CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents a summary of an in-depth discussion of related literature,
local and international, providing a foundation of knowledge on the issues concerning
the Teaching Performance of BEEd Pre-Service Teachers
Lesson Planning
There is a conventional assumption that beginning teachers should already know
how to design an effective curriculum. As the first stage of the teaching process, lesson
planning also determines the next stage of the teaching. To achieve predetermined
goals in a set timeline, it is necessary to organize the works to be performed, timetable
of activities and the resources to be used (Vural, 2006). In addition to that, preparing a
lesson plan is a duty for teachers in terms of professional responsibility and legislation.
“Directive on Planned Execution of Education and Training Studies” published in journal
of the Communique No. 2551 by Ministry of National Education underlines the
necessity, benefits and principles of preparing a lesson planning. Consequently,
preparing a lesson plan has officially become mandatory
A plenty of studies underline the importance of preparing a lesson plan and
planning for teacher’s classroom performance. Similarly, teaching program allows pre-
service teachers to improve their teaching skills since they will have the opportunity to
conduct actual or almost actual teaching practices as well as attending theoretical
courses (Beeth, 2006).
In addition to that, pre-service teachers are trained to plan their reasons, the
literature revealed that pre-service teachers find planning their lesson difficult. In
Johnson (2000) also indicated that pre-service teachers found the initial lesson planning
steps “cumbersome”. He pointed out that experienced teachers internalized the lesson
planning process and that. Therefore, pre-service teachers are different than the
experienced teacher’s plan.
Lesson plan help pre-service teachers to close the gap between theory and
practice. In lesson plan also, we can see how pre-service teachers transform learning
theory into practice. Furthermore, planning enables pre-service teachers to think
through what they teach, how they teach and how to evaluate their teaching (Kuys, Keer
& Aelterman; 2012).
Moreover, during their education, pre-service teachers are trained to plan their
lessons. The literature revealed that pre-service teachers find planning their lessons
difficult (Tashevska, 2008).
Teaching lesson planning or lesson design is a pivotal moment in teacher
education. It is at of this point when we are, in essence, teaching future educators how
to think about the relationship between educational theories, lesson planning,
instructional strategies, student and learning. It is at this point when theory intersects
with practices. This is the time to teach these pre-service teachers how to place
students at the center of the planning process. Pre-service teachers need to know how
to prepare for differences activities and experiences in each and every lesson and
differentiation needs to be central in planning, rather than after thought.
Teaching Methods
Teaching methods is the way of teachers deliver the subjects to students by
using certain methods corresponding to the characteristics of students that were
encountered. Each student has different characteristics from the very clever, moderate,
and there is also less able to receive lessons quickly. Therefore, a teacher must be able
to apply the learning method in accordance with the characteristics of students. Unless
the students whose middle- low ability will be left behind in the understanding of the
material that is presented. And it will cause the students mentioned are not interested
and lazy to learn because they have felt unable to do. Teaching method helps to
determine the success or failure of a learning and teaching activity and it is teaching
system. The more precise method that is used by teachers in teaching is expected to be
more effective the achievement of learning goal (Qudsyi, Herawaty, Saifullah, Khaliq, &
Setiawan, 2011).
But the factors that affect the teaching method are a proteges (learners), goal,
situation, facilities, and teachers. The terms of teaching methods should be able to bring
the atmosphere of teaching interaction becomes instructive or educative, putting
learners to take active learning, as well as foster and develop interest in learning and
increase learning spirit, it can improve the learning outcomes and live up teaching
process which is ongoing (Rohani, 2004).
According to Djamarah (2010) the method of teaching is a teaching strategy to
achieve the expected goals. By utilizing an accurate method, the teacher will achieve
the goal of teaching smoothly. When the goals are formulated in order that students
have certain skills, so that the methods that are used must be adapted to goals. Thus,
the teacher should use methods that can support teaching and learning activities, so it
can be used as an effective tool to achieve the goal of teaching.
Questions about the effectiveness of teaching methods on student learning have
consistently raised considerable interest in the thematic field of educational research
(Hightower et al., 2011). As Ayeni (2011) asserted that teaching is process that involves
bringing about desirable changes in learners so as to achieve specific outcomes. In
order for the method used for teaching to be effective, Adunola (2011) maintains that
teachers need to be conversant with numerous teaching strategies that take recognition
of the magnitude of complexity of the concepts to be covered. It is indicated also that in
order to bring desirable changes the students, teaching method used by educators
should be best for the subject matter. Furthermore, Bharadwaj & Pal (2011) sustained
that teaching methods work effectively mainly if they suit learners needs since every
learner interprets and responds to questions in a unique way (Chang, 2010). As such,
alignment of teaching methods with students needs and preferred learning influence
students’ academic attainments (Zeeb, 2004).
Findings by Wiggins (1987) who reported that interaction between the teachers
and students during the teaching and learning process encourages the students to
search for knowledge rather than the lecturer monopolizing the transmission of
information to the learners.
Thus, basically learning methods are learning methods that are used by teacher
to achieve the goals in teaching and learning activity. The better and the more
appropriate methods that are used in teaching and learning activities to the student, so
that the learning achievement will increase and can be optimized.
Classroom Management
Classroom management is a central effective teaching (Kunter 2013; LePage,
2007; Seidal & Shavelson 2007). Although there are other important aspects of teaching
quality, such as supportive climate or instructional support (Baumert 2001). It has
additional been found that effective classroom management is directly related to student
motivation (Helmke, 2007; Kunter, 2007; Nie & Lau; 2009; Oliver 2011), autonomy and
responsibility (Elias & Schwab, 2006; Lewis 2012; P’sunder, 2005), learning
achievement (Freigberg 2009; Hattie, 2009; Seidal & Shavelson, 2007; Wang 1993) as
well as teacher wellbeing (Dickie, Elling 2015; Klusmann 2008) and their psychological
health (Friedman, 2006; Hastings & Bham, 2003).
Although classroom management plays a major role in central teaching
outcomes, studies show that especially pre-service and beginning teachers lack
knowledge on classroom management (Poznanski 2008). They also feel unprepared for
dealing with classroom disruptions and dealing with difficult with student behaviors
(Meister & Melnick, 2003; Parsad 2001).
The term classroom management is understood as “the management of
classroom for learning” (Tsui, 2003, p.136). it includes not only aspects of classroom
organization such as group-pair-and solo-work, maintaining as orderly and peaceful
environment, and doing the routine business but also making arrangement to motivate
and empower the learners. Similarly, Wright (2005) describes the core elements of
classroom management as managing the space, the time, engagement and
participation. Space and time set the boundaries of education. We can extend the time
and space boundaries of a lesson with the help of internet and homework assignments.
Engagement entails motivation, approaches to learning, attitudes, and previous
experience. Managing space, time, and engagement usually go hand in hand with other
people are within the interest domain of classroom management.
Scrivener (2005), who is the author of one of the most popular methodology
books in the ELT departments in Turkey, takes a similar stance in the classroom
management chapter of his book. According to it, classroom management is discussed
under the headings of “grouping and seating, activities, authority, critical moments such
as the beginning and the end of the lesson, tools and techniques, and working with
people” (p.79). the grouping and seating part involves the importance of physical
qualities in establishing a good learning environment. The activities’ part holds that the
potential of an activity can be hindered by poor application no matter how well it has
been planned beforehand. The teacher’s authority is reflected in teacher’s gathering
and holding attention, deciding who does what, and getting someone to do something.
In addition, how the teacher manages the critical moments such as the beginning and
the ending of the lessons are considered within the domain of the classroom
management. There is also a part devoted to the use of tools such as the board, book,
gestures and techniques such as using silence as a classroom management tool. The
working with people part reminds us that classroom management is not confined to
managing the physical classroom, the students’ behaviors, and the activities. It also
involves dealing with the students as persons Scrivener includes such sub-topics as
“spreading your attention evenly and appropriately, using intuition to gauge what
students are feeling, eliciting honest feedback, and really listening to students” in this
part.
When we look at contemporary research on the issues on the classroom
management in terms of pre-service teachers’ experiences, we see that some focus on
the problems in classroom management. For example, identified the classroom
management problems of student’s teachers through their reflective journals. Using
Scrivener’s (2005) classification of classroom management, he found that the most
problematic area was managing critical moments, especially in terms of maintain the
silence and controlling the noise level. Merc and Subasi (2015) investigated the
problems of student teachers about classroom management and hoe they cope with
these problems. They found that problems generally come from students, the teaching
point and the materials, and cooperating teachers. To cope with the problems they face,
student teachers used their knowledge from methodology lessons, they consult to their
cooperating teacher and they think about their experience with their previous teachers.
A very similar one conducted in Columbia is Macias and Sanches’s (2015) a study.
They found that the challenges came from the physical characteristics of classrooms,
pre-ser-service teacher’s perception of the student behavior, and students’ disruptive
behaviors. They identified focus on maintaining control and focus in good student as
coping strategies. Elin (2014) investigated the perspectives of ELT students’ teachers
about the practicum experience in general.
Communication Skills
Teacher with low communication skills would have low professional
competence as well as personal competences (Yılmaz, 2011). In a classroom where
communication processes are good, it can be said that the teacher and students have
good relations with each other. In addition, Dunbar, Brooks and KubickaMiller
(2006) stated that the ability to communicate is of great importance and that
communication skills are taught not only by the communication department, but also in
various educational institutions. Communication plays a huge role in human life. In the
socialization process, these skills can help sociologist create social institution and, in
turn, influence culture and social structures (Knowles 2021). In order to convey
information, communication ability is an essential aspect that needs to be emphasized
(Chehab, Moulay and Rabbani, 2021).
In addition, effective communication also emphasizes the aspect of social
skills in order to help students respond to the environment and control themselves in
facing challenges and improve self-excellence. In going through daily life, language
skills are essential as an intermediary medium ( Leung & Jenkins, 2020).
Teachers with good communication ability in building an exciting and fun
teaching environment will influence students’ interest and behavior in learning. In
addition, communicating well can also help teachers apply positive values to improve
students social and emotional skills. Therefore, a teacher should have seriousness,
experience, and interest in the profession entrusted to him. Communication is a process
of giving meaning and can influence a person to believe and do something as defined
(Combs, 2002). It is because verbal or non-verbal communication involves transforming
knowledge, understanding or feelings shared through the message (Uleanya, Tawo &
Shobive, 2020).
In education, teachers who impart knowledge must have various skills,
including speaking skills, classroom management, teaching techniques, and practical
and orderly communication. It is because communication in the classroom not only
serves to impart knowledge but builds interaction so that the teaching and learning
process achieve its goals. Communication occurs when a teacher conveys
his experience and knowledge to his students (Zwozdiak-Myers & Capel). It is
supported by the opinion that teachers with skills in building effective interactions are
among the characteristics of effective classroom leadership (Salamondra, 2021).
The teaching and learning process is not only limited to communication
between students in sharing knowledge or information but also relates to interaction and
social control in the classroom. The social development and teaching quality in an
organization are determined by the social relationship's mechanisms build into it, such
as effective use of language, interaction processes, open communication, verbal skills
(Meulenbroek, Ness, Lemoncello, Byoem, Mac Donald, O’Neil-Pirozzi & Moore
Sohlberge, 2019).
Classroom is a complex communication space. Communication processes
involve verbal, nonverbal and para verbal components and are designed to mediate
students' and teacher behavior. In order to develop communication skills in relation to
the teaching process we must identify the future need. Communication skills is
important or vital especially in educational field is based on the ability to express your
own ideas and views clearly, with confidence and concisely, permanently adapting your
content and style of the class. Interaction between teachers and students can contribute
to effective communication in the classroom or may be the source of problematic
situations (ERD, 2016).
The main reason for a person’s failure in his job is their failure to establish a
positive interaction with their environment (Petitta, Probst, Ghezzi & Barbaranelli, 2019).
In the teacher context, in addition to teaching a predetermined subject, this group is also
responsible for being indirectly involved in the formation and development of a good
personality, mental and physical for his students (Tray, Adruse, Lau, Ting & Sandhu,
2020).
In line with the role played as an agent of change to the self-development
and personality of students, teachers should prepare themselves with good mastery in
the context of communication before entering the field of teaching. It prepares teachers
to face the different styles and backgrounds of their students. Factors such as
background, attitude, level of education, experience, and exposures will create the
diversity of students and gaps among them in a class (Resch & Schritter, 2021).
Therefore, communicating is necessary to enable them to know each other and share
information well. Several studies have shown the dissatisfaction of schools where the
pre-service teachers were taken their teaching practice with the level of communication
ability and ultimately caused the unemployment rate to increase (Donitsa-Schmidt &
Ramot, 2020); Oztekin & Tekel, 2021).
Assessment
The Pre-Service Teachers are exposed to various methods of assessing
students’ learning, either formative or summative assessments. For them to become
more competent, their student learning assessment skills must be enhanced. Cheng et
al. (2015) mentioned that classroom assessment tasks and environment are central to
supporting student learning and following the higher order thinking skills for students to
utilize their metacognition ability.
The Pre-Service Teachers utilize various assessment methodologies to
determine student learning or performance. These include group activities,
individualized seatwork, paper and pencil tests, writing synopsis and reaction papers,
recitation, and other creative outputs like flipbook, and making comic book. They, too,
employ several techniques in giving feedback to students. They give feedback
directly. When their class misbehaves, they get students' attention through use of
silence. Talking to students nicely is also being practiced. Other positive practices
include praising students who give answers to their questions correctly and whenever
they accomplish something such as getting high score in an examination.
Student learning progress are measured through assessment of scores and records of
students. Through observations, results of students' written outputs and performances,
multi-level test, use of report cards and monitoring outputs also are being executed.
However, the PSTs practice limited authentic assessment methodologies.
Authentic assessment implies assessment of the experiences and learning processes
acquired by students. As posited by Villarroel et al. (2018), authenticity has been
identified as a key characteristic of assessment design which promotes learning. Time
constraint is considered a factor since they are given only 50 minutes to discuss
their lessons each time they meet their target classes. Some of the authentic
assessment measures that they use are creative outputs such as role-playing, making
flipbooks and comic books.
The lack of adequate training as regards use of rubrics in assessing and evaluating their
students’ works seems evident. Now that written works, performance tasks, and
products of learning are being taken with high consideration, there is a need to train
PSTs as regards various methods of assessments, which include use of rubrics. There
is a dire need to improve such skill especially now that outcome-based education (OBE)
is emerging. OBE has been adopted completely by HEIs governed by the Commission
on Higher Education (CHED) in the Philippines.
Additionally, the PSTs employ different kinds of tests to students. These include
problem-solving, true-or-false, fill-in-the-blank, matching type, multiple-choice,
identification, analogy. Tests are based from their lessons. However, these projects
show that the purpose of using authentic assessment and activities promoting high
order thinking skills is not fully employed. The use of summative and formative tests
cannot be underestimated but the need to improve use of authentic assessment
measures must be facilitated to be able to measure what has to be measured validly
and reliably. However, time element has been identified one factor in ensuring authentic
assessment measures.
Additionally, the PSTs employ different kinds of tests to students. These include
problem-solving, true-or-false, fill-in-the-blank, matching type, multiple-choice,
identification, analogy. Tests are based from their lessons. However, these projects
show that the purpose of using authentic assessment and activities promoting high
order thinking skills is not fully employed. The use of summative and formative tests
cannot be underestimated but the need to improve use of authentic assessment
measures must be facilitated to be able to measure what has to be measured validly
and reliably. However, time element has been identified one factor in ensuring authentic
assessment measures.
Teachers’ Personality
A teachers’ personality is one dimension of his identity (Pennington &
Richards, 2016). Teaching requires not only the ability to teach lesson, but also an
understanding of the rules and routines of the school culture, the ability to collaborate
with other educational professionals, and awareness of the communities in which one
teaches (Sikula, Buttery, & Guyton, 1996).
Moreover, personality traits of effective teachers have been an important area of
investigation. A personality trait is a relatively stable characteristic that causes
individuals to behave in certain ways. Effective teachers, in the sense of being able to
produce a desired result, can be thought of as those who are able to engage students in
the learning process and maximize student academic achievement and other school
outcomes. Since 1920s, educational researchers worldwide have explored personality
traits that make a teacher effective in the classroom.
Tominez, B. & Dela Cruz, L. (2014) implies that those who were deployed in
schools that are far from the university garnered significantly higher level of teaching
effectiveness in terms of teacher personality and vice versa. Regardless of the distance,
the results may be due to how the school factors such as cooperating teachers,
principal and facilities motivate and influence them to be considerate, caring, prim and
proper so as to be good models to their learners. Supported by, Stronge & Hindman
(2003) concluded that effective teachers consistently display compassion and equality
in teaching. They reveal a positive outlook about life and teaching. They are reflective
thinkers who exhibit high expectations for themselves and their learners. Additionally,
Stronge (2002) presented necessary attitudes for pre-service teachers to become
effective when they enter the teaching profession. These include “caring; fairness;
respect for the learners, peers, parents and the general community; enthusiasm;
motivation; and dedication to teaching”. Furthermore, Darling-Hammond (1997) opined
that “while teachers need to understand cognitively individual differences (culture,
language and family structure), they also need an attitude of sensitivity toward
children’s experiences”.
In perhaps the most complete study conducted to date on preservice teacher
personality and teaching performance, (Ripski, 2011) showed a link between
conscientiousness and observed teaching performance. Further, Jamil, Downer and
Pianta (2012) demonstrated a link between personality and teaching self- efficacy they
showed that extraverted pre-service teachers were more likely to have high self-efficacy
in their teaching abilities. This does not necessarily show, however, that extraverted
pre-service teachers are more effective teachers.
To explicate the concept, (Thompson, 2008) posits that effective teachers
possess well-built teaching skills and pleasant personalities. He also states that building
rapport, choosing interesting activities and task, being able to teach, and coming up with
appropriate answers to learner’s unpredicted questions are some of the characteristics
of effective teachers.