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5. FIRE FIGHTING

5.1 General
This chapter is to provide the vessels with some additional information and guidelines in
order to complement the Fire Training Manual (FTM), which is available in Officer or Crew
mess/dayroom.

5.2 Theory of combustion

In addition to the text in Nature of Fire and Fire Triangle (FTM sec.A:2; page A.8) the
items listed in the following segment has to be taken into consideration.

5.2.1 Components in the Fire Triangle.

Fuel
Fuel may exist in solid, liquid or vapour form. The burning of most materials produces a
flame, this occurs when gases or vapours given off by liquid or solid material are ignited. The
majority of materials surrounding us will, or can be made to, burn if the conditions are right.
Fuel in one form or other, may be considered to be ever present.

Oxygen
Most materials require the presence of about 12% oxygen by volume to support combustion,
and as the air we breathe contains 21% oxygen, there is a plentiful supply under normal
circumstances.

Heat
The heat side in the triangle can be provided in two ways:
 by an external source of ignition.
 by heating the fuel above its self-ignition temperature.

5.2.2 Flash point and ignition temperatures

Flash point is the lowest temperature at which sufficient vapour is being given off for there to
be a flash if an ignition source is introduced.

Ignition temperature, sometimes known as fire point, is the lowest temperature at which the
introduction of an ignition source would result in a flash followed by a fire.

Self ignition temperature, sometimes referred to as spontaneous ignition temperature, is the

temperature at which a substance will ignite without the introduction of an external ignition
source.
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The following are some examples of flash points and self ignition temperatures:

Fuel Flash point Self ignition temperature

Methane - 175C 536C

Gasoline - 40C 468C
Diesel oil 71C 338C
Fuel oil 82C 255 - 410C
Lubricating oil 148C 260C
Cooking oil 250C 370C
Wood 232C

The following temperatures have been included for purpose of comparison:

Match flame 900C

Cigarette 300C
Opening light bulb 120C

5.2.3 Flammability of petroleum

The main factors which determines flammability are:
flammable range, is the range between upper and lower flammable, (or explosive), limits
usually expressed as U F L (or UEL) and L F L (or LEL). Below the LFL, the mixture of
petroleum and air is too weak to burn, and above the UFL there is insufficient air present to
support combustion.
The flammable range of most petroleum’s lies between 1% and 10% by volume in air.

volatility or vapour pressure, is the tendency of a liquid to vaporise or give off gas. It is
usually expressed in terms of Reid Vapour Pressure (RVP). Most crude oils have RVP`s of
between 1 and 12 P.S.I.A. a substance with a RVP of 14,7 P.S.I.A would be a gas at normal
temperature and pressure.

5.3 Theory of Fire Fighting

This section is to be used as a complement to FTM sec.A.3.

5.3.1 Removal of heat

Water is the most effective and most readily available medium for extinction fires of a
general nature, and particularly those involving class A materials.

The high thermal capacity of water and the latent heat of vaporisation produce the cooling
effect. The latter is far the more important factor as it takes several more times as much heat
to convert a certain weight of water at its boiling point into steam as is requires to raise the
same amount of water from its normal temperature to its boiling point.

Water is most efficient when applied in the form of a spray of water fog.
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5.3.2 Reduction of oxygen

Methods vary from the application of CO2 or other inert gas or of Foam, in the case of liquid
fires, to simply cutting off the air supply by smothering with a fire blanket or other suitable
means. Whichever method is used, it must be remembered that there is little or no cooling
effect and the re-introduction of air before the material has cooled to below its ignition
temperature will result in re-ignition.

CO2 can be applied by various means ranging from hand-held extinguishers to large fixed
installations. Its effectiveness is generally limited to enclosed spaces and it is important to
shut off ventilation, particularly with large fires.

Foam can also be supplied from a variety of appliances ranging from portable extinguishers
through Foam branch pipes to large fixed installations.

It is effective with most types of oil fires and should be applied so that a blanket is formed
over the entire liquid surface. The Foam should be directed onto a solid surface and allowed
to flow gently without disturbing the surface of the burning liquid.
Some liquid chemicals are water mixable. Special alcohol based Foams are needed for these.
Sand is also effective in smothering small surface fires as in the case of a thin layer of oil
burning on engine room plates.

5.3.3 Galley fat fires

Cooking oils can be readily heated to their ignition temperatures and serious fires can result.
Water must never be used when tackling such fires as a violent boil-over will result.

Preferred methods of extinction are smothering with a fire blanket or the application of dry
powder. Foam should only be used by fully trained personnel due to the risk of watery Foam
resulting in a boil-over.

The flammable vapours given off by overheated cooking oils and fat are readily ignited and
the danger will persist until the material has cooled to below its ignition temperature.

Galleys should always be regarded as areas of high fire risk and deep- fryers must never be
left unattended when being used. Fires can spread readily through grease coated vent ducts
and these must be cleaned at least once a week.

5.3.4 Dry powder

General purpose dry powder extinguishers are effective in extinguishing both class A and B
fires and are particularly useful where electrical equipment or circuits are present.

The action of dry powder should be applied with ”sweeping” motions over the flame area.

Dry powder processes no cooling properties and precautions must be taken against re-ignition
until the fire area has cooled.
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5.3.5 Protection of fire fighters

An attempt at extinguishing a fire is unlikely to succeed unless the fire fighters are adequately
protected against heat, smoke and toxic products of combustion.

Although speed is essential in fighting all fires it is preferable that fire fighters take an extra
few seconds to equip themselves properly than to be later forced to back by heat and smoke.

Protective clothing should be worn by all members of the emergency squad who will be
either fighting the fire or operating in the vicinity of it.

Additional protection from heat can be obtained by using water spray, with nozzles set to
produce a spray angle of about 60, by tackling the fire from as low as possible, by keeping
low and, where possible, by using the ships structure for protection.

All fires will produce smoke and many, where plastics and other modern materials are
involved, will produce toxic vapours. Compressed air breathing apparatus is therefore
essential.

Lifelines should be used by fire fighters operating in enclosed spaces where there may be
difficulty in finding their way back to the point of entry.

5.4 Fire prevention and control of ignition sources

Fire is the single greatest cause of serious casualties to ships and of lives lost at sea. The
majority of recorded incident of fire at sea would not have occurred if proper precautions
have been taken.

It is the responsibility of every person on board to exercise due care and to comply with the
regulations. Fire prevention is mainly a matter of using one’s intelligence and developing
safety awareness.

Prevention is better than cure!

5.4.1 Smoking
Smoking in bed and the careless discarding of smoking materials is prohibited at all times.

At sea, smoking is permitted at the discretion of the master and will be restricted to cabins
and mess rooms, the wheelhouse and the engine control room / position. Under no
circumstances will smoking or carriage of matches be permitted anywhere on the open decks,
or in pump rooms, storerooms or paint rooms, even when the vessel is gas free.

In port, smoking will be subject to terminal regulations. In the absence of such regulations, on
board smoking will be restricted to one designated room for officers and one room for the
crew plus a possible smoking area in the cargo control room, all areas in the after part of the
ship.
This regulation will also apply during ship / ship or ship / barge operations or when at cargo
buoy moorings.
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5.4.2 Hot work

Hot work includes welding and burning and the use of blow torches.

It must always be remembered that when hot work is being carried out heat may be conducted
through a bulkhead and start a fire on the other side. An efficient fire watch on both sides is
therefor essential. (See chapter 10 for details of hot work procedures).

5.4.3 Funnel sparks

Sparks or hot soot from the funnel may act as a source of ignition and where this danger is
apparent, cargo, tank cleaning or gas freeing operations must be stopped and any openings,
including pump room doors, closed.

[Link] Soot blowing

Inadequate soot blowing will result in glowing particles exiting the funnel when the ship is
under way. This phenomenon must be avoided when the ship is in harbour area.
During soot blowing, a notable amount of soot and glowing particles will exit the funnel.
Soot blowing must therefore be performed under controlled conditions and with proper
intervals.

Under normal circumstances when the ship is at sea, soot blowing shall be done once a day.
If the ship is to enter port during the day, soot blowing shall be done prior to entering port, at
a distance of about 12 nm from the pilot boarding station.
The Master or Officer on watch shall inform the engine room when the ship is about 12 nm
from pilot boarding station.
The Chief Engineer or his deputy performs the soot blowing on the exhaust gas boiler and
auxiliary boiler, if equipment is applicable on the latter.
When completed, the operation shall be recorded in the engine logbook.

In order to avoid soot and possibly glowing particles on the deck, soot blowing should be
avoided when the wind is from the aft.

The Master and Chief Engineer are jointly responsible for that soot blowing is done according
to this instruction.

5.4.4 Current electricity

Most electrical equipment, unless certified flameproof or intrinsically safe, is capable of
producing sparks of sufficient intensity to ignite a flammable gas.

As most of the electrical equipment and fittings within the accommodation and galley is not
of the safe type, it is important to keep flammable vapours out of these areas.

Unless certified gas free, or inerted, the use or non-safe electrical equipment outside the
accommodation and machinery spaces is prohibited. Non-safe electrical equipment will
generally include:
 wandering electrical leads.
 portable electrical lamps, (unless certified safe).
 non-approved torches and hand lamps.
 transistor radios, recorders, etc.
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 walkie-talkie radios, (unless certified safe).

 electrically operated cameras and flash guns.
 ungrounded radio antennas.
 "home made" window antennas
 mobile telephones

Gas-tight light fittings must be inspected regularly for cracked glasses, frayed cables or other
signs of damage. If any fittings are found damaged, they must be first isolated electrically and
then repaired.

A regular weekly inspection must also be made of electric motors, equipment and fittings
within the accommodation, storerooms and the engine room.

5.4.5 Static electricity

As being a fairly complex subject, the static electricity is covered separately in this chapter
under section 5.5.

5.4.6 Electrical storms (lighting)

A number of serious fires and explosions have occurred as a result of lightning striking ships
and igniting cargo vapours.

Cargo, tank cleaning and gas freeing operations must be suspended when electrical storms are
in the vicinity. All operating to cargo tanks must be securely closed and cargo tank vent by-
pass valves closed. (See also 4.7 regarding flame arrestors).

Should an up-riser fire occur during loading, ballasting or gas freeing, it is essential not to
stop the outward flow of gas through the riser as this could draw the flames into the cargo
tanks and result in an explosion. If possible, the fire should be extinguished by inert gas or
steam, (if a suitable connection is fitted), while the riser and surrounding areas are kept cool
with water spray.

5.4.7 Impact sparks

The risk of ignition of petroleum vapours from impact sparks created by hand tools in only
slight, however an incentive spark can be produced by impurities, such as sand or grit, being
present between the impacting surfaces.

Tools made of non-ferrous materials such as phosphor bronze can create dangerous sparks
because, due to the softness of the alloy, foreign particles become readily imbedded. Use of
such tools is prohibited.

Power tools such as pneumatic scaling hammers and wire brushes will, because of the high
energy output, create sparks of sufficient intensity to ignite flammable vapours.

Aluminium, magnesium and their alloys will readily produce sparks of high intensity if struck
by or against steel. These sparks known as ”thermite” sparks and will readily ignite
flammable vapours.
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Thermite sparks can also be produced if rust smeared with aluminium, or even aluminium
based paint, are struck. For this reason, care must be taken to avoid dragging aluminium
fittings, such as gangways, across steel deck. Similarly the use of aluminium based paints is
prohibited anywhere outside of the engine room in tankers.

Hammering, chipping, sandblasting or the use or power tools outside of the engine room is
only permitted if there is no tank cleaning or gas freeing in progress and provided that the
area is gas-free throughout the period of work. Any tank that is not gas-free must be inerted.

5.4.8 Friction
The overheating of cargo pump bearings and seals can cause pump room fires.

Over-greasing can often be as dangerous as insufficient grease and the pump manufacturers
recommendations should always be observed.

5.4.9 Spontaneous combustion

Damp or oil-impregnated organic material such as rags, cotton waste or sawdust may oxidise
and produce heat resulting in spontaneous combustion.

Such materials must be kept dry and stored away from oil and greases.

Waste and soil material must never be allowed to accumulate. It should be disposed of safely
on completion of the work and certainly at the end of the day.

Spontaneous combustion has also been known to occur when oil-stained towels or boiler suits
have been left in tumble-dryers after completion of the drying cycle. These machines must
always be emptied before the laundry room is vacated.

5.4.10 Auto-ignition
Many serious shipboard fires have occurred as a result of oil dripping or spraying onto hot
surfaces or lagged steam pipes in engine room.

These outbreaks of fire have usually been caused by lubricating or hydraulic oils which have
relatively low auto-ignition temperatures. By comparison, many of the more volatile, low
flash point oils have much higher auto-ignition temperatures.

5.4.11 Pyrophoric ignition

Rust in the ullage spaces of crude oil tanks can react with the hydrogen sulphide contained in
”sour” crude oils to form a material that, on exposure to air, undergoes pyrophoric oxidation.
The material becomes incandescent during this process and if the atmosphere in the ullage
space is maintained inerted to below 8% oxygen at all times until the tanks have been washed
ready for gas freeing.

5.4.12 Safe housekeeping

General tidiness and good housekeeping are essential aspects of fire prevention.
Accumulations of rubbish, such as packing material and shavings, full waste paper baskets,
and ashtrays containing paper are common examples of potential fire hazards.
5.4.13 Galley fires
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The heating of oils and fats to their self-ignition temperatures causes the most common types
of galley fires. Serious fires have occurred as a result of ignition of cooking oil in deep fryers
and these must never be left unattended.

Accumulations of grease and oil on the surfaces of stoves, on ventilator grills and in uptake
trunks not only present a risk of self-ignition, but also can cause a fire to spread rapidly.
These surfaces must be cleaned frequently.

5.4.14 Paint stores

Most paints contain high levels of solvents and other volatile materials. If paint drums are left
unsealed or become damaged, flammable vapours can readily accumulate.
Particular attention must be paid to the condition of the flameproof electrical fittings.
Smoking or the carriage of smoking materials into paint stores is prohibited.

5.4.15 Oxygen and acetylene cylinders

Oxygen and acetylene cylinders must be stowed in the special lockers provided. Care must be
taken to ensure that the cylinders and fittings in these lockers are kept free of oil and grease at
all times.

5.4.16 Fire prevention - machinery spaces

The engine room is the area of greatest fire risk in any type of ship and a high level of safety
awareness is required of all engine personnel.

Fire prevention measures will include the following:

 good housekeeping
 smoking is prohibited except in the control room and workshops at sea, (in port is
smoking prohibited in the engine room).
 frequent inspection of the machinery spaces for the purpose of removing fire hazards.
 correct maintenance of machinery and fire-fighting equipment.
 keeping bilge’s clean and free from oil and water.
 keeping spaces well ventilated.

5.4.17 Fire prevention - accommodation, storerooms and galley

An accommodation fire will involve class "A" materials (fibrous material).

Smoking regulations must be made known to every member of the ship’s crew.
Smoking in bed is prohibited at all times regardless of the type of ship.

Regular inspections should be made to ensure that electrical fittings are safe. The removal of
light glasses or the shading of electric light bulbs is dangerous and is forbidden.

Provided there is no fixed fire detection system, the deck watch, after being properly relieved,
is to make rounds of the accommodation and outside the storeroom to check against the
possibility of an undetected outbreak of fire after the 8 to 12 and 12 to 4 night watches.
During these rounds, the officer is to inspect drying rooms to ensure that no clothing is in
contact with heaters.
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A frequent cause of fires is the accumulation of unburned cooking oil or fatty deposits in
galley ranges, within flue pipes and filter cowls of galley vents. Such areas require frequent
inspection to ensure that they are maintained in a clean condition. The chief cook / steward is
responsible for that the following is performed:

Every Day: The stove fan filters above the stove are to be hot water washed. Grease traps
are to be checked and when / if found necessary to be drained.

Every Week: The complete stove shade above the stove must be cleaned and freed from
grease, dust and oil. The stove fan filters to be high pressure washed.

Every Month:The complete galley stove ventilation canal is to be inspected once a month and
if found greasy / oily to be cleaned.

Every six Month:The top of the galley ventilation system to be opened and the fan motor to
be checked and inspected every sixth month.

The chief cook/steward is also responsible for ensuring that the galley stove and other
electrical appliances are switched off before the galley is vacated.

Electric lights and appliances must not be left switched on in unattended spaces.

5.4.18 Fire prevention - storage of cargo samples

Crude oil and other petroleum cargo samples are to be kept in special approved places and not
for a longer period than any law, regulation or charter-party demands. Samples are to be
destroyed after this period.

Storage of cargo samples in cargo control rooms, officers etc., is under no circumstances
permitted.

5.4.19 Fire prevention - pyrotechnics

Old ”out of date” signals / rockets are to be destroyed and not to be stored in any place
onboard.
Rockets can be ”dismantled” and only the rocket part be destroyed. Left over will be the
rocket cover and the ignition device, which can be used during a safety drill when showing
how emergency rockets are to be handled and used.
Expired pyrotechnics (as well as dismantled rocket parts) are to be handled over to the
supplier of the new up-to-date pyrotechnics for removal from the ship.

5.4.20 Fire prevention - storage of hot work tools

Hot work tools are to be kept behind locked doors and the key to be in position of chief
engineer, first engineer or the engineer on watch making it impossible to carry out hot work
without acknowledging the officer in charge.
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5.4.21 Fire prevention - storage of chemicals onboard

All chemicals to be used onboard are to be kept in special approved places and kept so that
they are stored safe with regard to their reactions among themselves. (Chemicals used for
boilers, engines, electrical apparatus, tank cleaning etc.).

5.4.22 Fire prevention - oxygen and acetylene cylinders in engine room.

Only one oxygen and acetylene cylinder to be kept in the engine room spaces at the same
time for welding / burning purpose.

5.5 Static Electricity

Static electricity presents a hazard during the handling of petroleum’s, and a large number of
tanker explosions have been attributed to this cause.

Electrostatic charging may occur when two dissimilar materials are in moving contact with
each other, as with a liquid or gas passing through a pipe or with droplets of one liquid falling
through or moving about in another liquid. A static charge will seek to discharge itself to
earth and sometimes create incentive sparks. If this occurs in the presence of a flammable gas,
ignition with a possible explosion may occur.

5.5.1 Static accumulators

Many refined petroleum’s contain few impurities and, having been charged by pipeline flow,
will hold this charge for some time. These are known as static accumulator oils, and
precautions are required in their handling. Examples of static accumulator oils are given at
the end of this chapter. Crude oils and black oils, by comparison, contain many impurities
and charge recombination occurs readily.

5.5.2 Charge separation

Charge separation, or the generation of static electricity, my occur in several ways of which
the following are typically encountered in tanker practice:
 during pipeline flow when handling static accumulator cargoes.
 during tank cleaning with either water or crude oil.
 when oil and water are mixed, as in slop tanks.
 if oil is sprayed or splashed.
 if steam or CO2 is injected from a nozzle or open ended pipe.

Charge separation will increase with higher flow rates, and if water and oil are mixed
together.

5.5.3 Precautions during cargo operations

A potential hazard exists when:
 the cargo is a static accumulator, particularly where the receiving tanks are not inerted
and contain flammable vapour.
 the cargo is at or above its flash point.
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Charging of static accumulator oils will be greatly increased by the presence of water in the
cargo or in the tank, and will continue while the water settles through the oil. Dangerous
charge levels may exist for some time after loading has stopped. The following precautions
must be taken if tanks are not effectively inerted:
 flow rates must not exceed 1 metre / second in any part of the pipeline system until
the tank has been filled to a depth of one metre, or the bottom longitudinal are
covered.
 steel ullages tapes and metal sampling cans, must not be used during loading or for a
period of up to 30 minutes after completion of loading any tank. there is no restriction
on use of fixed ullage gauges, which are permanently bonded to the ship.

On no account will loading overall or splash filling be permitted with volatile cargoes,
whether or not they are static accumulators, or with non-volatile cargoes being loaded into the
non- gas free tank.

5.5.4 Pipeline and hose clearance

The clearance of hoses and lines with compressed air is not permitted!

5.5.5 Electrical continuity

When a charged liquid flows through a non-conducting flexible hose part, the intermediate
flanges may pick up the charge. They must therefore be effectively bonded to maintain
electrical continuity to earth through the hull or to the Shore.

A hazard may also exist when connecting hoses or chiksans due to a different electrical
potential between ship and Shore: The separate bonding wire still used at many terminals is
of insufficient diameter to safeguard against this, and sparks can still be generated at the
manifold.

An effective safeguard is the fitting of an insulating flange on the Shore end of the pipeline
or, where flexible hose strings are used, to include one hose in each string, which is not
bonded. This will block the flow of current trough the hose string while the system remains
earthed either to the ship or to the Shore.

The chief officer should always check the bonding arrangement before connection.

5.5.6 Tank washing

The injection of water through tank cleaning machines can create charged mists and the
formation of charged droplets in tanks, even when using cold sea water.

The entrainment of oil particles, as in closed cycle washing, the introduction of tank cleaning
chemicals, or the use of hot water, can greatly increase the charge levels.

The degree of charging will also increase in proportion to water throughput and nozzle
velocity.
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Unless the cargo tanks are effectively inerted, with an oxygen content not exceeding 8% by
volume, and a supply of good quality inert gas maintained throughout, the following
restrictions must be observed:
 the use of fixed high capacity tank cleaning machines is prohibited using either crude
oil or water as a washing medium.
 the number of portable machines used at any time in one tank will be restricted to 4
where their individual throughput is between 35 and 60 m 3/h. machines with a
capacity greater than 60 m3/h must not be used.
 the use of heated water, (above 60c), re-cycled water or chemicals is not allowed.
 tanks must be stripped dry before commencement of washing. dipping with metal
sounding rods is not allowed during washing or for one hour afterwards.

5.5.7 Portable tank cleaning hoses

Before the commencement of any tank cleaning, all hoses to be used must be tested to ensure
electrical continuity of the internal bonding wires. Any defective wires must be replaced.
The use of external bonding wires is prohibited!
Before connecting any tank cleaning hose to a hydrant, the hydrant should first be opened to
clear any residual oil or scale. Hoses must be connected to hydrants before the machines have
been withdrawn. Hoses and machines must always be withdrawn on completion of washing
each tank.

5.5.8 Steaming of tank

The introduction of steam at high velocity can create high charge levels in a tank and should
never be used to clean tanks after volatile cargoes. If used to clean after non-volatile cargoes,
a check must first be made to ensure that the hydrocarbon content of the tank does not exec
10% of the lower flammable limit.

5.5.9 Static accumulator oils

Non-volatile Flash point 60C Heavy gas oil
or above Clean diesel oils
High flash jet fuels-jp5
Lubrication oils
Volatile Flash point Kerosenes
below 60C Heating oils
Kerosene jet fuels - Avtur
Jet a-1
Jp1
Gasoline jet fuels - Avtag
Jet-b
Jp4
Naphthas
White spirits
Motor gasoline’s
Aviation gasoline’s
Natural gasoline’s