from the most common household plants to large mammals such as
dolphins or humans, are complex designs optimized to survive and adapt to its surrounding environment.
Proteins, cells, microorganisms, and other functional structures are intricately weaved together to perform
specific purposes while working collectively to enable autonomous behaviors such as motor function
(e.g., swimming, running, and flying) and decision making for the living creature. It is the unique
functionalities performed by many living organisms that have historically inspired humans to mimic their
behavior for engineering applications [1].
Modern technology has enabled the design of complex and high performance biologically-inspired
systems such as morphing aircrafts [2], dynamic materials [3], control methodologies [4], algorithms [5],
and solar energy devices [6], among many others. Despite numerous attempts of biomimicry, most
artificial systems remain inferior to its natural counterparts and require expensive and tedious materials
processing. In addition, bio-inspired technology reaches beyond mimicking biological functionalities and
entails learning how nature assembles, organizes, and communicates with one another (e.g., ranging from
cellular activity at nano-/micro-scales to whale songs that can be received many miles away). It is not
until recently where the advent of nanotechnology has permitted the “bottom-up” assembly of molecules
similar to biological processes to form macro-scale devices. In addition, nanomaterials often possess
unique physical, mechanical, chemical, and electronic properties that greatly differ than their bulk state
[7]. Unlike micro-fabrication and micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) that miniaturize macro-scale
designs, nano-fabrication mimics biological processes and assembles materials starting at the molecular
length scale, one building block at a time, thereby permitting intricate designs that can outperform
current-generation devices [8].
In the specific case of sensors, nature has perfected biological assemblies and functionalities to enable
touch, visual, auditory, olfactory, and taste sensing among its diverse creations. A recent review by Bar-
Cohen [9] has highlighted important advancements in sensor technologies inspired by the aforementioned
biological senses. These bio-inspired sensors have the potential to revolutionize and find applications for
structural health monitoring/damage detection [10], environmental monitoring [11], tactile sensing [12],
and artificial muscles [13, 14], to name a few [15-17]. Equally high interests from funding agencies have
also driven research productivity in bio-inspired sensors (e.g., from the National Science Foundation
(NSF), United States Department of Defense (DoD), and Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA)). For example, NSF’s dedication to advancing bio-inspired research and promoting
international collaboration has led to several joint workshops (e.g., US-Taiwan in 2009, US-China in
2011, and US-Japan in 2011) [18].
The purpose of this summary paper is to highlight recent advances in sensors research inspired by the
skin of living creatures. In particular, the human dermatological system is an incredible and highly
optimized multifunctional material, where it is capable of protecting bodily organs, absorb nutrients,
regulate temperature, and sense the external environment [19]. While many existing technologies have
been inspired by the skin or surfaces of living creatures, this paper will showcase recent developments
and technological breakthroughs that have been made possible by materials and tools derived from the
nanotechnology domain. Topics that will be covered range from skin-inspired distributed sensors to
functional or smart surfaces. This paper is not meant to serve as an exhaustive review on the subject
matter but is rather intended to provide the reader with a broad overview by highlighting selected work.

2. Tactile and Distributed Sensing using Microelectronics

A unique and impressive functionality of human skin is its ability to perform densely distributed and
multi-modal sensing. Approximately 640,000 sensory receptors are distributed throughout the skin for
sensing bodily interactions with the outside world, such as changes in temperature and deformation [19].
In particular, human skin has inspired extensive research in developing biomimetic tactile sensors that can
measure contact pressure and shear strain, while simultaneously possessing skin-like mechanical
flexibility. Lee and Nicholls [12] has compiled a comprehensive review on tactile sensor state-of-art
research up to 1999. These tactile sensors can find applications for robotics, biomedical prosthetics, and
industrial automation, among others [12]. Investigations of biomimetic tactile sensors have focused on
incorporating discrete piezoresistive [20], piezoelectric [21], capacitive [22], or micro-electronic elements
[23] in a flexible and compliant matrix. An updated review has been presented by Yousef et al. [24] in
2011, and the review showcases new technological advancements in conductive fluids [25], polymers [26],
elastomer composites [27, 28], and micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS)-based devices [29], among
others, for tactile sensing. An overview of the diverse types of tactile sensors is presented in this section.
One of the most actively studied types of tactile sensors involves the embedment of miniaturized
microelectronic systems within a flexible skin-like membrane or film. Xu et al. [23] has fabricated a shear
stress sensor skin for monitoring flow separation on the leading edge of unmanned aerial vehicles. The
sensing element is based on resistive heating of poly-silicon/nitride diaphragms (using constant current
mode) that are embedded in a flexible polyimide matrix. A 36-channel array of the skin has been
implemented on the leading edge of a delta-wing structure during wind tunnel and flight tests, and the
results confirm the measurement of shear stress topography and flow separation. Someya et al. [30] has
also developed flexible electronic artificial skins (E-skin) that feature thermal (i.e., organic diodes) and
pressure sensors (i.e., organic transistors) distributed throughout its net-like structure. Each type of sensor
can be assembled to form 12 x 12 transistor arrays and then laminated over one another to form a multi-
modal distributed sensor. The test results confirm mapping of the temperature and pressure distributions
due to a heated copper block placed diagonally on the E-skin. Technologies like the E-skin and flexible
films with embedded piezoresistor micro-sensors for force sensing are suitable for use in artificial or
robotic hands [31]. Arrays of MEMS force sensors have also been embedded in a patterned polymer
robotic fingertip for sensing different surface textures and roughness [32]. Flexible tactile sensors have
also been implemented on the RI-MAN human-interactive robot’s chest and arms for sensing and
manipulating a dummy human load [33].
Tactile sensing has also been achieved with capacitive micro-sensor elements such as sensor arrays
based on silicon diaphragm-based capacitive transducers [22]. Cheng et al. [34] has also used
micromachining for fabricating pseudo-parallel-plate capacitive normal and shear sensor arrays with
floating electrodes that rest on a flexible poly(dimethyl siloxane) (PDMS) structure. Prototypes featuring
8 x 8 sensor arrays have been fabricated and tested in the laboratory; the system features a force sensing
resolution of 26 mN and a maximum sensitivity of 1.67%-mN-1. Similarly, MEMS-based capacitive
tactile sensor arrays have also been packaged in PDMS [35], and bare and PDMS-packaged sensors
exhibit force sensitivities of 0.035 pF-mN-1 and 0.068 fF-mN-1, respectively [29]. On the other hand,
Tiwana et al. [36] has presented a different capacitive tactile sensor that uses vertical pillars encased in
pinkysil silicone elastomer for sensing shear. Lateral displacement of the protruding pillar causes
measureable changes in device capacitance, and the sensor exhibits near-linear sensitivity to applied
force, as have been verified experimentally and via numerical modeling using COMSOL. In addition to
capacitive-based sensors, tactile sensing elements based on piezoelectric polymers like poly(vinylidene
fluoride) (PVDF) have also been successfully demonstrated, as have been done by Dahiya et al. [21],
Jamali and Sammut [26], and Drimus and Bilberg [37], to name a few. Maheshwari and Saraf [38] has also
developed an electro-optical thin film tactile sensor based on gold and cadmium sulfide (CdS)
nanoparticles. The multilayered thin film’s electro-luminescence and current density are linearly related
to applied stress. It has also been shown that a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera can capture the
electro-luminescent light of the thin film tactile sensor to achieve direct pressure/stress imaging of
different objects (e.g., a penny) [38].

3. Distributed Strain Sensing using Nanocomposites

Among the wide selection of nanomaterials, carbon nanotubes (CNT) [39] have attracted significant
research interest due to their unique material properties [40] and diverse applications [41, 42]. Khare and
Bose [43] and Kang et al. [44] have compiled comprehensive reviews of CNT synthesis methodologies,
their impressive material properties, and applications for sensing [45]. Despite their advantages, their
nano-scale physical properties and tendency to agglomerate make them inherently challenging to use as is
[46]. Thus, numerous methods have been used to incorporate carbon nanotubes in flexible matrices for
achieving nanocomposite-based skin-like distributed sensors. Examples of fabrication methods include
polymer casting [47], epoxy molding [48], spin coating [49], buckypaper [50], layer-by-layer [51],
evaporation [52], and spraying [53], among many others [54]. The incorporation of CNTs within a
nanocomposite architecture permits tuning of material properties [55], encoding of electro-mechanical
sensing capabilities [56], while simultaneously achieving mechanical flexibility similar to skin. In fact,
Sinha et al. [57], Mahar et al. [58], and Li et al. [59] have assembled comprehensive reviews of CNT-
based nanocomposite sensors and actuators.
An effective way of taking advantage of carbon nanotube’s unique material properties is to embed
them in the flexible epoxy matrices as part of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites. Park et al. [60]
has compared the electro-mechanical response of carbon nanotube-, carbon nanofiber-, and carbon black-
based epoxy composites. The mechanical response (i.e., tensile strength and modulus) and damage
sensitivity of CNT/epoxy is the highest among the three different sample sets tested (i.e., given the same
concentration of nanomaterials embedded, which is 2.0 vol.%). Thostenson and Chou [48, 61, 62] has
shown that effective dispersions of CNTs in epoxy can produce conductive epoxy-based composites, and
even the incorporation of 0.1 wt.% CNTs has resulted in a percolated composite structure with
deformation/strain sensing capabilities. In addition to demonstrating linear strain sensing performance
[61], CNT-modified epoxy composites can also be used for monitoring delamination and micro-cracks, as
have also been found by Böger et al. [63], Nofar et al. [64], and Kostopoulous et al. [65]. Li and Chou [66]
has also used two-dimensional finite element models to validate the CNT/epoxy’s electrical resistance
sensitivity to deformation and damage. On the other hand, Anand and Mahapatra [67] has used models
and experiments to show that CNT/epoxy composites that also incorporate carbon black nanoparticles
possess nonlinear strain sensitivity under quasi-static loading. Strain sensitivity has been shown to be
dependent on the oscillation frequency during dynamic testing. Epoxy resins modified with carbon black
alone have also been validated for their piezoresistivity [68]. Besides sensing, Rajoria and Jalili [69] has
shown that CNT/epoxy composites can also possess improved energy dissipation characteristics (i.e.,
multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWNT)-based epoxy composites possess damping ratios up to 700%
higher than pristine epoxy-based specimens). Yun et al. [70] has also demonstrated CNT/epoxy
composites for actuation.
Another very active research area is to enable skin-like strain sensing capabilities using CNT-based
thin films. Early investigation by Dharap et al. [71] has shown that single-walled carbon nanotube (SWNT)
mats or buckypapers possess linear piezoresistivity (i.e., thin film electrical resistivity changes due to
applied strain) up to 0.04% strain. Kang et al. [72] has also assembled SWNT-based buckypaper as well
as SWNT/polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)-casted films. Quasi-static and dynamic cantilevered beam
tests have been conducted, and the results show that both types of films are capable of monitoring strain
and possess high strain sensitivities (or gage factors up to ~5 and ~7 for the PMMA-based films and
buckypapers, respectively). This study has also been extended for crack detection and corrosion
monitoring using a sprayed-on CNT-neuron thin film [53], although even higher strain sensitivities of
PMMA-based films (up to ~15) has been achieved by Pham et al. [47]. Loh et al. [51, 73] has also shown
that SWNT-based films assembled using layer-by-layer self-assembly exhibit linear piezoresistivity up to
1% strains, and its strain sensitivity can also be readily controlled by modifying carbon nanotube
concentrations during fabrication [74]. These layer-by-layer films have also been embedded in FRP
composites for embedded strain monitoring and damage detection [75]. Park et al. [76] has shown that
CNT/polyethylene oxide films change their resistance linearly to applied strains up to 0.8%, and the film
can be used to monitor strains up to 7%. However, it is Chang et al. [77] that has achieved gage factors of
up to 269 by growing and suspending individual nanotubes over patterned trenches on a flexible substrate.
Films fabricated with other techniques such as epoxy mixing [67, 78], in situ polymerization [79-81],
compression molding [82], vacuum filtration [83-85], casting [86], and heat treatment [87], or ones based
on different polymer matrices [88-91], have also been validated for their piezoresistivity. It should be
mentioned that since CNTs are embedded in polymeric thin films, their mechanical response may be
viscoelastic by nature, as have been characterized by Suhr et al. [92] and Zhao et al. [93]. These
CNT/polymer-based thin films have also been demonstrated for actuation [94-102].
Skin-like distributed strain sensing has been achieved by Hou et al. [103] and Loh et al. [104], where
piezoresistive carbon nanotube-based thin films (fabricated using layer-by-layer assembly) have been
coupled with an electrical impedance tomography (EIT) algorithm. In short, EIT utilizes boundary
electrical measurements for solving the inverse problem that enables mapping of a conductive body’s
two- or three-dimensional electrical conductivity (or resistivity) map [105, 106]. Since the electrical
properties of layer-by-layer films have been shown to be linearly correlated to strain [51, 74], the spatial
conductivity maps directly reveal the strain distributions as measured by the carbon nanotube-based thin
films. Hou et al. [103] has validated these “sensing skin’s” ability of measuring the location of etched
regions on a film surface and has applied EIT for sensing changes in pH on a carbon
nanotube/polyaniline-based film (Fig. 1). Continued work by Loh et al. [104] has demonstrated that this
technique can effectively identify the location and severity of impact damage on a sensing skin-coated
aluminum plate (Fig. 2). Spatial corrosion monitoring and wireless data acquisition has also been
achieved [107]. Similarly, Alirezaei et al. [108] has designed and fabricated a pressure-sensitive
conductive knitted fabric, and the fabric has been applied onto a physical model of a human face. The
fabric and EIT algorithm has been validated for sensing pressure applied to different locations on the
fabric and human face. Continued research has also shown that the system is able to measure dynamic
pressure and deformation [109]. The advantage of using EIT is that spatial information can be obtained
from boundary electrical measurements instead of probing every location on the sensor surface. While
EIT for bio-inspired skin sensors is still in its early stages of development, it should be noted that EIT has
been long used for biomedical applications such as lung disorders [110] and breast cancer [111] diagnosis.
Also, EIT is not the only method for spatial sensing; researchers such as Zunino [112] has developed
multilayered smart coatings and nanocomposites that change their color in response to deformation or
corrosion.
Instead of using continuous sensing materials and techniques like EIT, an alternative approach to
create bio-inspired sensing skins is to use densely distributed sensors with wireless data acquisition and
transmission capabilities. For instance, Tata et al. [113] has designed strain-sensitive patch antennas and
has fabricated them on flexible polyimide/Kapton substrates. Applied strain changes the geometry of the
patch antenna, which ultimately causes a shift in the antenna’s resonant frequency, and the backscattered
signal can be interrogated and measured wirelessly using a horn antenna (Fig. 3). The results demonstrate
linear variations in sensor resonant frequency with applied strains, and the sensor’s in-plane strain
sensitivity is ~15 kHz--1 for both orthogonal directions. Yi et al. [114] has fabricated and tested a radio
frequency identification (RFID)-based folded patch antenna for strain monitoring. Again, sensor resonant
frequency varies linearly with strain, and the sensitivity is approximately -750 Hz--1. These sensors can
be interrogated as far as 24 in (or 61 cm) away. Other RFID-based wireless strain sensors have also been
validated by integrating SWNT-based thin films with an inductive coil antenna [115, 116].

4. Flow Sensing
Nature also offers many examples where organisms (such as fish, insects, and humans) are capable of
monitoring fluid flow fields in their vicinity using hairy surface structures. For instance, the spatially-
distributed lateral line system in various aquatic species can detect slow, uniform motions as well as
rapidly changing motions and is able to integrate and segregate spatial information through velocity-
sensitive superficial sensory organs (neuromasts) and acceleration- or pressure-gradient-sensitive canal
neuromasts, respectively [117]. The lateral line system not only can provide information on both large-
scale stimuli and fine spatial details, but it has also evolved to ensure improved signal-to-noise ratios in
different unexpected and expected behavioral contexts. Coombs [117] has reviewed the information
processing capabilities of the lateral line mechanosensory system with the objective of potentially
applying its design features and neural processing algorithms to aquatic robots to enhance their ability in
maneuvering, surveying, and manipulating objects in foreign, dark, and turbulent environments. Another
example is human hairs (cilia) which have the capability to detect minute changes in the direction and
magnitude of fluid flow [118]. Similarly, crickets are naturally equipped with sensory filiform hairs for
monitoring slight changes in low frequency acoustic signals and for detecting movements (i.e.,
displacements) of nearby predators [119]. Inspired by natural hair cells and their diversity, recent studies
have aimed at developing flow sensors that mimic the mechanisms evolved and perfected in sensory
hairs. Artificial hair cells (AHCs) perform electro-mechanical transduction [120] in response to air or fluid
flow similar to the way tilting of biological hair cells results in neuronal electrical signals [121].
Natural sensory hairs are small and exist in arrays, which make them ideal for flow sensing; their
small size enables them to optimally interact with their surroundings without creating any interference,
while their abundance enhances their spatial flow detection. Only recently has technology advanced in
micro- and nano-scale materials and circuits that have provided researchers with the tools for fabricating
artificial hair cells with dimensions comparable to those of biological species. The trajectory of these
developments will likely lead to flow sensors almost as robust and sensitive as those found in nature. For
instance, whiskers are effectively used by animals for sensing their environment and surroundings.
Recognizing this ability, Scholz and Rahn [122] has developed flexible actuated whiskers that can be used
for shape identification of swept objects. These sensors can potentially be used for obstacle avoidance and
object identification in unstructured environments such as harsh and murky underwater conditions [122].
 While Scholz and Rahn [122] has developed active artificial whiskers, Liu [123] has developed
various generations of passive AHC sensors. One rendition of their AHC sensors can detect two-axis
deflection and consists of a polyurethane hair sitting over carbon-impregnated polyurethane force
sensitive resistors (FSRs), the conductivity of which changes as a function of mechanical stress [124]. In
another study, AHC sensors using photo-definable SU-8 epoxy as the cilium have been introduced.
Through piezoresistive sensing, these highly directional sensors can detect flow velocities in water and air
with high accuracy and sensitivity [121]. A recent review by Nawi et al. [125] presents the broad spectrum
of AHC-based flow sensors.
Comparable studies have also been performed by various researchers focusing on the sensory
capabilities of the filiform hairs of crickets as inspiration for developing next-generation biomimetic flow
sensors. Dijkstra et al. [126] and Wiegerink et al. [119] have designed and realized 1 mm-long arrays of
SU-8 photoresist hairs and have successfully demonstrated their viability and sensitivity as flow sensors
through capacitive measurements. Viscous drag acting on the artificial hair causes tilting in a membrane,
which in turn induces capacitance change. To date, an array of 144 columns each supported on an
individual membrane and connected in parallel has been successfully fabricated to increase the sensor’s
flow sensitivity. The flow can thus be measured by differentially determining the changes in capacitance
and acquiring the corresponding displacement angle [119]. Similar hair structures on flexible SU-8
membranes inspired by lateral lines in fish have also been studied for distributed flow sensing [127].
Sarles et al. [120] have used a gel-supported lipid bilayer as the transduction element in their AHC
sensors, which is inspired by membrane structures in mammalian hearing. The physical structure
incorporates a polymeric hydrogel synthetic fiber (as the hair structure). The properties of the measured
current across the bilayer, induced by cilia vibration due to air flow, can be directly correlated to the
trans-membrane voltage, flow rate, and hair dimensions [120]. On the hand, the stimuli-responsive dermis
of sea cucumbers have been the inspiration for developing a new series of mechanically dynamic
nanocomposites, using cotton cellulose whiskers, that change their mechanical properties when exposed
to thermal and chemical stimuli [128].
While polymer-based sensors are more mechanically robust, silicon-based sensors provide superior
sensitivity [123]. Silicon nanowire sensors have been configured as field-effect sensor by Kim et al. [129]
for flow velocity measurements. Nanowire conductance changes in response to modifications in the
streaming potential, which is due to changes in the flow velocity. These sensors can not only probe flow
velocity but can also distinguish different electrolytic solutions and their ionic strength [129]. Tonisch et
al. [130] have drawn on a bottom-up approach in their proposal and development of nanowire nano-
electromechanical flow sensors, in which freestanding nanowires on top of a AlGaN/GaN heterostructure
are deflected due to flow, causing strain, and thus resistance change. On the other hand, inspired by inner
ear’s cochlea and cilia, McGary et al. [131] has fabricated artificial cilia transducers using
magnetostrictive nanowires that magnetically respond to bending loads. Special attention has been given
to Galfenol nanowires as they are able to retain appreciable magnetostriction in both tension and
compression [131]. These Galfenol nanowires have been coupled with giant magnetoresistive sensors for
acoustic sensing [132]. Alternatively, Lin et al. [133] has adopted a hydrothermal synthesis method and
has successfully grown vertically-aligned piezoelectric lead zirconate titanate (PZT) nanowire forests.
The aligned nanowires exhibit potential for flow sensing or even actuation applications, particularly
because PZT nanowire strain coupling coefficients are two orders of magnitude higher as compared to
ones based on zinc oxide. In fact, Yu et al. [134] has shown that piezoelectric micro-fibers have the
potential for use as real-time flow sensors. Research is ongoing for developing higher performance flow
sensors and to apply these technologies for various applications [135-137].
Similar to Section 4, carbon nanotubes have also attracted attention and have been applied for
fabricating novel flow sensors. Early studies by Ghosh et al. [138] has revealed that SWNT bundles
respond to water flow by a corresponding flow-induced voltage. A logarithmic relationship between
laminar flow velocity and generated voltage has been experimentally [138] and theoretically confirmed
[139]. Liu et al. [140] has conducted an extended study investigating SWNT and MWNT arrays as well as
how their relative alignment with respect to flow affects the measured flow-induced voltages. It has been
found that aligned nanotubes can generate up to 70 times higher voltage (i.e., for a sample subjected to
water flowing at 0.0005 m-s-1), and SWNTs have generated higher voltages versus MWNTs. In addition,
these nanotubes have also been subjected to NaCl solutions flowing at different velocities, and it has been
found that there is a linear relationship between flow-induced voltages and NaCl concentrations (i.e., for a
fixed flow velocity). Instead of using pristine nanotubes, Cao et al. [141] has verified that flow sensing is
possible using SWNT/PDMS composite thin films. Pinto et al. [142] has also studied the flow sensing
response of PDMS-based films embedded with SWNTs and single-walled nanohorns (SWNH). Electrical
impedance spectroscopy has been conducted for characterizing sample response to air and fluid exposure,
and small changes in sensor voltage has been measured due to varying flow conditions.

5. Smart Surfaces
In addition to the aforementioned skin- and cilia-inspired sensors, a plethora of other bio-inspired
“smart” surfaces have been developed, as have been summarized by Singh et al. [143] and Xia and Jiang
[144]. For example, the ability of lizards and geckos to climb and attach to various surfaces has inspired
the development of reversible and highly adhesive functional surfaces [145]. The ability of biological
creatures to attach and detach from surfaces is due to their unique nano-/micro-hair structures, which has
subsequently inspired the investigation of artificial hair structures for smart adhesives [146]. Bhushan and
Sayer [147] has fabricated polyvinylsilaxane micro-pillars and has shown that such structured surfaces are
characterized by enhanced static and kinetic coefficients of friction and roughness for greater surface
adhesion. Similarly, the adhesion response of polyurethane microfiber arrays have also been studied by
Aksak et al. [148]. Murphy et al. [149] has demonstrated that arrays of angled “mushroom-tipped”
microfibers exhibit anisotropic adhesive properties. Enhanced adhesion can be achieved from a particular
orientation, whereas peeling can be attained in the opposite direction, which is similar to the repeatable
and reversible adhesive properties of gecko’s feet. A numerical approach using the classical JKR model
for investigating the reversible adhesion and detachment of a rigid cylinder in contact with an isotropic
elastic surface at different angles has been performed by Chen and Gao [150]. More recently, polymeric
nanohairs have also been investigated [151]. Continued future research in smart adhesives can lead to the
development of gecko-inspired robots, such as the mobile wireless sensing robot (which is equipped with
magnetic wheels rather than smart adhesives) that has been designed by Zhu et al. [152]. While this
section has only presented selected work relevant to smart reusable adhesive surfaces, it should be
mentioned that countless other bio-inspired surfaces are also being actively studied. For examples, lotus
leaf-inspired super-hydrophobic and/or self-cleaning surfaces have gained widespread attention [153-155].
Other examples include, anti-reflective [156], self-healing [157], ultra-strong [158], adaptive [159], and
other functional surfaces [160].

6. Conclusions
In summary, this paper has highlighted recent research on skin-inspired sensors that take advantage of
nanotechnology derived materials and fabrication tools. The scope of this paper has been limited to
presenting an overview of tactile sensors for robotic systems, distributed strain sensors for strain
monitoring and damage detection, flow sensors for environmental sensing, and smart adhesive surfaces.
In general, a wealth of other skin-inspired sensors have also been investigated, namely systems that are
capable of achieving self-cleaning, self-healing, actuation, and ones that can morph/adapt due to various
external applied stimuli. It is expected that bio-inspired sensors research will continue to expand,
especially with the discovery of new materials, fabrication methodologies, and enhanced understanding of
fundamental nano-scale physics and chemistry. In parallel to these engineering advancements, a more in-
depth understanding of biological systems and their assemblies will be just as important for creating new
opportunities for scientific and technological breakthroughs in bio-inspired sensor research.

7. References
[1] Bar-Cohen, Y., ed., Biomimetics: Biologically Inspired Technologies, CRC Press: Boca Raton,
FL (2006).
[2] Barbarino, S., Bilgen, O., Ajaj, R.M., Friswell, M.I. and Inman, D.J., "A Review of Morphing
Aircraft," Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, 22(9), 823-877 (2011).
[3] Mohammed, J.S. and Murphy, W.L., "Bioinspired Design of Dynamic Materials," Advanced
Materials, 21(23), 2361 -2374 (2009).
[4] Siddique, N.H. and Amavasai, B.P., "Bio-Inspired Behaviour-Based Control," Artificial
Intelligence Review, 27(2), 131-147 (2007).
[5] Potvin, J.-Y., "A Review of Bio-Inspired Algorithms for Vehicle Routing," Studies in
Computational Intelligence, 161, 1-34 (2009).
[6] Boghossain, A.A., Ham, M.-H., Choi, J.H. and Strano, M.S., "Biomimetic Strategies for Solar
Energy Conversion: A Technical Perspective," Energy and Environmental Science, 4(10), 3834-
3843 (2011).
[7] Devreese, J.T., "Importance of Nanosensors: Feynman's Vision and the Birth of
Nanotechnology," MRS Bulletin, 32(9), 718-724 (2007).
[8] Hierold, C., "From Micro- to Nanosystems: Mechanical Sensors Go Nano," Journal of
Micromechanics and Microengineering, 14(9), S1-S11 (2004).
[9] Bar-Cohen, Y., "Biological Senses as Inspiring Model for Biomimetic Sensors," IEEE Sensors
Journal, 11(12), 3194-3201 (2011).
[10] Ou, J. and Li, H., "Structural Health Monitoring in Mainland China: Review and Future Trends,"
Structural Health Monitoring, 9(3), 219-231 (2010).
[11] Krantz-Rulcker, C., Stenberg, M., Winquist, F. and Lundstrom, I., "Electronic Tongues for
Environmental Monitoring Based on Sensor Arrays and Pattern Recognition: A Review,"
Analytica Chimica Acta, 426(2), 217-226 (2001).
[12] Lee, M.H. and Nicholls, H.R., "Review Article Tactile Sensing for Mechatronics—a State of the
Art Survey," Mechatronics, 9(1), 1-31 (1999).
[13] Bar-Cohen, Y., "Artificial Muscles Based on Electroactive Polymers as an Enabling Tool in
Biomimetics " Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, 221(10), 1149-1156 (2007).
[14] Shahinpoor, M., Bar-Cohen, Y., Simpson, J.O. and Smith, J., "Ionic Polymer-Metal Composites
(Ipmcs) as Biomimetic Sensors, Actuators and Artificial Muscles - a Review," Smart Materials
and Structures, 7(6), R15-R30 (1998).
[15] Stroble, J.K., Stone, R.B. and Watkins, S.E., "An Overview of Biomimetic Sensor Technology,"
Sensor Review, 29(2), 112-119 (2009).
[16] Kindschy, L.M. and Alocija, E.C., "A Review of Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Biosensor
Development for Food and Agricultural Applications," Transactions of the ASABE, 47(4), 1375-
1382 (2004).
[17] Bogue, R., "Inspired by Nature: Developments in Biomimetic Sensors," Sensor Review, 29(2),
107-111 (2009).
[18] Baba, Y., Kitamori, T., Lynch, J.P. and Tomizuka, M., "Us-Japan Workshop on Bio-Inspired
Engineering of Next-Generation Sensors and Actuators," Proceedings of US-Japan Workshop on
Bio-inspired Engineering of Next-Generation Sensors and Actuators, (2011).
[19] Schmidt, R.F., Fundamentals of Sensory Physiology, edn., Springer: New York, NY (1986).
[20] Beebe, D.J., Hsieh, A.S., Denton, D.D. and Radwin, R.G., "A Silicon Force Sensor for Robotics
and Medicine," Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, 50(1-2), 5-65 (1995).
[21] Dahiya, R.S., Valle, M., Metta, G. and Lorenzelli, L., "Bio Inspired Tactile Sensing Arrays,"
Proceedings of SPIE Bioengineered and Bioinspired Systems IV, 7365, 73650D/73651-73659
(2009).
[22] Muhammad, H.B., Oddo, C.M., Beccai, L., Adams, M.J., Carrozza, M.C., Hukins, D.W. and
Ward, M.C., "Development of a Biomimetic Mems Based Capacitive Tactile Sensor," Procedia
Chemistry, 1(1), 124-127 (2009).
[23] Xu, Y., Jiang, F., Newbern, S., Huang, A., Ho, C.-M. and Tai, Y.-C., "Flexible Shear-Stress
Sensor Skin and Its Application to Unmanned Aerial Vehicles," Sensors and Actuators A:
Physical, 105(3), 321-329 (2003).
[24] Yousef, H., Boukallei, M. and Althoefer, K., "Tactile Sensing for Dexterous in-Hand
Manipulation in Robotics - a Review," Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, 167(2), 171-187
(2011).
[25] Wettels, N., Santos, V.J., Johansson, R.S. and Loeb, G.E., "Biomimetic Tactile Sensor Array,"
Advanced Robotics, 22(8), 829-849 (2008).
[26] Jamali, N. and Sammut, C., "Material Classification by Tactile Sensing Using Surface Textures,"
Proceedings of 2010 IEEE Conference on Robotics and Automation, 2336-2341 (2010).
[27] Ventrelli, L., Beccai, L., Mattoli, V., Menciassi, A. and Dario, P., "Development of a Stretchable
Skin-Like Tactile Sensor Based on Polymeric Composites," Proceedings of 2009 IEEE
International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics, 123-128 (2009).
[28] Wang, L., Ding, T. and Wang, P., "Effects of Instantaneous Compression Pressure on Electrical
Resistance of Carbon Black Filled Silicone Rubber Composite During Compressive Stress
Relaxation," Composites Science and Technology, 68, 3448-3450 (2008).
[29] Muhammad, H.B., Oddo, C.M., Beccai, L., Recchiuto, C., Anthony, C.J., Adams, M.J., Carrozza,
M.C., Hukins, D.W.L. and Ward, M.C.L., "Development of a Bioinspired Mems Based
Capacitive Tactile Sensor for a Robotic Finger," Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, 165(2), 221-
229 (2011).
[30] Someya, T., Kato, Y., Sekitani, T., Iba, S., Noguchi, Y., Murase, Y., Kawaguchi, H. and Sakurai,
T., "Conformable, Flexible, Large-Area Networks of Pressure and Thermal Sensors with Organic
Transistor Active Matrixes," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, 102(35), 12321-12325 (2005).
[31] Beccai, L., Roccella, S., Ascari, L., Valdastri, P., Sieber, A., Carrozza, M.C. and Dario, P.,
"Development and Experimental Analysis of a Soft Compliant Tactile Microsensor for
Anthropomorphic Artificial Hand," IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, 13(2), 158-168
(2008).
[32] Oddo, C.M., Beccai, L., Muscolo, G.G. and Carrozza, M.C., "A Biomimetic Mems-Based Tactile
Sensor Array with Fingerprints Integrated in a Robotic Fingertip for Artificial Roughness
Encoding," Proceedings of 2009 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics,
894-900 (2009).
[33] Mukai, T., Onishi, M., Odashima, T., Hirano, S. and Luo, Z., "Development of the Tactile Sensor
System of a Human-Interactive Robot "Ri-Man"," IEEE Transactions on Robotics, 24(2), 505-
512 (2008).
[34] Cheng, M.-Y., Lin, C.-L., Lai, Y.-T. and Yang, Y.-J., "A Polymer-Based Capacitive Sensing
Array for Normal and Shear Force Measurement," Sensors, 10(11), 10211-10225 (2010).
[35] Muhammad, H.B., Recchiuto, C., Oddo, C.M., Beccai, L., Anthony, C.J., Adams, M.J., Carrozza,
M.C. and Ward, M.C.L., "A Capacitive Tactile Sensor Array for Surface Texture
Discrimination," Microelectronic Engineering, 88(8), 1811-1813 (2011).
[36] Tiwana, M.I., Shashank, A., Redmond, S.J. and Lovell, N.H., "Characterization of a Capacitive
Tactile Shear Sensor for Applications in Robotic and Upper Limb Prostheses," Sensors and
Actuators A: Physical, 165, 164-172 (2011).
[37] Drimus, A. and Bilberg, A., "Novel Approaches for Bio-Inspired Mechano-Sensors," Intelligent
Robotics and Applications, 7102, 12-23 (2011).
[38] Maheshwari, V. and Saraf, R.F., "High-Resolution Thin-Film Device to Sense Texture by
Touch," Science, 312(5779), 1501-1504 (2006).
[39] Iijima, S., "Helical Microtubules of Graphitic Carbon," Nature, 354(6348), 56-58 (1991).
[40] Saito, R., Dresselhaus, G. and Dresselhaus, M.S., Physical Properties of Carbon Nanotubes, edn.,
Imperial College Press: London (1998).
[41] Baughman, R.H., Zakhidov, A.A. and De Heer, W.A., "Carbon Nanotubes-the Route toward
Applications," Science, 297(5582), 787-792 (2002).
[42] Harris, P.J.F., Carbon Nanotube Science : Synthesis, Properties and Applications, [Rev. and
updated edn., Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK ; New York (2009).
[43] Khare, R. and Bose, S., "Carbon Nanotube Based Composites - a Review," Journal of Minerals &
Materials Characterization & Engineering, 4(1), 31-46 (2005).
[44] Kang, I., Heung, Y.Y., Kim, J.H., Lee, J.W., Gollapudi, R., Subramaniam, S., Narasimhadevara,
S., Hurd, D., Kirikera, G.R., Shanov, V., Schulz, M.J., Shi, D., Boerio, J., Mall, S. and Ruggles-
Wren, M., "Introduction to Carbon Nanotubes and Nanofiber Smart Materials," Composites: Part
B, 37(6), 382-394 (2006).
[45] Fam, D.W.H., Palaniappan, A., Tok, A.I.Y., Liedberg, B. and Moochhala, S.M., "A Review on
Technological Aspects Influencing Commercialization of Carbon Nanotube Sensors," Sensors
and Actuators B: Chemical, 157(1), 1-7 (2011).
[46] Mackay, M.E., Tuteja, A., Hawker, P.M.D.C.J., Van Horn, B., Guan, Z., Chen, G. and Krishman,
R.S., "General Strategies for Nanoparticle Dispersion," Science, 311(5768), 1740-1743 (2006).
[47] Pham, G.T., Park, Y.-B., Liang, Z., Zhang, C. and Wang, B., "Processing and Modeling of
Conductive Thermoplastic/Carbon Nanotube Films for Strain Sensing," Composites Part B, 39,
209-216 (2008).
[48] Thostenson, E.T. and Chou, T.-W., "Aligned Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotube-Reinforced
Composites: Processing and Mechanical Characterization," Journal of Physics D, 35(16), L77-80
(2002).
[49] Yim, J.H., Kim, Y.S., Koh, K.H. and Lee, S., "Fabrication of Transparent Single Wall Carbon
Nanotube Films with Low Sheet Resistance," Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B,
26(2), 851-855 (2008).
[50] Vemuru, S.M., Wahi, R., Nagarajaiah, S. and Ajayan, P.M., "Strain Sensing Using a Multiwalled
Carbon Nanotube Film," Journal of Strain Analysis for Engineering Design, 44(7), 555-562
(2009).
[51] Loh, K.J., Kim, J.H., Lynch, J.P., Kam, N.W.S. and Kotov, N.A., "Multifunctional Layer-by-
Layer Carbon Nanotube-Polyelectrolyte Thin Films for Strain and Corrosion Sensing," Smart
Materials and Structures, 16(2), 429-438 (2007).
[52] Dinh-Trong, N., Steitz, J., Lei, B. and Kanoun, O., "Influence of the Composition of Mwcnts
Layers on the Properties of Strain Gauges," Proceedings of 9th IEEE Conference on
Nanotechnology, 477-480 (2009).
[53] Kang, I., Lee, J.W., Choi, G.R., Jung, J.Y., Hwang, S.-H., Choi, Y.-S., Yoon, K.J. and Schulz,
M.J., "Structural Health Monitoring Based on Electrical Impedance of a Carbon Nanotube
Neuron," Key Engineering Materials, 321-323, 140-145 (2006).
[54] Breuer, O. and Sundararaj, U., "Big Returns from Small Fibers: A Review of Polymer/Carbon
Nanotube Composites," Polymer Composites, 5(6), 630-645 (2004).
[55] Coleman, J.N., Khan, U. and Gun'ko, Y.K., "Mechanical Reinforcement of Polymers Using
Carbon Nanotubes," Advanced Materials, 18(6), 689-706 (2006).
[56] Winey, K.I., Kashiwagi, T. and Mu, M., "Improving Electrical Conductivity and Thermal
Properties of Polymers by the Addition of Carbon Nanotubes as Fillers," MRS Bulletin, 32(4),
348-353 (2007).
[57] Sinha, N., Ma, J. and Yeow, J.T.W., "Carbon Nanotube-Based Sensors," Journal of Nanoscience
and Nanotechnology, 6(3), 573-590 (2006).
[58] Mahar, B., Laslau, C., Yip, R. and Sun, Y., "Development of Carbon Nanotube-Based Sensors—
a Review," IEEE Sensors Journal, 7(2), 266-284 (2007).
[59] Li, C., Thostenson, E.T. and Chou, T.-W., "Sensors and Actuators Based on Carbon Nanotubes
and Their Composites: A Review," Composites Science and Technology, 68(6), 1227-1249
(2008).
[60] Park, J.-M., Kim, D.-S., Kim, S.-J., Kim, P.-G., Yoon, D.-J. and Devries, L., "Inherent Sensing
and Interfacial Evaluation of Carbon Nanofiber and Nanotube/Epoxy Composites Using
Electrical Resistance Measurement and Micromechanical Technique," Composites Part B, 38(7-
8), 847-861 (2007).
[61] Thostenson, E.T. and Chou, T.-W., "Carbon Nanotube Networks: Sensing of Distributed Strain
and Damage for Life Prediction and Self Healing," Advanced Materials, 18(21), 2837-2841
(2006).
[62] Thostenson, E.T. and Chou, T.-W., "Real-Time in Situ Sensing of Damage Evolution in
Advanced Fiber Composites Using Carbon Nanotube Networks," Nanotechnology, 19(21),
215713/215711-215716 (2008).
[63] Böger, L., Wichmann, M.H.G., Meyer, L.O. and Schulte, K., "Load and Health Monitoring in
Glass Fibre Reinforced Composites with an Electrically Conductive Nanocomposite Epoxy
Matrix," Composites Science and Technology, 68(7-8), 1886-1894 (2008).
[64] Nofar, M., Hoa, S.V. and Pugh, M.D., "Development of Novel Single-Wall Carbon Nanotube–
Epoxy Composite Ply Actuators," Composites Science and Technology, 69(10), 1599-1606
(2009).
[65] Kostopoulos, V., Vavouliotis, A., Karapappas, P., Tsotra, P. and Paipetis, A., "Damage
Monitoring of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Laminates Using Resistance Measurements. Improving
Sensitivity Using Carbon Nanotube Doped Epoxy Matrix System," Journal of Intelligent Material
Systems and Structures, 20(9), 1025-1034 (2009).
[66] Li, C. and Chou, T.-W., "Modeling of Damage Sensing in Fiber Composites Using Carbon
Nanotube Networks," Composites Science and Technology, 68(15-16), 3373-3379 (2008).
[67] Anand, S.V. and Mahapatra, D.R., "Quasi-Static and Dynamic Strain Sensing Using Carbon
Nanotube/Epoxy Nanocomposite Thin Films," Smart Materials and Structures, 18(4),
045013/045011-045013 (2009).
[68] Aldraihem, O.J., Akl, W.N. and Baz, A.M., "Nanocomposite Functional Paint Sensors for
Vibration and Noise Monitoring," Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, 149(2), 233-240 (2009).
[69] Rajoria, H. and Jalili, N., "Passive Vibration Damping Enhancement Using Carbon Nanotube-
Epoxy Reinforced Composites," Composites Science and Technology, 65(14), 2079-2093 (2005).
[70] Yun, Y.-H., Shanov, V., Schulz, M.J., Narasimhadevara, S., Subramaniam, S., Hurd, D. and
Boerio, F.J., "Development of Novel Single-Wall Carbon Nanotube–Epoxy Composite Ply
Actuators," Smart Materials and Structures, 14(6), 1526-1532 (2005).
[71] Dharap, P., Li, Z., Nagarajaiah, S. and Barrera, E.V., "Nanotube Film Based on Single-Wall
Carbon Nanotubes for Strain Sensing," Nanotechnology, 15(3), 379-382 (2004).
[72] Kang, I., Schulz, M.J., Kim, J.H., Shanov, V. and Shi, D., "A Carbon Nanotube Strain Sensor for
Structural Health Monitoring," Smart Materials and Structures, 15(3), 734-748 (2006).
[73] Loh, K.J., Lynch, J.P. and Kotov, N.A., "Conformable Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Thin
Film Strain Sensors for Structural Monitoring," Proceedings of 5th International Workshop on
Structural Health Monitoring, 2, 686-694 (2005).
[74] Loh, K.J., Lynch, J.P., Shim, B.S. and Kotov, N., "Tailoring Piezoresistive Sensitivity of
Multilayer Carbon Nanotube Composite Strain Sensors," Journal of Intelligent Material Systems
and Structures, 19(7), 747-764 (2008).
[75] Loyola, B.R., La Saponara, V. and Loh, K.J., "In Situ Strain Monitoring of Fiber-Reinforced
Polymers Using Embedded Piezoresistive Nanocomposites," Journal of Materials Science,
45(24), 6786-6798 (2010).
[76] Park, M., Kim, H. and Youngblood, J.P., "Strain-Dependent Electrical Resistance of Multi-
Walled Carbon Nanotube/Polymer Composite Films," Nanotechnology, 19(5), 055705/055701-
055707 (2008).
[77] Chang, N.-K., Su, C.-C. and Chang, S.-H., "Fabrication of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube
Flexible Strain Sensors with High Sensitivity," Applied Physics Letters, 92(6), 063501/063501-
063503 (2008).
[78] Yin, G., Hu, N., Karube, Y., Liu, Y., Li, Y. and Fukunaga, H., "A Carbon Nanotube/Polymer
Strain Sensor with Linear and Anti-Symmetric Piezoresistivity," Journal of Composite Materials,
45(12), 1315-1323 (2011).
[79] Hu, N., Karube, Y., Yan, C., Masuda, Z. and Fukunaga, H., "Tunneling Effect in a
Polymer/Carbonnanotube Nanocomposite Strain Sensor," Acta Materialia, 56(13), 2929-2936
(2008).
[80] Kang, J.H., Park, C., Scholl, J.A., Brazin, A.H., Holloway, N.M., High, J.W., Lowther, S.E. and
Harrison, J.S., "Piezoresistive Characteristics of Single Wall Carbon Nanotube/Polyimide
Nanocomposites," Polymer Physics, 47(10), 994-1003 (2009).
[81] Hu, N., Masuda, Z., Yamamoto, G., Fukunaga, H., Hashida, T. and Qiu, J., "Effect of Fabrication
Process on Electrical Properties of Polymer/Multi-Wall Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposites,"
Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 39(5), 893-903 (2008).
[82] Abdel Chafy, R.R. and Esawi, M.H.a.a.M.K., "Fabrication of Carbon Nanotube/Low Density
Polyethylene Composites for Strain Sensing," Key Engineering Materials, 495, 33-36 (2012).
[83] Lee, K., Lee, S.S., Lee, J.A., Lee, K.-C. and Ji, S., "Carbon Nanotube Film Piezoresistors
Embedded in Polymer Membranes," Applied Physics Letters, 96(1), 013511/013511-013513
(2010).
[84] Li, Z., Dharap, P., Nagarajaiah, S., Barrera, E.V. and Kim, J.D., "Carbon Nanotube Film
Sensors," Advanced Materials, 16(7), 640-643 (2004).
[85] Li, X., Levy, C. and Elaadil, L., "Multiwalled Carbon Nanotube Film for Strain Sensing,"
Nanotechnology, 19(4), 045501/045501-045507 (2008).
[86] Bautista-Quijano, J.R., Aviles, F., Aguilar, J.O. and Tapia, A., "Strain Sensing Capabilities of a
Piezoresistive Mwcnt-Polysulfone Film," Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, 159(2), 135-140
(2010).
[87] Zhang, R., Baxendale, M. and Peijs, T., "Universal Resistivity–Strain Dependence of Carbon
Nanotube/Polymer Composites," Physical Review B, 76(19), 195433/195431-195435 (2007).
[88] Knite, M., Tupureina, V., Fuith, A., Zavickis, J. and Teteris, V., "Polyisoprene-Multi-Wall
Carbon Nanotube Composites for Sensing Strain," Materials Science and Engineering C, 27(5-8),
1125-1128 (2007).
[89] Jung, S., Ji, T., Xie, J. and Varadan, V.K., "Flexible Strain Sensors Based on Pentacene-Carbon
Nanotube Composite Thin Films," Proceedings of 7th IEEE Conference on Nanotechnology, 375-
378 (2007).
[90] Zhang, W., Suhr, J. and Koratkar, N., "Carbon Nanotube/Polycarbonate Composites as
Multifunctional Strain Sensors," Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, 6(4), 960-964
(2006).
[91] Song, X., Liu, S., Gan, Z., Lv, Q., Cao, H. and Yan, H., "Controllable Fabrication of
Carbonnanotube-Polymer Hybrid Thinfilm for Strainsensing," Microelectronic Engineering,
86(11), 2330-2333 (2009).
[92] Suhr, J., Koratkar, N., Keblinski, P. and Ajayan, P., "Viscoelasticity in Carbon Nanotube
Composites," Nature Materials, 4, 134-137 (2005).
[93] Zhao, Y., Loyola, B.R. and Loh, K.J., "Characterizing the Viscoelastic Properties of Layer-by-
Layer Carbon Nanotube-Polyelectrolyte Thin Films," Smart Materials and Structures, 20,
075020/075021-075011 (2011).
[94] Mukai, K., Asaka, K., Sugino, T., Kiyohara, K., Takeuchi, I., Terasawa, N., Futaba, D.N., Hata,
K., Fukushima, T. and Aida, T., "Highly Conductive Sheets from Millimeter-Long Single-Walled
Carbon Nanotubes and Ionic Liquids: Application to Fast-Moving, Low Voltage
Electromechanical Actuators Operable in Air," Advanced Materials, 21(16), 1582-1585 (2009).
[95] Geier, S., Riemenschneider, J., Mahrholz, T., Wierach, P. and Sinapius, M., "Investigations of the
Key Mechanism of Carbon-Nanotube Actuators and Their Dependencies," Proceedings of SPIE -
Behavior and Mechanics of Multifunctional Materials and Composites, 7644, 76441G/76441-
76449 (2010).
[96] Zhang, Z., Liu, Y. and Leng, J., "Effects of Conductive Particles on the Actuating Behavior of
Dielectric Elastomer Actuator," Proceedings of SPIE - Electroactive Polymer Actuators and
Devices, 7642, 76420S/76421-76428 (2010).
[97] Chen, I.-W.P., Liang, Z., Wang, B. and Zhang, C., "Charge-Induced Asymmetrical Displacement
of an Aligned Carbon Nanotube Buckypaper Actuator," Carbon, 48(4), 1064-1069 (2010).
[98] Yun, Y.-H., Miskin, A., Kang, P., Jain, S., Narasimhadevara, S., Hurd, D., Shinde, V., Schulz,
M.J., Shanov, V., He, P., Boerio, F.J., Shi, D. and Srivinas, S., "Carbon Nanofiber Hybrid
Actuators: Part Ii - Solid Electrolyte-Based," Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and
Structures, 17(3), 191-197 (2006).
[99] Baughman, R.H., Cui, C., Zakhidov, A.A., Iqbal, Z., Barisci, J.N., Spinks, G.M., Wallace, G.G.,
Mazzoldi, A., De Rossi, D., Rinzler, A.G., Jaschinski, O., Roth, S. and Kertesz, M., "Carbon
Nanotube Actuators," Science, 284(5418), 1340-1344 (1999).
[100] Landi, B.J., Raffaelle, R.P., Heben, M.J., Alleman, J.L., Vanderveer, W. and Gennett, T.,
"Development and Characterization of Singe Wall Carbon Nanotube-Nafion Composite
Actuators," Materials Science and Engineering B, 116, 359-362 (2005).
[101] Ramaratnam, A. and Jalili, N., "Reinforcement of Piezoelectric Polymers with Carbon
Nanotubes: Pathway to Next-Generation Sensors," Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and
Structures, 17(3), 199-208 (2006).
[102] Kang, I., Choi, G.R., Jung, J.Y., Chang, Y.H., Choi, Y.-S. and Schulz, M.J., "A Carbon Nanotube
Film for Power Harvesting," Key Engineering Materials, 326-328, 1447-1450 (2006).
[103] Hou, T.C., Loh, K.J. and Lynch, J.P., "Spatial Conductivity Mapping of Carbon Nanotube
Composite Thin Films by Electrical Impedance Tomography for Sensing Applications,"
Nanotechnology, 18(31), 315501/315501-315509 (2007).
[104] Loh, K.J., Hou, T.-C., Lynch, J.P. and Kotov, N.A., "Carbon Nanotube Sensing Skins for Spatial
Strain and Impact Damage Identification," Journal of Nondestructive Evaluation, 28(1), 9-25
(2009).
[105] Holder, D.S., ed., Electrical Impedance Tomography Methods, History and Applications, The
Institute of Physics: London (2005).
[106] Borcea, L., "Electrical Impedance Tomography," Inverse Problems, 18(6), (2002).
[107] Pyo, S., Loh, K.J., Hou, T.-C., Jarva, E. and Lynch, J.P., "A Wireless Impedance Analzyer for
Automated Tomographic Mapping of a Nanoengineered Sensing Skin," Smart Structures and
Systems, 8(1), 137-153 (2011).
[108] Alirezaei, H., Nagakubo, A. and Kuniyoshi, Y., "A Highly Stretchable Tactile Distribution
Sensor for Smooth Surfaced Humanoids," Proceedings of 7th IEEE-RAS International
Conference on Humanoid Robots, 167-173 (2007).
[109] Alirezaei, H., Nagakubo, A. and Kuniyoshi, Y., "A Tactile Distribution Sensor Which Enables
Stable Measurement under High and Dynamic Stretch," Proceedings of IEEE Symposium on 3D
User Interfaces, 87-93 (2009).
[110] Frerichs, I., "Electrical Impedance Tomography (Eit) in Applications Related to Lung and
Ventilation: A Review of Experimental and Clinical Activities," Physiological Measurement,
21(2), R1 (2000).
[111] Zou, Y. and Guo, Z., "A Review of Electrical Impedance Techniques for Breast Cancer
Detection," Medical Engineering & Physics, 25(2), 79-90 (2003).
[112] Zunino Iii, J.L., "Development of Materials and Sensors for the U.S. Army's Active Coatings
Technology Program," Sensors & Transducers, 84(10), 51-59 (2007).
[113] Tata, U., Deshmukh, S., Chiao, J.C., Carter, R. and Huang, H., "Bio-Inspired Sensor Skins for
Structural Health Monitoring," Smart Materials and Structures, 18(10), 104026/104021-104028
(2009).
[114] Yi, X., Wu, T., Wang, Y., Leon, R.T., Tentzeris, M.M. and Lantz, G., "Passive Wireless Smart-
Skin Sensor Using Rfid-Based Folded Patch Antennas," International Journal of Smart and Nano
Materials, 2(1), 22-38 (2011).
[115] Loh, K.J., Lynch, J.P. and Kotov, N.A., "Inductively Coupled Nanocomposite Wireless Strain
and Ph Sensors," Smart Structures and Systems, 4(5), 531-548 (2008).
[116] Loh, K.J., Lynch, J.P. and Kotov, N.A., "Passive Wireless Sensing Using Multifunctional Carbon
Nanotube Composite Thin Film Patches," International Journal of Applied Electromagnetics and
Mechanics, 28(1-2), 87-94 (2008).
[117] Coombs, S., "Smart Skins: Information Processing by Lateral Line Flow Sensors," Autonomous
Robots, 11(3), 255-261 (2001).
[118] Pfatteicher, S.K.A. and Tongue, M.P., "What Drives Diversity? [Engineering Education and
Underrepresentation of Minority Groups]," Proceedings of 32nd Annual Frontiers in Education,
3, S1C-1-6 (2002).
[119] Wiegerink, R.J., Floris, A., Jaganatharaja, R.K., Izadi, N., Lammerink, T.S.J. and Krijnen,
G.J.M., "Biomimetic Flow-Sensor Arrays Based on the Filiform Hairs on the Cerci of Crickets,"
Proceedings of IEEE Sensors 2007 Conference, 1073-1076 (2007).
[120] Sarles, S.A., Madden, J.D.W. and Leo, D.J., "Hair Cell Inspired Mechanotransduction with a Gel-
Supported, Artificial Lipid, Membrane," Soft Matter, 7(10), 4644-4653 (2011).
[121] Chen, N., Tucker, C., Engel, J.M., Yang, Y., Pandya, S. and Liu, C., "Design and
Characterization of Artificial Haircell Sensor for Flow Sensing with Ultrahigh Velocity and
Angular Sensitivity," Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, 16(5), 999-1014 (2007).
[122] Scholz, G.R. and Rahn, C.D., "Profile Sensing with an Actuated Whisker," IEEE Transactions on
Robotics and Automation, 20(1), 124-127 (2004).
[123] Liu, C., "Micromachined Biomimetic Artificial Haircell Sensors," Bioinspiration and
Biomimetics, 2(4), S162-S169 (2007).
[124] Engel, J.M., Chen, J. and Liu, C., "Polyurethane Rubber All-Polymer Artificial Hair Cell Sensor,"
Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, 15(4), 729-736 (2006).
[125] Nawi, M.N.M., Manaf, A.A., Arshad, M.R. and Sidek, O., "Review of Mems Flow Sensors Based
on Artificial Hair Cell Sensor," Microsystem Technologies, 17(9), 1417-1426 (2011).
[126] Dijkstra, M., Barr, J.J.V., Wiegerink, R.J., Lammerink, T.S.J., Boer, J.H.D. and Krijnen, G.J.M.,
"Artificial Sensor Hairs Based on the Flow Sensitive Receptor Hairs of Crickets," Journal of
Micromechanics and Microengineering, 15(7), S132-S138 (2005).
[127] Izadi, N., De Boer, M.J., Berenschot, J.W. and Krijnen, G.J.M., "Fabrication of Superficial
Neuromast Inspired Capacitive Flow Sensors," Journal of Micromechanics and
Microengineering, 20(8), 085041/085041-085049 (2010).
[128] Shanmuganathan, K., Capadona, J.R., Rowan, S.J. and Weder, C., "Bio-Inpsired Mechanically-
Adaptive Nanocomposites Derived from Cotton Cellulose Whiskers," Journal of Materials
Chemistry, 20(1), 180-186 (2010).
[129] Kim, D.R., Lee, C.H. and Zheng, X., "Probing Flow Velocity with Silicon Nanowire Sensors,"
Nano Letters, 9(5), 1984-1988 (2009).
[130] Tonisch, K., Cimalla, V., Will, F., Weise, F., Stubenrauch, M., Albrecht, A., Hoffmann, M. and
Ambacher, O., "Nanowire-Based Electromechanical Biomimetic Sensor," Physica E, 37(1-2),
208-211 (2007).
[131] Mcgary, P.D., Tan, L., Zou, J., Stadler, B.J.H., Downey, P.R. and Flatau, A.B., "Magnetic
Nanowires for Acoustic Sensors," Journal of Applied Physics, 99(8), 08B310/311-316 (2006).
[132] Jain, R., Mccluskey, F.P. and Flatau, A.B., "Mems Package for an Iron-Gallium Nanowire-Based
Acoustic Sensor," IEEE Transactions on Components, Packaging and Manufacturing
Technology, PP(99), 1-9 (2011).
[133] Lin, Y., Liu, Y. and Sodano, H.A., "Hydrothermal Synthesis of Vertically Aligned Lead
Zirconate Titanate Nanowire Arrays," Applied Physics Letters, 95(12), 122901/122901-122903
(2009).
[134] Yu, X., Tao, J. and Berilla, J., "A Bio-Inspired Flow Sensor," Proceedings of SPIE -
Nanosensors, Biosensors, and Info-Tech Sensors and Systems, 7646, (2010).
[135] Pinto, P.A., Sarles, S.A. and Leo, D.J., "Bio-Inspired Flow Sensors Fabricated from Carbon
Nanomaterials," Proceedings of ASME 2011 Conference on Smart Materials, Adaptive Structures
and Intelligent Systems, 2, 725-732 (2011).
[136] Eberhardt, W.C., Shakhsheer, Y.A., Calhoun, B.H., Paulus, J.R. and Appleby, M., "A Bio-
Inspired Artificial Whisker for Fluid Motion Sensing with Increased Sensitivity and Reliability,"
Proceedings of 2011 IEEE Sensors, 982-985 (2011).
[137] Tao, J., Yu, X.B. and Berrilla, J., "Bio-Inspired Flow and Acoustic Sensor," Proceedings of SPIE
Sensors, and Command, Control, Communications, and Intelligence (C3I) Technologies for
Homeland Security and Homeland Defense X, 8019, 80190R/80191-80110 (2011).
[138] Ghosh, S., Sood, A.K. and Kumar, N., "Carbon Nanotube Flow Sensors," Science, 299(5609),
1042-1044 (2003).
[139] Sood, A.K. and Ghosh, S., "Flow Driven Electronic Transport in Carbon Nanotubes,"
International Journal of Nanoscience, 4(5-6), 839-848 (2005).
[140] Liu, J., Dai, L. and Baur, J.W., "Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes for Flow-Induced Voltage
Generation," Journal of Applied Physics, 101(6), 064312/064311-064316 (2007).
[141] Cao, H., Gan, Z., Lv, Q., Yan, H., Luo, X., Song, X. and Liu, S., "Single-Walled Carbon
Nanotube Network/Poly Composite Thin Film for Flow Sensor," Microsystem Technologies,
16(6), 955-959 (2010).
[142] Pinto, P.A., Sarles, S.A., Leo, D.J., Philen, M., Champion, H.A., Black, S.B. and Dorn, H.C.,
"Bio-Inspired Flow Sensors Fabricated from Carbon Nanomaterials," Proceedings of ASME 2011
Conference on Smart Materials, Adaptive Structures & Intelligent Systems, 1-8 (2011).
[143] Singh, A.V., Rahman, A., Sudhir Kumar, N.V.G., Aditi, A.S., Galluzzi, M., Bovio, S., Barozzi,
S., Montani, E. and Parazzoli, D., "Bio-Inspired Approaches to Design Smart Fabrics," Materials
and Design, 36, 829-839 (2012).
[144] Xia, F. and Jiang, L., "Bio-Inspired, Smart, Multiscale Interfacial Materials," Advanced
Materials, 20(15), 2842-2858 (2008).
[145] Irschick, D.J., Austin, C.C., Petren, K., Fisher, R.N., Losos, J.B. and Ellers, O., "A Comparative
Analysis of Clinging Ability among Pad-Bearing Lizards," Biological Journal of the Linnean
Society, 59(1), 21-35 (1996).
[146] Spolenak, R., Gorb, S. and Arzt, E., "Adhesion Design Maps for Bio-Inspired Attachment
Systems," Acta Biomaterialia, 1(1), 5-13 (2005).
[147] Bhushan, B. and Sayer, R.A., "Surface Characterization and Friction of a Bio-Inspired Reversible
Adhesive Tape," Microsystem Technologies, 13(1), 71-78 (2007).
[148] Aksak, B., Murphy, M.P. and Sitti, M., "Adhesion of Biologically Inspired Vertical and Angled
Polymer Microfiber Arrays," Langmuir, 23(6), 3322-3332 (2007).
[149] Murphy, M.P., Aksak, B. and Sitti, M., "Gecko-Inspired Directional and Controllable Adhesion,"
Small, 5(2), 170-175 (2009).
[150] Chen, S. and Gao, H., "Bio-Inspired Mechanics of Reversible Adhesion: Orientation-Dependent
Adhesion Strength for Non-Slipping Adhesive Contact with Transversely Isotropic Elastic
Materials," Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, 55, 1001-1015 (2007).
[151] Kwak, M.K., Jeong, H.-E., Kim, T.-I., Yoon, H. and Suh, K.Y., "Bio-Inspired Slanted Polymer
Nanohairs for Anisotropic Wetting and Directional Dry Adhesion," Soft Matter, 6(9), 1849-1857
(2010).
[152] Zhu, D., Yi, X., Wang, Y., Lee, K.-M. and Guo, J., "A Mobile Sensing System for Structural
Health Monitoring: Design and Validation," Smart Materials and Structures, 19(5),
055011/055011-055011 (2010).
[153] Erbil, H.Y., Demirel, A.L., Avci, Y. and Mert, O., "Transformation of a Simple Plastic into a
Superhydrophobic Surface," Science, 299(5611), 1377-1380 (2003).
[154] Jiang, L., Zhao, Y. and Zhai, J., "A Lotus-Leaf-Like Superhydrophobic Surface: A Porous
Microsphere/Nanofiber Composite Film Prepared by Electrohydrodynamics," Angewandte
Chemie, 116(33), 4438–4441 (2004).
[155] Ma, M. and Hill, R.M., "Superhydrophobic Surfaces," Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface
Science, 11(4), 193-202 (2006).
[156] Boden, S.A. and Bagnall, D.M., "Optimization of Moth-Eye Antireflection Schemes for Silicon
Solar Cells," Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, 18(3), 195-203 (2010).
[157] Toohey, K.S., Sottos, N.R., Lewis, J.A., Moore, J.S. and White, S.R., "Self-Healing Materials
with Microvascular Networks," Nature Materials, 6(581-585), (2007).
[158] Bonderer, L.J., Studart, A.R. and Gauckler, L.J., "Bioinspired Design and Assembly of Platelet
Reinforced Polymer Films," Science, 319(5866), 1069-1073 (2008).
[159] Zhang, Z., Philen, M. and Neu, W., "A Biologically Inspired Artificial Fish Using Flexible
Matrix Composite Actuators: Analysis and Experiment," Smart Materials and Structures, 19(9),
094017/094011-094011 (2010).
[160] Liu, K. and Jiang, L., "Bio-Inspired Design of Multiscale Structures for Function Integration,"
Nanotoday, 6(2), 155-175 (2011).
Fig. 1. (a) A pH-sensitive layer-by-layer film is mounted with plastic wells and exposed to different pH
buffer solutions. EIT has been used to map the thin film’s spatial conductivity distribution for identifying
localized changes in film conductivity due to different pH buffers, namely (b) from pH 7 to 9 and (c) from
pH 7 to 5. Image provided courtesy of the Institute of Physics Publishing.
 (a) (b)

Fig. 2. (a) An aluminum plate has been coated with a piezoresistive layer-by-layer carbon nanotube-based
thin film, and the plate has been impacted at four different locations, each with different impact energies.
(b) The EIT spatial conductivity map of the sensing skin clearly identifies the location and severity of
impact damage. Image provided courtesy of Springer.
 1 0%

Normlalized amplitude
0.8 0.0058%

Interrogating 0.6
0.0115%
Horn
0.0173%
0.4
Antenna
0.0231%
Sensor 0.2
0.0288%
Light 0
Source 5.54 5.545 5.55 5.555
(a) Frequency (GHz) (b)

Fig. 3. (a) A sensor skin patch antenna is mounted in a testing coupon for strain sensing validation
testing. (b) Wireless sensor readout plots clearly show that sensor resonant frequency increases in
tandem with induced structural strains. Image provided courtesy of Prof. Haiying Huang, University of
Texas-Arlington.