UNIVERSITI TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN

LEE KONG CHIAN FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE

June Trimester 2022

Course UEEA1243 Circuit Theory

Assignment Group Assignment- Simulation Tools and Circuit Analysis Techniques
Details
Due Date 18 August 2022
Group Number Group 12
Student Name, 1. S I M Y A N G H O N G ( 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 ) ME
ID, Program 2. CHONG MING LIANG (2002601) MH
3. LAU YI XUAN (2202284) BI
4. TAN JIA YING (2202046) BI
5. LEONG HAO ZHENG (2003663) ME

Marking Scheme (Part A) (Details are provided in the assignment question sheet):

Problem identification and formulation of project aims

Introduction 2
and objectives (2%)
Review of research topic (1%) 1
Literature Review
References (2%) 2

Analysis and interpretation of results (3%) 3

Results & Discussions
Reproducibility/reliability of results (3%) 3
Address research question and achievement of aims and 1
Conclusion & objectives (1%)
Recommendations Analysis of limitations and recommendations for future 1
development (1%)
Language: grammar and style (1%) 1
Report Quality
Citation of various sources (1%) 1

Part (A) 15 /15

Part B: Peer Review Assessment Form b (details are provided in assignment
question sheet)

Declaration (by all students)

We hereby declare that:

1. We have read through, understood and complied with all the requirements of this
assignment.
2. This assignment is the result of our own work and due acknowledgement has
been given to all resources.
3. There is no bias in assessing the group members’ contribution. The peer review
assessment is given in the following table:

Student (to be evaluated)

Lau Yi Tan Jia Sim Yang Chong Leong

Xuan Ying Hong Ming Hao
Liang Zheng
10 10 10 10
Lau Yi Xuan
10 10 10 10
Tan Jia Ying
10 10 10 10
Sim Yang Hong
Evaluated by

10 10 10 10
Chong Ming Liang
10 10 10 10
Leong Hao Zheng
YiXuann
Signature

10 10 10 10 10
Average Mark (B)

Final Mark (15%)

15 15 15 15 15
(A)*(B)/10

* Rate 1 to 10 for each of your team members, where 10 is the highest contribution and 0
is the lowest contribution
 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1
LIST OF FIGURES 3

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 6
1.1 General Introduction .............................................................. 6
1.2 Importance of the Study ......................................................... 6
1.3 Problem Statement ................................................................. 7
1.4 Aims and Objectives .............................................................. 7
1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study ......................................... 8

2 LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................. 9
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................ 9
2.2 Literature Review ................................................................... 9
2.3 Thevenin’s Theorem and Norton’s Theorem ......................... 9

3 RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS ...................................................... 11

3.2 Part A ............................................................................. 11
3.2.1 Thevenin Theorem ......................................................... 11
[Link] Results .......................................................................... 11
[Link] Calculation ................................................................... 11
[Link] Discussion .......................................................................... 13
3.2.2 Norton Theorem .................................................................. 14
[Link] Result ............................................................................. 14
[Link] Calculation ..................................................................... 14
[Link] Discussion ....................................................................... 16
3.1 Part B............................................................................... 17
3.3.1 Result ........................................................................... 17
3.1.1 Calculation ................................................................... 17
 2

3.3.3 Discussion ...................................................................... 17

3.4 Part C................................................................................. 18
3.4.1 Result ................................................................................ 18
3.4.2 Discussion .................................................................... 20
3.5 Part D ................................................................................. 21
3.5.1 Result ................................................................................. 22
3.5.2 Discussion ...................................................................... 22
3.6 Part E .................................................................................. 23
3.6.1 Result .................................................................................. 23
3.6.2 Calculation .......................................................................... 23
3.6.3 Discussion ................................................................ 25

4 LIMITATION AND CONCLUSION............................................. 27

4.1 Limitation for Thevenin theorem and Norton theorem ................ 27
 3

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Circuit with an external load resistor, RL, is connected across the terminal
a-a’ of the DC circuit

Figure [Link](a) The terminal a-a’ set as open circuit for Thevenin Theorem

Figure 3.2.1(b) Voltage source has been removed to find the Thevenin Resistance

Figure [Link]: Experimental value of IL obtain from the Multisim stimulator

Figure [Link](a): Forming a close circuit between the terminal a-a’

Figure [Link](b): Voltage source has been removed to find the Thevenin Resistance

Figure [Link]: Experimental value of IL obtain from the Multisim stimulator

Figure 3.3.3: The IL value is equivalent to the desired value which is -9.1075 mA when
RL value of 50 Ω applied in the circuit.

Figure 3.4.1 (a): The load current value when variable resistance value is 400 Ω.

Figure 3.4.1(b): Graph of load current (IL) versus Variable Resistance (RL)

Figure 3.4.1(c): Graph of load power (IL) versus Variable Resistance (RL)

Figure 3.5.1(a): Sketched of Thevenin equivalent circuit

Figure 3.5.1(b): Sketched of Norton equivalent circuit

Figure 3.6.2(a); The voltage source is removed to find the Thevenin resistance.

Figure 3.6.2(b): Open circuit is formed at the terminal a-a’ to determine the Thevenin
Voltage
No table of figures entries found.
 4

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.4.1(a): The result of load current when the load resistance is manipulated with
difference of 400 Ω

Table 3.4.1(b): The result of load power when the load resistance is manipulated with
difference of 400 Ω
 5

LIST OF SYMBOLS / ABBREVIATIONS

Vth Thevenin voltage

Rth Thevenin resistance

In Norton Current

Rn Norton resistance

IL Load Current

VS Voltage Sources

PL Load Power

Pmax Maximum power transfer

RL Load resistance
 6

CHAPTER 1

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Introduction

Voltage is known as external electromotive force that performs work. The voltage V between
two points a and b in an electric circuit is the energy needed to move a unit charge from a to
b. Current is a flow of electric charge in a circuit. The charge can be negatively charged
electrons or positive charge carriers including protons, positive ions or holes. (electronics
notes, n.d.) Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in a circuit.

In a direct current (DC) circuit, the current will remain constant with time and flows
in one direction only. It is normally used in low voltage applications such as electronic
components. The most common DC source is battery. The DC electric circuit is mainly
classified into three groups. They are the series DC circuit, parallel DC circuit, and series and
parallel DC circuit. (RAMZAN & WILLSON, 2018) (RAMZAN & WILLSON, 2018)The
series and parallel connections determine the voltage and current across each component.

Ohm's Law named for German physicist Georg Ohm (1789-1854) who discover this
law, is a formula used to calculate the relationship between voltage, current and resistance in
an electrical circuit. (Fluke Corporation, n.d.) Ohm’s law states that voltage is directly
proportional to current while current is inversely proportional to resistance as shown in the
formulae below:

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
Where
V = Voltage (Voltage)
I = Current (Ampere)
R = Resistance (Ω)

1.2 Importance of the Study

In this study, students can learn to build circuits with several components, relationship
between voltage, current and resistors, the skill of calculation of equivalent voltage,
current and resistance. Moreover, students also could simplify and analysis the circuits.
 7

The skills above are essential for engineering students to analysis their circuits
easily and to get accurate results same as real-life experiment result. This study can
reduce risk of getting injured in industries in the future by reducing deviation in the
calculation. Besides, it can be a major tool in improving performance in the industries
in the future too. Lastly, students can apply their creativity, knowledge and skills to
build circuits.

1.3 Problem Statement

This study lists out the following problem statements based on Fig 1.1 circuit.
1. The load current, IL, when RL = 10 Ω
2. The value of the resistance RL required to cause IL = -9.1075 mA
3. Plot the graphs of “load current (IL) versus variable resistance (RL)” and
“load power (PL) versus variable resistance (RL)”. Discuss the graph
trends and their findings.
4. Determine the maximum power transfer according to the Thevenin’s
Theorem (RL = RTH).

Fig 1.1: Circuit with an external load resistor, RL, is connected across the terminal a-
a’ of the DC circuit

1.4 Aims and Objectives

1. To determine load current, IL value when RL = 10 Ω.
2. To calculate value of resistance RL required to cause IL = -9.1075 mA.
3. To plot graph of “load current (IL) versus variable resistance (RL)” and
“load power (PL) versus variable resistance (RL)” and discuss the
graph.
 8

4. To determine the maximum power transfer.

1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study

This study focuses on understanding behavior of circuit when using different value of
resistance. Calculations are done by applying circuit analysis methods such as mesh
analysis, current divider rule and voltage divider rule to obtain theoretical value to
verify the experimental results using circuit simulator.

There are some limitations in this study, the experiment in this study is undergo
in an ideal condition because all the electronic components are in ideal condition. In
real life, the electronic components that can be obtained are not always in ideal
condition, the values of the electronic components might be affected by various factors
such as temperature, humidity, and other environmental factors.
 9

CHAPTER 2

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the theorem for network analysis will be discussed, and Thevenin's and
Norton's theorems will receive additional attention in this investigation.

2.2 Literature Review

The majority of networks in electric circuits were analysed using nodal analysis, mesh-
current, and Kirchhoff's laws. Thevenin's Theorem or Norton's Theorem can be used
to analyse the superposition theorem more quickly and simply (Bird, 2003).Each of
these theorems will replace the complicated network of sources and linear impedances
with a straightforward equivalent circuit (Bird, 2003).

2.3 Thevenin’s Theorem and Norton’s Theorem

Thevenin’s Theorem is derived by a German scientist called Hermann von Helmholtz
in 1853 but did not gain much popularity. After thirty years, an electrical engineer of
France's Postes et Télégraphes Telecommunications (PTT) called Léon Charles
Thevenin derived the same theorem independently (W. M. , n.d.).
According to Thevenin's Theorem, a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit made up of a voltage source VTh connected in series with a resistor
RTh, where VTh represents the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh represents
the input resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off
(Charles K., 2013).
Any two-terminal network of resistors and voltage sources, according to Thevenin's
Theorem, is equivalent to a single resistor R in series with a single voltage source V
(W. H. P., 2015)
Norton’s Theorem was derived by a researcher at Siemens & Halske in
Germany called Hans Ferdinand Mayer, and an engineer at Bell Labs called Edward
Lawry Norton. Because they published their work in the same month in 1926, Norton’s
Theorem is also called the Mayer-Norton Theorem (W. M. , n.d.)
According to Norton's Theorem, a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit made up of a parallel current source IN and resistor RN, where IN
 10

represents the short-circuit current flowing through the terminals and RN the input
resistance present at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off
(Charles K., 2013)
 11

2 CHAPTER 3

RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Introduction
Chapter 3 discuss about the result and calculation obtain by answering the problem
statements in chapter 1

The manipulated variable in the question is the value of resistance load. In

order to determine the maximum power transfer, the value of resistance load can be
manipulated up to 4 kΩ. The voltage in the circuit remained the same which is 50V.
Value of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5 and R6 are 100 Ω, 60 Ω, 30 Ω, 70 Ω, 1000 Ω and 1000
Ω. The voltage value and resistance value are fixed variable in the circuit.

3.2 Part A
Part A stated that the problem to determining load current by using Thevenin and
Norton equivalent circuit theorem.

3.2.1 Thevenin Theorem

Thevenin Theorem can be a method to determine the load current. The Thevenin voltage and
Thevenin resistance should determine first before reaching the calculation of load current. The
only condition in the problem is the load resistance should be 10 Ω

[Link] Results
The load current (IL) value is -9.283 mA when using Thevenin Theorem to determine
it. The experimental value obtain from Multisim stimulator is -9.283 mA. Both values
are equal.

[Link] Calculation
Before calculation started, Thevenin theorem stated that across a to a’ should become
an open circuit.
 12

Figure [Link](a): The terminal a-a’ set as open circuit for Thevenin Theorem

Using voltage divider rule, the voltage across R3 and R4 can be determined as

𝑅3 + 𝑅4
𝑉𝑎𝑎′ = (𝑉 )
(𝑅3 + 𝑅4) + (𝑅1 + 𝑅2) 𝑒𝑞

30 Ω + 70 Ω
𝑉𝑎𝑎′ = (50 𝑉)
30 Ω + 70 Ω + 100 Ω + 60 Ω

𝑉𝑎𝑎′ = 19.2307 𝑉

Due to the actual current flow from a’ to a, then the current flow from a to a’ will be
negative. Thus, the voltage across a to a’ will be negative
𝑉𝑎𝑎′ = − 19.2307 𝑉
Thevenin voltage was also determined as
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = − 19.2307 𝑉
To determine the Thevenin resistance, all source has been removed.

Figure [Link](b): Voltage source has been removed to find the Thevenin Resistance

R1 and R2 are in series, therefore

𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠1
 13

𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 1 = 100 Ω + 60 Ω
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠1 = 160 Ω

R3 and R4 are in series, therefore

𝑅3 + 𝑅4 = 𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠2
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠2 = 30 Ω + 70 Ω
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠2 = 100 Ω

Rseries1 and Rseries2 are connected parallel to each other

(𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠1 )(𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠2 )
= 𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠1 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠2

(100 Ω)(160 Ω)
𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 =
100 Ω + 160 Ω

800
𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = Ω
13
Rparallel is connected series with R5 and R6, therefore
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 + 𝑅5 + 𝑅6
800
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = Ω + 1000 Ω + 1000 Ω
13
26800
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = Ω
13
𝑅𝑇𝐻 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 2.062 𝑘Ω

After finding all Thevenin voltage and Thevenin resistance, IL can be determined by
using Ohms Law.
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 𝐼𝐿 𝑥 (𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑇𝐻 )
−19.2307 𝑉 = 𝐼𝐿 𝑥 (2.062 𝑘Ω + 10 Ω)
𝐼𝐿 = − 9.283 𝑚𝐴

[Link] Discussion
The experimental IL obtain in Multisim that go through RL is -9.283 mA and the
theoretical value is also -9.283 mA. Therefore, no percentage error.
 14

Figure [Link]: Experimental value of IL obtain from the Multisim stimulator

3.2.2 Norton Theorem

Norton Theorem can be also a method to determine the load current. The Norton
current and Norton resistance should determine first before reaching the calculation of
load current. The prior condition in the problem is the load resistance should be 10 Ω

[Link] Result
The load current (IL) value is -9.283 mA when using Norton Theorem to determine it.
The experimental value obtain from Multisim stimulator is -9.283 mA. Both values
are equal.

[Link] Calculation

Figure [Link](a): Forming a close circuit between the terminal a-a’

 15

Calculating using Norton Theorem to find I-L, I-N and RN should be determined first.
Before calculation started, Norton theorem also stated that across a to a’ should
become a short circuit

Appling mesh analysis to get the IN,

𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ 1: 50 𝑉 + 60 𝐼1 + 100 𝐼2 + 30 𝐼1 − 30 𝐼𝑁 + 70 𝐼1 − 70 𝐼𝑁 = 0
260 𝐼1 − 100 𝐼𝑁 = − 50 → 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛1
𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ 2: 70 𝐼𝑁 − 70 𝐼1 + 30 𝐼𝑁 − 30 𝐼1 + 1000 𝐼𝑁 + 1000 𝐼𝑁 = 0
−100 𝐼1 + 2100 𝐼𝑁 = 0 → 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛2

From equation1 and equation2

−105 −5
𝐼1 = 𝐴 𝐼𝑁 = 𝐴
536 536

Therefore, IN also equivalent to -9.328 mA

To determine the Thevenin resistance, all source has been removed.

Figure [Link](b): Voltage source has been removed to find the Thevenin Resistance

R1 and R2 are in series, therefore

𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠1
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 1 = 100 Ω + 60 Ω
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠1 = 160 Ω

R3 and R4 are in series, therefore

𝑅3 + 𝑅4 = 𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠2
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠2 = 30 Ω + 70 Ω
 16

𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠2 = 100 Ω

Rseries1 and Rseries2 are connected parallel to each other

(𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠1 )(𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠2 )
= 𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠1 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠2

(100 Ω)(160 Ω)
𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 =
100 Ω + 160 Ω
800
𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = Ω
13

Rparallel is connected series with R5 and R6, therefore

𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 + 𝑅5 + 𝑅6
800
𝑅𝑁 = Ω + 1000 Ω + 1000 Ω
13
26800
𝑅𝑁 = Ω
13
𝑅𝑁 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 2.062 𝑘Ω

The method of determining RN is same as the procedure to determine [Link],

the value of RN is also 2.062k
To determine the IL, using current divider rule
𝑅𝑁
𝐼𝐿 = (𝐼 )
𝑅𝑁 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑁
2.062 𝑘Ω
𝐼𝐿 = (−9.328 𝑚𝐴)
2.062 𝑘Ω + 10 Ω
𝐼𝐿 = − 9.283 𝑚𝐴

[Link] Discussion

The experimental IL obtain in Multisim that go through RL is -9.283 mA and the

theoretical value obtain from Norton Theorem is also -9.283 mA. Therefore, no
percentage error.
 17

Figure [Link]: Experimental value of IL obtain from the Multisim stimulator

3.1 Part B
Part B addresses the problem in determining the value of load resistance R L when the
current flow through the load resistance (IL) is equal to -9.1075 mA.

3.3.1 Result
The value of load resistance RL should be 50 Ω in order to let total amount of -9.1075
mA to flow into the load resistance.

3.1.1 Calculation
When knowing the IL value, the resistance value can be determined using the same
voltage divider rule from part A
𝑅𝑁
𝐼𝐿 = 𝑥𝐼
𝑅𝑁 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑁
𝑅𝑁 (𝐼𝑁 )
𝑅𝐿 = − 𝑅𝑁
𝐼𝐿
2.062 𝑘Ω(−9.328 𝑚𝐴)
𝑅𝐿 = − 2.062 𝑘Ω
−9.1075 𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝐿 = 49.92
𝑅𝐿 ≈ 50 Ω

3.3.3 Discussion

When applying total amount of 50 Ω in the circuit, the total amount of load current is
 18

-9.1075 mA. Therefore, the load resistance value calculated is same as the value
manipulated in the Multisim stimulator. Total of 50 must be applied to the load
resistance in order to get IL value as -9.1075 mA. Therefore, there is no percentage
error.

Figure 3.3.3: The IL value is equivalent to the desired value which is -9.1075 mA when
RL value of 50 Ω applied in the circuit.

3.4 Part C
Part D will discuss the graph of “Load current (IL) versus variable resistance (RL)” and
“load power (PL) versus variable resistance (RL)”. The study is about the trend of the
graph and relationship between there variable.

3.4.1 Result

The results in Table 3.4.1(a) show the load current decreasing corresponding to the
increased value of load resistance. The range of the load resistance is 400 Ω to 4000
Ω.

Figure 3.4.1 (a): The load current value when variable resistance value is 400 Ω.
 19

Table 3.4.1(a): The result of load current when the load resistance is manipulated with
difference of 400 Ω
Load resistance, RL (Ω) Load Current, I (mA)
400 -7.813
800 -6.720
1200 -5.896
1600 -5.252
2000 -4.735
2400 -4.310
2800 -3.956
3200 -3.655
3600 -3.397
4000 -3.173

Figure 3.4.1(b): Graph of load current (IL) versus Variable Resistance (RL)

The results in Table 3.4.1(b) show the load power trends corresponding to the
increased value of load resistance. The range of the load resistance is 400 Ω to 4000
Ω

Table 3.4.1(b): The result of load power when the load resistance is manipulated with
difference of 400 Ω
 20

Load resistance, RL (Ω) Load Power, P(W) = I2R

400 0.0244
800 0.0361
1200 0.0417
1600 0.0441
2000 0.0448
2400 0.0446
2800 0.0438
3200 0.0427
3600 0.0415
4000 0.0403

Figure 3.4.1(c): Graph of load power (IL) versus Variable Resistance (RL)

3.4.2 Discussion
From the graph of load current versus variable resistance, the graph trends are
decreasing which is approaching to zero mA. According to Ohms law, current is
inversely proportional to the resistance. Value of resistance will affect the current
result. The higher the resistance value in the circuit, the lower the current flow in the
circuit. In the other word, the lower the resistance value, the higher the current value
flow through in the circuit. In this current resistance is independent variable and
current is dependent variable. As the value shown in the graph, when the load
resistance value is 400 Ω, the load current value achieved the highest value of recorded
which is -7.813 mA. On the other hand, the load current recorded the lowest value with
 21

-3.173 mA when the load resistance increases to maximum value which is 4000 Ω.
Therefore, from this experiment, Ohms ‘law is verified. The theorem of relationship
between current and resistance is approved.

On the hand, from the graph of load power P(W) versus variable resistance (RL), the
trend of the graph is increasing initially, when the variable resistance increases to 2400
Ω, the graph starts to decrease. The maximum load power can be determined by using
this formula
𝑃(𝑊) = 𝐼𝐿2 𝑥 𝑅𝐿
From the above equation, IL is current that pass through the load resistor and RL is the
resistor value.

Power of the load is the independent variable. Power depends on current flow to the
variable resistor and the value of variable resistor. In addition, power can be also relied
on the Thevenin voltage and value of variable resistor. On the other words, Thevenin’s
equivalent is also useful to find out the maximum power transfer.
2
𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝑃𝐿 (max )=
4𝑅𝑇𝐻
From the equation above, RTH is the Thevenin equivalent resistance and VTH is the
Thevenin Voltage.

When load resistor is approaching the value of Thevenin resistance, the power transfer
is increasing. If the value of load resistor is equivalent to RTH, the power transfer is
maximum. However, when the load resistor value getting further from the RTH value,
the value of power transfer is decreasing. Refer to the power versus variable resistance
graph, the graph has clearly shown the relationship between the load power and
variable resistor.

3.5 Part D
In part D, the task is sketching the Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalent
 22

3.5.1 Result

Figure 3.5.1(a): Sketched of Thevenin equivalent circuit

Figure 3.5.1(b): Sketched of Norton equivalent circuit

3.5.2 Discussion
Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalent circuit can be sketch after determined the
Thevenin Voltage, Norton current, Thevenin resistance and Norton resistance. When
referring the same circuit, the values of Thevenin resistance and Norton resistance are
the same due to the method of simplified circuit resistor is the same. The method of
finding Thevenin resistance or Norton resistance are removing the voltage source and
simplified the resistor across the terminal a-a’.

Besides, finding the Thevenin voltage will need to create open circuit through the
terminal across a-a’. After that, the voltage across terminal a-a’ will be the Thevenin
voltage. The method of determining Norton current is let the terminal a-a’ become
short circuit. The current flow across the terminal a-a’ will be the Norton current.
 23

When constructing the Thevenin equivalent circuit, the Thevenin voltage is connected
series with the Thevenin resistor. On the other hand, the Norton current is parallel with
Norton resistance when constructing the Norton equivalent circuit

3.6 Part E
Part E addresses the objective in determining the maximum Transfer according to the
Thevenin’s Theorem. The Thevenin voltage and Thevenin resistance are determined
first.

3.6.1 Result
The maximum power transfer is 44.838 mW for theoretical value. The value calculated
is based on Thevenin voltage (-19.231 V) and Thevenin resistance (2.062 kΩ).

3.6.2 Calculation
Firstly, determine Thevenin resistance first. In order to determine the Thevenin
resistance, all sources should be removed.

R1 and R2 are in series, summation of the RSERIES1 will be

𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠1
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 1 = 100 Ω + 60 Ω
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠1 = 160 Ω

R3 and R4 are in series, summation of the RSERIES2 will be

𝑅3 + 𝑅4 = 𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠2
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠2 = 30 Ω + 70 Ω
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠2 = 100 Ω

Rseries1 and Rseries2 are connected parallel to each other, therefore Rparallel can be
determined as
(𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠1 )(𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠2 )
= 𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠1 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠2

(100 Ω)(160 Ω)
𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 =
100 Ω + 160 Ω
 24

800
𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = Ω
13
Rparallel is connected series with R5 and R6, therefore RTH can be determined as
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 + 𝑅5 + 𝑅6
800
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = Ω + 1000 Ω + 1000 Ω
13
26800
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = Ω
13
26800
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = Ω
13
𝑅𝑇𝐻 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 2.062 𝑘Ω

Figure 3.6.2(a); The voltage source is removed to find the Thevenin resistance.

Next, the Thevenin voltage across Terminal should be also determined.

Using voltage divider rule, the voltage across R3 and R4 can be determined as
𝑅3 + 𝑅4
𝑉𝑎𝑎′ = (𝑉 )
(𝑅3 + 𝑅4) + (𝑅1 + 𝑅2) 𝑒𝑞

(30 Ω + 70 Ω)
𝑉𝑎𝑎′ = (50 𝑉)
30 Ω + 70 Ω + 100 Ω + 60 Ω

𝑉𝑎𝑎′ = 19.2307 𝑉
Due to the actual current flow from a’ to a, then the current flow from a to a’ will be
negative. Thus, the voltage across a to a’ will be negative
 25

𝑉𝑎𝑎′ = − 19.2307 𝑉

Thevenin voltage was also determined as

𝑉𝑇𝐻 = − 19.2307 𝑉

Figure 3.6.2(b): Open circuit is formed at the terminal a-a’ to determine the Thevenin
Voltage

After getting the value of Thevenin voltage and Thevenin resistance value, the
maximum power transfer can be calculated.
19.2307 𝑉 2
𝑃𝐿 (max )=
4(2.062 𝑘Ω)
𝑃𝐿 (max ) = 44.838 𝑚𝑊

3.6.3 Discussion
Thevenin Resistance value are important to calculate the maximum power transfer.
However, knowing the value of resistance can also determine the maximum power
transfer. In the previous equation which is
𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇𝐻
In order to achieve maximum power transfer value of R-L applied to the circuit must
equal to the value of RTH. The equation can be proved as follows:

When the Thevenin voltage and Thevenin resistance are determined, then the
resistance load is connected series with Thevenin voltage and Thevenin resistance. The
current across the whole circuit can be determined as
 26

𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝐼𝐿 =
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿
In order to calculate the power absorbed by the load resistance, the formula is
𝑃(𝑊) = 𝐼𝐿2 𝑥 𝑅𝐿

When substitute IL equation into P(W) equation

2
𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝑃(𝑊) = ( ) 𝑥 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿

2
𝑅𝐿
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑉𝑇𝐻 ( )
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )2

In order to reach maximum or minimum value, first derivative will be zero. The
differentiate of P(W) equation with respect of RL will become zero.
𝑑𝑃𝐿 2
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 (1) − 𝑅𝐿 (2)(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )
= 𝑉𝑇𝐻 ( ) = 0
𝑑𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )4

(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 − 2𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 ) = 0

2
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 2𝑅𝑇𝐻 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝐿2 − 2𝑅𝑇𝐻 𝑅𝐿 − 2𝑅𝐿2 = 0

𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 𝑅𝐿

Therefore, if the value of load resistance equal to Thevenin resistance in the circuit,
the maximum power transfer can be determined.
 27

𝐂𝐇𝐀𝐏𝐓𝐄𝐑 𝟒

2 Limitation and Conclusion

4.1 Limitation for Thevenin theorem and Norton theorem

Thevenin theorem and Norton theorem are not applicable to circuits including
nonlinear elements such as transistors and diodes. Thevenin theorem and Norton
theorem are not applicable to circuits having unilateral elements like diode. When
there is magnetic coupling between the load and any other circuit element, Thevenin
Theorem and Nation of the Thevenin equivalent is not same as the power dissipation
of the real system (Mizan, 2019). Thevenin's theorem cannot be applied to circuits
with load connected in series or parallel to controlled or dependent sources. In bigger
networks, Thevenin Theorem is not powerful as Mesh Current Analysis or Nodal
Voltage Analysis in larger networks since the Mesh or Nodal analysis is frequently
required in any Thevenin exercise.

4.2 Conclusion
Thevenin’s Theorem states that “Any linear circuit with several voltages and
resistances can be substituted by a single voltage linked in series with a single
resistance connected across the load” (ElectronicsTutorials, n.d.). As we know,
Thevenin’s theorem is a circuit analysis technique that may be used to simplify any
complex electrical network into a circuit that consists of a single voltage source (Vs)
connected in series with a single resistor (Rs). The basic way to apply Thevenin’s
Theorem into the circuit is shown below:
1. Remove the load resistor RL
2. Short all voltage sources or open circuit all current sources to find RS
3. Using standard circuit analysis methods to determine Vs
4. Determine the current that flows via the load resistor, RL

Nortons Theorem states that “Any linear with several energy sources and resistances
may be substituted by a single constant current generator connected in parallel with
single resistor.” The basic way to apply Nortons Theorem is shown below:
1. Remove the load resistor RL
2. Short all voltage sources or open all current sources to find RS
 28

3. Connecting the output terminals, A and B with placing a shorting

connection to find Is
4. Find the current flowing through the load resistor RL
 29

REFERENCES
electronics notes. (n.d.). Retrieved from What is Electric Current: the basics:
[Link]
[Link]
RAMZAN, I., & WILLSON, A. (2018). CIRCUIT GLOBE. Retrieved from DC Circuit:
[Link]
Fluke Corporation. (n.d.). Fluke, What is Ohm's Law? Retrieved 2022
Mizan. (2019). Thevenin Theorem | Application | Limitation | Advantage. Retrieved from
Iceeet: [Link]
Bird, J. (2003). Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology.
Charles K., a. M. (2013). Fundamentals of Electric Circuits. McGraw-Hill.
W., H. P. (2015). The Art of Electronics. Cambridge University Press.
W., M. (n.d.). Thevenin's Theorem proof. Retrieved from Spinning Numbers:
[Link]
 30

APPENDICES

Figure i Load resistance at 10Ω and current record as –9.2833mA

Figure ii Current record as –9.1075mA when load resistance is 50Ω

 31

Figure iii Minimum load resistance for graph plotting

Figure iv Maximum load resistance for graph plotting