UNIT-04 (Introduction to Fluid Mechanics & Applications)
1. What do you understand by fluid?
Fluid: A fluid is a substance that continually flows or deforms when it is subjected to shear stress. In
other words the fluid cannot resist the shear force applied to them.
2. Define mass density or specific mass of any fluid.
Mass density or specific mass (ρ): It is defined as mass per unit volume of any fluid (kg/m3)
ρ = mass of the fluid / volume of the fluid
3. Define weight density or specific weight of any fluid
Weight density or specific weight (w): It is defined as weight per unit volume of any fluid (N/m3)
w = weight of the fluid / volume of the fluid
4. Define specific volume of any fluid.
Specific volume (v): It is defined as volume per unit mass of any fluid (m3/kg)
v = volume of the fluid / mass of the fluid
5. Define specific gravity of any fluid.
Specific weight (s): It is defined as the ratio of specific weight of the fluid and specific weight of water.
s = sp. weight of fluid / sp. Weight of water
6. What do you understand by viscosity of the fluid?
Viscosity: The property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to motion (fluidity) is called
as viscosity.
7. What do you understand by dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity?
Dynamic viscosity (µ): It is a property of a fluid, by which we know that how much resistance will be
applied by one layer of fluid to another layer when they are in relative motion to each other.
It is expressed as the ratio of shear stress to the rate of shear strain or velocity gradient.
Kinematic viscosity (ν): It is a property of a fluid to measure the momentum diffusivity which means
that "how fast momentum can be transferred between the different layers of the fluid".
It is expressed as the ratio of fluid dynamic viscosity to its density.
8. Explain Newton’s law of viscosity.
Newton’s law of viscosity: It states that “Shear stress is directly proportional to velocity gradient”
9. Differentiate between Newtonian and Non Newtonian fluids with example.
Newtonian fluids are those for which shear stress is directly proportional to the velocity gradient so
their viscosity is constant. Example: Water
Non-Newtonian fluids are those for which shear stress is not directly proportional to the velocity
gradient so their viscosity changes with respect to applied shear stress. Example: Paint
10. State and prove Pascal’s law.
Pascal’s Law: Intensity of pressure at a point in a static fluid is equal in all the directions.
Prove of Pascal’s law: Consider an arbitrary very small fluid element ABC with sides AC, AB and BC
as dx,dy, and ds. Here, the width of the element is taken as unity.
Let Px, Py and Pz be the pressure intensities acting on the surfaces AB, AC, and BC. Let the angle ABC
be 'ϴ'. The whole fluid system is illustrated in the figure.
The forces acting on the fluid element are:
(a) The pressure forces on the faces of the
element
(b) The weight of the whole fluid element acting in
the vertical direction downwards.
(It is neglected as the element is very small)
The pressure forces on the faces of the element are:
Force Acting on AB = Px . Area of the face AB = Px . dy . 1
Force Acting on AC = Py . Area of the face AC = Px . dx . 1
Force Acting on BC = Pz . Area of the face BC = Pz . ds . 1
Resolve all the forces in X & Y direction and apply the equations of equilibrium:
(a) Net horizontal force = 0
[Link] – [Link]ϴ = 0
or Px = ([Link]ϴ)/dy
or Px = ([Link]ϴ)/ (dy/ds)
or Px = (Pz. Cosϴ)/ Cosϴ=Pz
or Px = Pz………………..(i)
(a) Net vertical force = 0
[Link] – [Link]ϴ = 0
or Py = ([Link]ϴ)/dx
or Py = (Pz. Sinϴ / (dx/ds)
or Py = (Pz. Sinϴ)/ Sinϴ =Pz
or Py = Pz………………..(ii)
From equation (i) and (ii): Px = Py =Pz
11. State and prove continuity equation.
Continuity equation: It is the mathematical expression of the principle of conservation of mass.
Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time + Increase of mass in the control volume per
unit time
in = out + ∆m ⁄ ∆t
For steady flow: ∆m ⁄ ∆t = 0
So the continuity equation for steady flow:
Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time
in = out
ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2
For incompressible flow; ρ1 = ρ2=constant
So the continuity equation for steady & incompressible flow in one dimension; A1v1 = A2v2
12. State and prove Bernoulli’s equation.
Bernoulli’s equation: “The total mechanical energy of the moving fluid (steady, incompressible flow &
non viscous) that carries the fluid pressure energy, kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy is
remains constant”.
This equation is also known as principle of energy conservation.
Prove: According to Bernoulli’s equation the total mechanical energy is conserved, so the work done on
the fluid is equal to the change in kinetic energy and potential energy
13. Differentiate between hydraulic turbine and hydraulic pump.
Hydraulic Turbines: Hydraulic machines which convert the hydraulic energy into the mechanical
energy are known as hydraulic turbines.
This mechanical energy which is available at the shaft of turbine is connected with the shaft of electric
generator and then mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.
Hydraulic Pump: hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy which is available through
motor into the hydraulic energy are known as hydraulic pump.
This hydraulic energy is used to transfer the liquid from one point to another.
14. Give the classification of hydraulic turbines.
Classification of hydraulic turbines:
(a) Classification of Turbine based on Action of water:
(i) Impulse turbine: There is no pressure drop on the runner and kinetic Energy of water coming from
the jet is used to run the runner or rotor. Example: Pelton wheel turbine.
(ii) Reaction Turbine: There is a loss of Kinetic Energy as well as pressure energy on the runners of the
blade. Example: Francis turbine
(b)Classification of Turbine based on Available head:
(i) High head turbine: The turbine capable of working under the high potential head of water above
[Link]: Pelton wheel turbine.
(ii) Medium head turbine:The turbine is capable of working under a medium range of potential head
about 60m to [Link]: Francis turbine.
(iii) Low head turbine: The turbine is capable of working under a low range of potential head less than
60m Example: Kaplan turbine.
(c) Classification of Turbine based on the direction of flow of water:
(i)Tangential Flow:: If the water strikes the blades of the runner tangential to the path of rotation called
Tangential flow. Example: Pelton wheel turbine
(ii)Radial Flow: If the water strikes the blades of the runner radially and coming out axially called as
Radial flow. Example: Francis turbine
(iii)Axial Flow: In this flow, the water flows parallel to the axis of the turbine. Example: Kaplan turbine
(d)Classification of Turbine based on Specific speed:
(i)Low Specific Speed: Turbine works in the range of [Link]: Pelton wheel turbine
(ii)Medium Specific Speed: Turbine works in the range of 50-350. Example: Francis turbine
(iii)High Specific Speed: Turbine works in the range of 250-850. Example: Kaplan turbine
15. What do you understand by impulse turbine and reaction turbine?
Impulse turbine: The type of turbine in which only kinetic energy of water (impulse force) is used to
rotate the turbine is known as impulse turbine. Example: Pelton wheel turbine
Reaction turbine: The type of water turbine in which both kinetic energy as well as pressure energy of
water is used turn the turbine is called the reaction turbine. Example: Francis turbine
16. Explain the construction and working of Pelton wheel/turbine.
Pelton Turbine: It is a Tangential flow impulse turbine in which the pressure energy of water is converted
into kinetic energy to form high speed water jet and this jet strikes the wheel tangentially to make it rotate. It
is also called as Pelton Wheel.
Construction of pelton turbine:
Different parts and their functions of Pelton turbine are as follows.
1. Nozzle and Flow Regulating Arrangement
2. Runner and Buckets
3. Casing
4. Braking Jet
1. Nozzle and Flow Regulating Arrangement
The water from source is transferred through penstock to which end a nozzle is provided. Using this
nozzle the high speed water jet can be formed. To control the water jet from nozzle, a movable needle
spear is arranged inside the nozzle. The spear will move backward and forward in axial direction. When
it is moved forward the flow will reduce or stopped and when it is moved backward the flow will
increase.
2. Runner and Buckets
A Pelton turbine consists of a runner, which is a circular disc on the periphery of which a number of
double hemispherical shaped buckets are mounted with equal spacing between them. A dividing wall
called splitter is provided for each bucket which separates the bucket into two equal parts.
3. Casing
The whole arrangement of runner and buckets, inlet and braking jets are covered by the Casing. Casing
of Pelton turbine does not perform any hydraulic actions but prevents the splashing of water while
working and also helps the water to discharge to the tail race.
4. Braking Jet
Braking jet is used to stop the running wheel when it is not working. This situation arises when the
nozzle inlet is closed with the help of spear then the water jet is stopped on the buckets. But Due to
inertia, the runner will not stop revolving even after complete closure of inlet nozzle. To stop this, a
brake nozzle is provided which directs the jet of water on the back of buckets to stop the wheel.
Working of Pelton Turbine: The working of Pelton turbine is as follows:
The water is transferred from the high head source through a long conduit called Penstock.
Nozzle arrangement at the end of penstock helps the water to accelerate and it flows out as a high
speed jet with high velocity and discharge at atmospheric pressure.
The jet will hit the splitter of the buckets which will distribute the jet into two halves of bucket
and the wheel starts revolving.
The kinetic energy of the jet is reduced when it hits the bucket and also due to spherical shape of
buckets the directed jet will change its direction and takes U-turn and falls into tail race.
In general, the inlet angle of jet is in between 1o to 3o, after hitting the buckets the deflected jet
angle is in between 165o to 170o.
The water collected in tail race should not submerge the Pelton wheel in any case.
To generate more power, two Pelton wheels can be arranged to a single shaft or two water jets
can be directed at a time to a single Pelton wheel.
17. Explain the construction and working of Francis turbine.
Francis Turbine is a combination of both impulse and reaction turbine, where the blades rotate using
both reaction and impulse force of water flowing through them producing electricity more efficiently. In
this water enters radically and exits axially so it is also known as mixed Flow turbine.
Construction of Francis turbine:
The major components of Francis turbine are:
1. Spiral or volute Casing
2. Fixed and guide vanes
3. Runner
4. Draft tube
1. Spiral casing: Spiral casing has uniformly
decreasing cross sectional area. Casing is
made up of cast steel, plate steel or concrete
depending upon the requirement and working
condition of the turbine. The main purpose
of casing is to provide constant velocity
of water at the inlet of the runner.
2. Fixed vanes and Guide vanes: The main
function of fixed vanes and guide vanes is to
convert pressure energy into kinetic energy.
Fixed vanes always remains stationary at their
position and helps in distributing of load due to internal
pressure energy of the water. They are generally made up
cast iron, cast steel or sometimes fabricated steel as per requirements.
After passing through fixed vanes water guides by the guide vane before entering into runner. Guide
vanes are fixed but rotate about their own axis i.e. they can change their angle for the flow of water
according to the load and working conditions.
3. Runner: The runner of the Francis turbine consists of series of curved vanes mounted
Circumferentially in the angular space between two plates. When water changes its direction from radial
to axial then it produces a circumferential force on runner which rotates the runner. The runner is
attached with shaft which is further attached to generator for power production.
4. Draft tube: Draft tube is a gradually increasing cross section area which join runner exit to tail race.
The tailrace is the water channel that takes the water out of the turbine. Draft tube is made up of cast
steel or concrete as per requirements.
The principal purpose of the draft tube is to convert water kinetic energy into pressure energy. To
decrease the velocity of the water and to raise the pressure of the water before joining the tailrace, the
pipe is used to steadily increase the cross-sectional area.
WORKING OF FRANCIS TURBINE:
Water enters into the turbine through penstock then enters into the spiral casing. The cross
sectional area of casing decrease circumferentially to maintain constant velocity of water. After
casing water enters into the runner, here water first strikes to fixed blades then guide vanes.
Fixed vanes convert the head available with water partially into dynamic head. The casing of the
this turbine should be air tight and always filled with water. Fixed vanes remove swirls from the
water and make linear flow of the water. Swirls generates due to the spiral casing.
After that water strikes to guide vanes which are stationary at their place but revolves around
their own axis. Guide vanes decides the proper angle at which water strikes to the runner blades
and control the flow rate of water into the runner. The guide vanes are controlled by means of
wheel in case of small units or by using some automatically operated governor in case of larger
units. When load is increases the flow rate of water increases by means of guide vanes and as the
load decreases, flow rate automatically decreases. All these components are designed to lead the
water into the runner with minimum loss of energy.
The runner of Francis turbine have series of curved vanes, these vanes are designed so that water
enters into the runner radially and leaves it in axial direction in case of modern Francis turbine
but in case of old version simple Francis turbine water in and out both in radially. This depends
on the construction of the runner. This change in the direction of runner from radial to axial
produces a circumferential force on the runner and runner starts rotating and output is taken by
joining shaft with runner. Shaft is coupled with the runner which is used for power transmission.
With the help of shaft power is transferred to the generator which is used for generation of
electricity.
18. Differentiate between positive displacement pump and centrifugal pump.
Positive displacement pumps are characterized by an operation that moves fluid by trapping a fixed
volume, usually in a cavity, and then forces that trapped fluid into the discharge pipe.
A centrifugal pump transfers the kinetic energy of the motor to the liquid by a spinning impeller; as the
impeller rotates it draws in fluid causing increased velocity that moves the fluid to the discharge point.
19. Explain the working of centrifugal pump with neat diagram.
A centrifugal pump is a mechanical device designed to move a fluid by means of the transfer of
rotational energy from one or more driven rotors, called impellers.
Fluid enters the rapidly rotating impeller along its axis and is cast out by centrifugal force along its
circumference through the impeller’s vane tips.
The action of the impeller increases the fluid’s velocity and pressure and also directs it towards the
pump outlet.
20. Explain the working principle of reciprocating pump with neat diagram.
Reciprocating pump is a hydraulic machine which converts the mechanical energy into hydraulic
energy. Reciprocating Pump is a Positive Displacement type pump that works on the principle of
movement of the piston in forwarding and backward directions. It does this work by sucking liquid into
a cylinder containing a reciprocating piston which exerts a thrust force on the liquid and increases its
hydraulic energy (pressure energy of liquid).
21. Explain the working principle of hydraulic accumulator.
A hydraulic accumulator is a pressure storage reservoir in
which an incompressible hydraulic fluid is held under pressure
that is applied by an external source of mechanical energy.
When oil from pump enters through inlet port,
it pushes the piston upwards against the load
exerted by the dead weight placed on the platform.
The dead weights are used to maintain oil pressure.
When piston moves from lower end to upper end,
the accumulator gets charged and when it is connected to
the application point, the oil under pressure releases energy
through the outlet. When piston moves down completely,
the accumulator is unloaded and discharge.
22. Explain the working principle of hydraulic lift.
Hydraulic lift is a device which is used for
carrying goods as well as persons from
one floor to another in a multi-storied building.
It consists of a cage which is
suspended from a wire rope. The hydraulic
lift obtains its motion from the jigger. The jigger
consists of a fixed cylinder,
having pulley block and containing a sliding ram.
One end of ram is in contact with the water and the
other carries a pulley block.
A wire rope with one of its end fixed is
taken around all the pulleys of the two blocks and
finally over the guide pulleys. The cage is suspended
from the other end of the rope. The load to be lifted is
placed in a cage. The water under pressure is admitted
into the cylinder of the jigger. This water forces the sliding
ram to move towards the left. This outward movement of
the sliding ram makes the pulley block to move outward.
Due to increased distance between the two pulley blocks, the wire rope is pulled and the cage is lifted
up.
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