Earth and Life Science

PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY

❖ Geology deals with complex historical 1. Scientific Method

systems that have evolved and changed over 2. Observation
time. 3. Hypothesis
❖ Time is thus a fundamental variable in 4. Test
geology 5. Scientific "certainty"
❖ Coupled processes, operating over time, 6. Paradigms & nature of scientific revolutions
produce all that we see. 7. Theory

Geology Scientific Method

- study of earth and its systems - Gathering information through careful observation to
- concerned with the Earth and the rocks of which it is formulate hypotheses and theories
composed - Note: involves insight and creativity to break free
- includes surface process which have shaped the from conditioned accepted views
earth's surface
- study of the ocean floors, interior of the Earth 4 Basic Steps
- History of the Earth as it has evolved to its present
condition 1. Collect the facts
2. Develop Hypothesis ( Formulation )
The Earth has changed throughout its history, and will a. Construction of a tentative (untested)
continue to change explanation for something observed
b. Value of multiple working hypotheses
Time Scale 3. Test hypothesis
- Earth is about 4.6 billion years old a. Evaluate explanatory power
- Human beings -- maybe 2 million years b. Certainty in science and the nature of
- Humans have witnessed only 0.043% of Earth's scientific proof
history c. Science has been described as the
- 1 million years = 50,000 times longer than we've orderly accumulation of rejected
lived hypotheses.
- Note: A river deposits 1mm of sediment (mud) each 4. Accept / Modify / Reject
year
PROCESS BEGIN WITH OBSERVATION!
Nature of Scientific Inquiry
Theory
- Science is based on the assumption that the natural
world behaves in a consistent and predictable manner - well-tested/widely accepted hypothesis that
- Goals of Science: “acceptably” predicts observed facts.
➢ understand underlying patterns in nature - also: explains additional observations not used
(from careful observations/measurements) originally to form theory
➢ form hypotheses that lead to predictions - predictive power, tho still testable and subject to
disproof!
Basic Concepts a. PRINCIPLE OF UNIFORMITARIANISM
- slow changes
 -
“Present is the key to the past.” The Relationship Between Geology and
-
processes that are operating at present Other Sciences
are the same processes that have
operated in the past. 1. Physics: Geophysics
- Key assumption: Laws of nature have a. Gravity Method
not changed through time b. Seismology
b. PRINCIPLE OF CATASTROPHISM c. Magnetic Method
- fast changes - changes were sporadic d. Electrical Method 2
- Major changes in Earth’s crustal layers 2. Biology: Paleontology - remaining of animals
result from catastrophic events and botanical
(Floods, massive volcanism, massive 3. Chemistry: Geochemistry
earthquakes) 4. Engineering: Engineering Geology
- Key assumption: Laws of nature are
the same but the rate of change is not. Geological Branches

1. Basic Geology
Earth Materials and Processes
a. Crystallography
b. Mineralogy
Slow Processes c. Petrology
d. Paleontology
- Formation of rocks e. Stratigraphy
- Weathering: chemical breakdown of rock to form f. Dynamic geology
soil g. Historical geology
- Diagenesis: chemical cementation of sand grains 2. Connected Branches
together a. Geochemistry
- Metamorphism: recrystallization of rock or change b. Geophysics
in temperature and pressure c. Geomorphology
- Tectonism: build mountain ranges d. Structural Geology
- Erosion of mountain ranges e. Photogeology
f. Oceanography
Fast Processes g. Volcanology
3. Applied Geology
- Beach erosion during a storm a. Economic Geology
- Construction of a volcanic cone b. Engineering Geology
- Landslides (avalanches) c. Petroleum Geology
- Dust Storms d. Hydrogeology
- Mudflows e. Mining Geology
- Earthquakes f. Agricultural Geology
g. Military Geology

EARTH SYSTEMS

- The biosphere (living organisms) contains about 100

Biosphere
phyla organized into five kingdoms of life forms
- Earth’s surface and subsurface to depths of a few a. Kingdom: Animalia, Bacteria, Fungi, Plantae,
kilometers Protista
- Life occupies an extreme range of environments - Human beings belong to the Kingdom Animalia and
- Life strongly interacts with the atmosphere, the are one of the species of the estimated 20 million to
hydrosphere and the solid earth (these interactions are 100 million species in the biosphere
called ecology!) - Note: In 2009, human beings numbered 6.8b,
currently increasing annually by approximately 75 m - Extends from the top of the
and projected to reach a total of approximately 9b by stratosphere to about 53 miles (85 km)
2050, according to the U.S. Census Bureau above the earth.
"The place on Earth's surface where life dwells." - The transition boundary which
- Eduard Suess (1875) separates the mesosphere from the
thermosphere is called the mesopause.
D. Thermosphere Layer
Subcomponents of Geosphere - A thermal classification of the
atmosphere a.k.a. upper atmosphere
- The thermosphere extends up to nearly
Atmosphere
375 miles (600 km) above the earth.
- Gaseous Envelope - The gases of the thermosphere are
- Blanket of gasses surrounding the Earth increasingly thinner than in the
- Protection from Sun’s heat & UV rays mesosphere.
- Weather: due to exchange of energy - Total amount of energy from the few
- between Earth’s surface & atmosphere molecules in this layer is not enough
- between atmosphere & outer spaces to heat our skin.
- Strongly interacts with surface E. Exosphere Layer
- Five distinct layers have been identified using: - The Exosphere is the outermost layer
a. thermal characteristics (temperature changes) of the atmosphere. It extends from the
b. chemical composition top of the thermosphere to 6,200 miles
c. movement, (10,000 km) above the earth.
d. density - In this layer, atoms and molecules
escape into space and satellites orbit
Atmosphere can be divided into: the earth
- The atmosphere thins out and merges
A. Troposphere Layer with interplanetary space
- Begins at the Earth's surface and
extends from 4 to 12 miles (6 to 20 Lithosphere
km) high.
- This is the layer of the atmosphere in - Solid Earth
which we live - Interior of the Earth is losing heat.
- Consists of homogenous gasses, water - Primary source of heat-- Radioactive decay
vapor, carbon dioxide, and dust - Heat loss drives convection, based on density
- The transition boundary between the differences
troposphere and the stratosphere is - Hotter stuff is lighter and rises
called the tropopause. - Cooler stuff is denser and sinks.
B. Stratosphere Layer
- Extends from the top of the Hydrosphere
troposphere up to 31 miles (50 km)
above the Earth's surface. - Liquid Water
- This layer holds 19 percent of the - Water portion of the earth
atmosphere's gases but very little - Consist of Oceans, Seas, Lakes, Rivers and
water vapor GroundWater.
- Warmer at the top than the bottom - The water of oceans, seas contains (constant
- Contains the OZONE LAYER, a thin weight) 35 grams per letter of different Salts,
layer of ozone molecules (with three commonly of sodium chloride type (NaCl).
oxygen atoms) which forms a a. Rivers Water
protective layer shielding life on Earth - Contains generally less than 1 g/L salts
from the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet commonly of calcium bicarbonate and
radiation calcium carbonate
C. Mesosphere Layer
 b. Ground Water shows evidence of motion/deformation under
- Quality depends on the ground water gravity
source, host rocks and the migration of b. Snow Cover - Ice-crystal precipitation that
the groundwater accumulates on the surface
- Contains a wide variety of salts c. Floating Ice - Lake/River Ice. Floating ice on
- Maybe fresh water (less than 1 g/L) or rivers or lakes, usually freshwater ice. c.
saline water (more than 10 g/L). Floating Ice
- Sea Ice. Floating ice from frozen
seawater
Cryosphere
d. Permafrost - Perennially frozen ground,
- Frozen Water technically defined as ground that is at or
- Four Elements: below 0 degrees celsius for at least two years
a. Glaciers - perennial terrestrial ice mass that

EARTH INTERIOR

- Convecting materials in the Earth’s mantle

originate deep, near the core-mantle boundary
- Most heat from the deep interior is transferred to
the shallow mantle by buoyant masses of hot, low
density material called “plumes”.
- Heat of the upper mantle sets up shallow
convection cells that drive plate motions.
- Convection also drives deep seafloor hydrothermal
systems
- Crystal mush – partially crystallized magma; an
aggregate of solid crystals lubricated by compressed
water
Ways to transfer heat:
Consequences of Plate Motions:
1. Conduction
- by motion of atoms (i.e. transfer of ➢ Mountain Building
heat energy by direct contact ) ➢ Volcanic Activity
2. Convection ➢ Earthquakes
- mass movement of material (i.e. ○ Hypo- surface
movement of heat by actual motion of ○ Hypocenter- inside
matter) ○ Epicentric- originate
3. Radiation
Earth’s Magnetic Field
3 Reasons for Internal Heat:
- The magnetic field is generated by an organized flow
❖ from impact during Earth formation of electrons in the molten outer core.
❖ radioactive decay of uranium, thorium, - Earth’s magnetic field is a dipole with north and
potassium south ends of opposing polarity. The magnetic poles
❖ heat released as inner core forms and geographic (rotational) pole are offset by 23.5
degree
NOTES!!! - Naturally-occurring magnetic mineral grains, like the
mineral magnetite (Fe O ), act as tiny bar magnets and
- Hot materials are less dense and rise. Cooler
become oriented parallel to the field lines of the
materials are denser and sink.
Earth’s magnetic field
 - The magnetization left behind in a medium after an
Magnetic Reversals
external magnetic is removed
- Earth’s magnetic field reverses its polarity on an - The permanent magnetism in rocks, resulting from
irregular time scale of a few tens of thousand to the orientation of the Earth’s magnetic field at the
hundreds of thousands of years. time of rock formation in a past geological age
- are recorded in igneous rocks by the remnant field
orientations frozen into by the magnetic minerals (e.g.
magnetite) that crystallize from magma as it cool
- Magnetic reversals can be dated!
- This is accomplished by using radiometric
dating methods to date igneous rocks that
preserve the remanent magnetism

Remanent Magnetism

- Also called paleomagnetism

- This is accomplished by using radiometric dating
methods to date igneous rocks that preserve the
remanent magnetism.

ROCKS AND MINERALS

Mineral Homogeneous solid

- In ancient times, people divided all things on Earth - consists of single, solid substance that can't be
into the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdoms, so a physically subdivided into simpler chemical
mineral was any natural inorganic substance. compounds
- Today, dieticians use the term “mineral” to refer to - determination of homogeneity is difficult because it is
nutritional elements such as Ca, Fe, or Na related to the scale on which it is defined.
- Miners often use the term “Minerals” for anything - Homogeneous when viewed by naked eye but
they can take out of the ground including coal, sand, or inhomogeneous when viewed with a microscope at
gravel. high magnification

Formed by inorganic processes

Mineralogists and Geologists of the 20th Century
developed a more specific definition of a mineral: - crystalline organic compounds formed by organisms
are generally not considered minerals
A mineral is a naturally-occurring, homogeneous
- however, carbonate shells are minerals because they
solid, formed by inorganic processes and with a definite,
are identical to compounds formed by purely inorganic
but generally not fixed, chemical composition, and an
processes.
ordered atomic [Link]
Definite, but not fixed, composition
Naturally-occuring
- Minerals can be expressed by a specific chemical
- means that synthetic compounds not known to occur formula Example: The chemical composition of Quartz
in nature cannot have a mineral name is SiO2 .
- may occur anywhere (in other planets or deep in the - Often referred as pure substance
earth) as long as there exists a natural sample to - Most minerals however do not have such
describe. well-defined (not fixed) chemical compositions
Example: Dolomite Ca(Mg, Fe, Mn)(CO3)2
 - The presence of transition metals with unfilled
Ordered Atomic Arrangement
electron shells (e.g. V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, and
- A highly-ordered atomic arrangement indicates an Cu) in oxide and silicate minerals causes them to
internal structural framework of atoms (or ions) be opaque or strongly colored so that the streak,
arranged in a regular geometric patterns the mark that they leave when scratched on a
- Minerals are crystalline. Crystallines are white ceramic tile, will also be strongly colored
three-dimensional periodic arrays of precise geometric 4. Cleavage, fracture, and parting
arrangement of atoms. - Because bonding is not of equal strength in all
- Glasses such as obsidian, which are disordered solids, directions in most crystals, they will tend to
liquids (e.g., water, mercury), and gases (e.g., air) are break along crystallographic directions giving
not minerals. them a fracture property that reflects the
- Liquid water and mercury are classified as underlying structure and is frequently
MINERALOIDS. diagnostic.
- A perfect cleavage results in regular flat faces
resembling growth faces like in mica, or calcite.
Strong Clues to a Mineral’s Identity - A less well developed cleavage is said to be
imperfect, or if very weak, a parting.
1. Crystal form and habit (shape) - If a fracture is irregular and results in a rough
- The term used to describe the general shape of a surface, it is hackly.
crystal is habit. - If the irregular fracture propagates as a single
- There is a complex terminology for crystal surface resulting in a shiny surface as in glass,
faces, but some obvious names for faces are the fracture is said to be conchoidal
prisms and pyramids. 5. Tenacity
- Crystals that commonly develop prism faces are - Tenacity is the ability of a mineral to deform
said to have a prismatic or columnar habit. plastically under stress.
- Crystals that grow in fine needles are acicular; - Minerals may be brittle, that is, they do not
crystals growing flat plates are tabular. deform, but rather fracture, under stress as do
- Crystals forming radiating sprays of needles or most silicates and oxides.
fibers are stellate. - They may be sectile, or be able to deform so that
- Crystals forming parallel fibers are fibrous, and they can be cut with a knife.
crystals forming branching, tree-like growths are - Or, they may be ductile and deform readily
dendritic under stress as does gold.
2. Luster and transparency 6. Density
- The way a mineral transmits or reflects light is a - is a well-defined physical property measured in
diagnostic property. g/cm3.
- The transparency may be either opaque, - Most silicates of light element have densities in
translucent, or transparent. This reflectance the range 2.6 to 3.5.
property is called luster. - Sulfides are typically 5 to 6.
- Native metals and many sulfides are opaque and - Iron metal about 8, lead about 13, gold about 19,
reflect most of the light hitting their surfaces and and osmium, the densest substance, and a native
have a metallic luster. element mineral, is 22.
- Other opaque or nearly opaque oxides may - Density may be measured by measuring the
appear dull, or resinous. volume, usually by displacing water in a
- Transparent minerals with a high index of graduated cylinder, and the mass.
refraction such as diamond appear brilliant and - Specific gravity is very similar to density, but is
are said to have an adamantine luster, whereas… a dimensionless quantity and is measured in a
- Those with a lower index of refraction such as slightly different way.
quartz or calcite appear glassy and are said to - Specific gravity is measured by determining the
have a vitreous luster. weight in air (Wa) and the weight in water (Ww)
and computing specific gravity from SG = Wa /
3. Color and streak (Wa-Ww).
- Color is a fairly self-explanatory property
describing the reflectance. 7. Hardness
- Metallic minerals are either white, gray, or - This scale is approximately linear up to
yellow. corundum, but diamond is approximately 5
times harder than corundum.
 - Other optical properties such as index of
refraction and pleochroism (differential light
absorption) require an optical microscope to
measure and are the subject of a major section
of this course.
3. Electrical conductivity is an important physical
property but requires an impedance bridge to
measure.
- In general native metals are good conductors;
- sulfides of transition metals are
semiconductors;
- whereas most oxygen-bearing minerals (i.e.,
silicates, carbonates, oxides, etc.) are
Unique Properties insulators.
- Additionally, quartz (SiO2) is piezoelectric
1. A few minerals may have easily tested unique (develops an electrical charge at opposite end
properties that may greatly aid identification. under an applied mechanical stress); and
- For example, halite (NaCl) (common table tourmaline is pyroelectric (develops an
salt) and sylvite (KCl) are very similar in most electrical charge at opposite end under an
of their physical properties, but have a applied thermal gradient).
distinctly different taste on the tongue, with
sylvite having a more bitter taste. Rocks
2. Another unique property that can be used to
distinguish between otherwise similar back opaque Igneous Rocks
minerals is magnetism.
- For example, magnetite (Fe3O4), ilmenite - The same magma can form both rock types
(FeTiO3), and pyrolusite (MnO2) are all - Two types of igneous rocks are classified based on
dense, black, opaque minerals which can texture and composition
easily be distinguished by testing the a. Volcanic rocks - form when magma rises to
magnetism with a magnet. Earth's surface
- Magnetite is strongly magnetic and can be b. Plutonic rocks - form when magma solidifies
permanently magnetized to form a lodestone; below Earth's surface
ilmenite is weakly magnetic; and pyrolusite is
not magnetic at all Classification of Igneous Rocks

Other Properties A. Texture

- size of crystals of minerals in igneous rocks
1. There are numerous other properties that are depends on rate of cooling of magma
diagnostic of minerals, but which generally require - rapid cooling produces microscopic
more sophisticated devices to measure or detect. crystals
- For example, minerals containing the - slow cooling produces large, visible
elements U or Th are radioactive (although crystals
generally not dangerously so), and this - Crystal size interpreted to learn where
radioactivity can be easily detected with a rocks formed
Geiger counter. B. Color
- Examples of radioactive minerals are uraninite - color varies with silica content
(UO2), thorite (ThSiO4), and carnotite (composition)
(K2(UO2)(VO4)2 rH2O) - silica-rich minerals such as quartz
2. Some minerals may also be fluorescent under and feldspar are light
ultraviolet light, that is they absorb UV light and emit - colored (it's composed of these)
in the visible. - silica-poor minerals such as
amphibole, biotite mica are dark
 colored and is composed mainly of - sedimentary rocks hold clues to the environment
feldspar with iron and magnesium where they were formed: (like river channels) -
rich minerals High velocity flow in floods
➢ gravels (conglomerate)
Magma Types ➢ Moderate speed flow- sand (sandstone)
➢ Slow flow- muds (shale)
-Each magma type may produce two rocks-- one - 3 Stages of Formation:
volcanic, one plutonic 1. Generation
❖ Basaltic magma- partial melting parts of - physical and chemical breakdown
asthenosphere of any rock at Earth's surface
❖ Andesitic magma- partial melting of mantle (weathering) to form sediment.
rocks (with water) (sediment = rock and mineral
❖ Rhyolitic magma- melting of parts of fragments)
continental crust - Sediment classified by grain size
(Clay < Silt < Sand < Gravel) 2.
Rock Types 2. Transportation
- Erosion -> sediment moved from
a. Less viscous, low silica magma likely to place of origin by streams, wind,
reach the surface to form volcanic igneous glaciers
rocks (e.g. basalt) - size of transported grains depends
b. More viscous, high silica magma likely to on velocity of transport medium
cool below surface to form plutonic - Erosion produces characteristic
igneous rocks (e.g. granite) landscapes
3. Lithification
- Sediment deposited when velocity
Sedimentary Rocks of transport medium decreases
- Larger grain sizes deposited first,
- Sedimentary rocks form as horizontal layers (beds) finest grains remain in suspension
-identified based on composition, thickness & deposited last
- oldest beds at bottom, youngest at top - Over time, sediment is slowly
- 3 types of sedimentary rocks compacted and grains form a new
- identified by materials that make up the rock (lithification)
rocks and/or the process by which they formed
a. Clastic
b. Chemical Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
c. Biochemical - Form when minerals precipitate (crystallize) from
a solution as a result of changing physical
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks conditions
➢ Solutions = freshwater in lakes,
- Composed of rock and mineral fragments groundwater or seawater
- most common type of sedimentary rock ➢ Changing conditions commonly =
- rock names reflect grain size increased temperatures (evaporation)
➢ mudstone, shale made of clay, silt-sized - Can be readily dissolved in water and transported
grains to oceans
➢ sandstone composed of sand-sized particles - Rocks are typically indicative of shallow, coastal
➢ conglomerate made of gravel and larger marine conditions in geologic past
fragments ➢ Termed evaporites as most form by
- transportation process sorts grains so deposits precipitation due to evaporation
may have characteristic grain size (e.g., sand on a
beach)
Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks

- Link the biosphere and geosphere

- Form due to actions of living organisms that pressure and/or the presence of fluids.
cause minerals to be extracted from solution; ➢ Temperatures high enough to promote
- or from the remains of dead organisms chemical reactions but not high enough to
- Form due to actions of living organisms that cause melting
cause minerals to be extracted from solution ➢ Approximately 200 oC Æ1100 oC, depending
➢ the mineral calcite is present in the rock on rock type and conditions
limestone formed by coral organisms that ➢ Similar temperatures found deep in crust or
build tropical reefs near magma chambers
- May form from the remains of dead organisms
➢ Coquina -> limestone formed from broken Types of Metamorphism
shell fragments
➢ Coal -> carbon-rich rock formed from A. Contact metamorphism
compacted plant remains - Changes due to increases in temperature
- May form from the remains of dead organisms where rocks come in contact with heat
➢ Chalk formed from billions of coccoliths, source (e.g. magma chamber)
round plates of calcite from microscopic - Example: limestone around a magma
(claysized) coccolithophore organisms chamber is baked by the heat to form
➢ Chalk is a type of limestone marble
- May form from the remains of dead organisms B. Regional metamorphism
➢ Coccolithophores live in cold oceans - Increased heat and pressure associated with
➢ Reflect sunlight to change water color associated with plate tectonic processes that
➢ Chalk indicates specific marine conditions form mountains
in geologic past ➢ Increased pressures and
temperatures cause tabular minerals
Sedimentary Rocks and Fossil Fuels to take on a preferred orientation,
foliation, perpendicular to direction
World is heavily dependent on oil and natural gas. of pressure
- From buried organic rich sediments. - Higher temperatures and pressures yield
- Chemical reactions convert organics with more intense metamorphism
increased pressures and temperatures of 50-100 ºC. ➢ Grain size increases with degree of
- Over time (Myrs), oil and gas can form. metamorphism (metamorphic
- Oil and gas may be trapped to form hydrocarbon grade)
reservoirs ➢ Rock names vary with grain size

Sedimentary Rocks and Coal

The US has some of the largest coal reserves in the
world.
- Form from buried plants.
- Coal type (rank) depends on organic content of
parent material, burial depth and heat.
- Over time (Myrs), coal can form.
- Lignite (low grade); bituminous (medium);
anthracite (high)

Metamorphic Rocks

- Metamorphism
➢ Changes in mineral composition and texture
that can occur in any solid rock
➢ Changes due to increasing temperature and/or
 MINERAL RESOURCES

How are the Earth's Rocks recycled? What are mineral resources, and what are
their environmental effects?
The three major types of rocks found in the earth’s
crust—sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic— We can make some minerals in the earth’s crust
are recycled very slowly by the process of erosion, into useful products, but extracting and using these
melting, and metamorphism. resources can disturb the land, erode soils, produce
large amounts of solid waste, and pollute the air,
Minerals Vs. Rocks water, and soil.

Minerals Variety of Nonrenewable Mineral Resources

- Element or inorganic compound in earth’s crust
- Usually a crystalline solid & Regular and repeating 1. Mineral Resource
arrangement of atoms ➢ Can be extracted from earth’s crust and
Rock processed into raw materials and products
- Combination of one or more minerals at an affordable cost
- Types: ➢ Metallic minerals- Aluminum, Iron for
1. Sedimentary steel, Copper
- Sediments from eroded rocks or ➢ Nonmetallic minerals- Sand, Gravel,
plant/animal remains-- transported by Limestone
water, wind, gravity and deposited in ➢ Reserves- estimated supply of a mineral
layers and compacted resource
- Ex: Sandstone, Shale, Dolomite, 2. Ore
Limestone, Lignite, Bituminous coal ➢ Contains profitable concentration of a
2. Igneous mineral
- Forms below or at earth’s surface from ➢ High-grade ore & Low-grade ore
magma
- Ex: Granite, Lava rocks Ways to Remove Mineral Deposits
3. Metamorphic
- Preexisting rock subjected to high 1. Surface mining
pressures, high temperatures, and/or ➢ Shallow deposits removed, overburden
chemically active fluids removed first (Spoils: waste material)
- Ex: Anthracite, Slate, Marble 2. Subsurface mining (Underground Mining)
➢ Deep deposits removed
3. Type of surface mining used depends on:
Resource & Local topography
➢ Types of surface mining:
○ Open-pit mining
○ Strip mining
○ Contour strip mining
○ Mountaintop removal

Removing Metals from Ores Has Harmful

Environmental Effects
1. Ore extracted by mining
- Ore mineral
- Gangue = waste material
- Smelting using heat or chemicals
2. Air pollution
Rock Cycle
3. Water pollution
4. Liquid and solid hazardous wastes produced Case Study: The U.S. General Mining Law of 1872
5. Use of cyanide salt to extract gold from its ore
➢ Summitville gold mine: Colorado, U.S. [Link] mineral exploration and mining of
hard-rock minerals on U.S. public lands
Mining Has Harmful Environmental Effects 2. Developed to encourage settling the West
(1800s)
1. Scarring and disruption of the land surface 3. Until 1995, land could be bought for 1872 prices
➢ E.g., spoils banks 4. Companies must now pay for clean-up
2. Mountaintop removal for coal
➢ Loss of rivers and streams Is Mining Lower-Grade Ores the Answer?
➢ Air pollution
➢ Groundwater disruption 1. Factors that limit the mining of lower-grade ores
3. Biodiversity decreased ➢ Increased cost of mining and processing
4. Subsurface mining larger volumes of ore
➢ Subsidence ➢ Availability of freshwater
➢ Acid mine drainage ➢ Environmental impact
5. Major pollution of water and air 2. Improve mining technology
6. Effect on aquatic life ➢ Use microorganisms, in situ
7. Large amounts of solid waste ➢ Slow process
➢ What about genetic engineering of the
How Long Will Supplies of Nonrenewable microbes?
Mineral Resources Last?
Can We Extend Supplies by Getting More
All nonrenewable mineral resources exist in Minerals from the Ocean?
finite amounts, and as we get closer to depleting
any mineral resource, the environmental impacts of 1. Mineral resources dissolved in the ocean -- low
extracting it generally become more harmful. concentrations
Raising the price of a scarce mineral resource 2. Deposits of minerals in sediments along the
can lead to an increase in its supply, but there are shallow continental shelf and near shorelines
environmental limits to this effect. 3. Hydrothermal ore deposits
4. Metals from the ocean floor: manganese nodules
Supplies of Nonrenewable Mineral Resources ➢ Effect of mining on aquatic life
Can Be Economically Depleted ➢ Environmental impact
1. Future supply depends on: How Can We Use Mineral Resources for More
➢ Actual or potential supply of the mineral & Sustainability?
Rate at which it is used
2. When it becomes economically depleted We can try to find substitutes for scarce resources,
➢ Recycle or reuse existing supplies, Waste reduce resource waste, and recycle and reuse
less, Use less, Find a substitute, Do without minerals.
Depletion time: time to use a certain portion of ❖ Materials revolution
reserves ❖ High-strength plastics- Drawbacks?
❖ Nanotechnology
Market Prices Affect Supplies of Nonrenewable ❖ Substitution is not a cure-all- ( Pt: industrial
Minerals catalyst, Cr: essential ingredient of stainless
steel )
[Link] and tax breaks to mining companies ❖ Ceramics
keep mineral prices artificially low
2. Does this promote economic growth and Science Focus: The Nanotechnology Revolution
national security?
3. Scarce investment capital hinders the 1.. Nanotechnology, tiny tech- Uses
development of new supplies of mineral resources 2. Nanoparticles- Are they safe?
3. Investigate potential ecological, economic, Case Study: Pollution Prevention Pays
health, and societal risks
➢ Develop guidelines for their use until more 1. Begun in 1975 by 3M company, a very large
is known about them manufacturing company
2. Redesigned equipment and processes
3. Fewer hazardous chemicals
4. Recycled or sold toxic chemical outputs
5. Began making nonpolluting products
6. Company saved $1.2 billion
7. Sparked cleaner production movement

Three Big Ideas

1. Dynamic forces that move matter within the
earth and on its surface recycle the earth’s rocks,
form deposits of mineral resources, and cause
volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunamis.
2. The available supply of a mineral resource
depends on how much of it is in the earth’s crust,
how fast we use it, mining technology, market
prices, and the harmful environmental effects of
removing and using it.
3. We can use mineral resources more sustainably
by trying to find substitutes for scarce resources,
reducing resource waste, and reusing and recycling
nonrenewable minerals
 Second Chapter
WEATHERING
pressure and the underlying rocks then crack & fall
Weathering apart
- the breakdown of rocks. It turns bedrock into
Oxidation
sediment - From big rocks to smaller rocks
- -Oxygen combines with minerals to form oxides
Types of Weathering (iron + oxygen = Rust). This weakens the bedrock
making it softer and susceptible to weathering.
1. Physical Weathering - Just turn rocks into
smaller pieces Hydration/Hydrolysis
- Only changes size/ shape/texture
- Minerals absorb water and chemically change the
2. Chemical Weathering - involves the chemical
composition of the material
transformation of rock into one or more new
compounds.
Carbonation
Frost Wedging - When pollutants like Carbon Dioxide, Nitrogen &
Sulfuric Oxides mix with rainwater creating acid rain
- Freezing and thawing of water in cracks in the rock
that causes alternate expansion and contraction of Leaching/Dissolution
rocks eventually breaking them apart.
- Water is unique and dissolves most minerals and
metals in our environment.
Plant Action/ Biological Action
Factors Affecting the Rates of Weathering
- With plant growth the root system will increase in
volume and cause cracks in the rock to expand 1. Climate Differences
2. Particle Size and Shape
Wind Abrasion 3. Mineral and Rock Composition
- When wind causes sediments to have collisions
physical weathering results Climate Differences

1. Arid Climates - are very dry and the rate of

Water Abrasion
weathering is slow.
- Occurs in moist and humid climates; produces 2. Humid Climates - are moist and the rate of
rounded and angular sediments weathering is fairly fast
3. Cold and Humid - Physical weathering is
Ice Abrasion dominant at high latitudes altitudes, or in the
winter.
- Occurs in Polar Regions specifically in glaciers
- Frost Action and Glacial Abrasion
when sediments are trapped within the ice and scrape
4. Hot and Humid - Chemical weathering is
against the bedrock forming striations
dominant near the equator and in the summer.
- Oxidation and Hydration
Exfoliation / Pressure Unloading
- Decrease in pressure that results from removal of
overlying rock; top layers are removed releasing
 Particle Size and Shape Mineral and Rock Composition

1. Angular Sediments – have more surface area 1. Strong Chemical Composition - Some rocks are
and weather at a faster rate resistant to weathering because of their
2. Rounded Sediments – have less surface area and composition.
weather rate decreases 2. Weak Chemical Composition - Rocks that have
strong chemical compositions are more resistant to
weathering

SOIL

Products of Weathering

1. Sediments
● Solids – clastic sediments such as pebbles,
sand, silt or clay
● Colloids – suspended clay size particles
● Ionic Solutions – dissolved compounds in
water
2. Soil Types
● Residual – solid formed from the
weathering of local bedrock and have the
same mineral composition
● Transported – soil that has been moved and
the sediments are not of the same
composition as the parent rock
Soil Forming Process
1. Additions
2. Losses
3. Translocation - movement within the soil
4. Transformations - one component changes to
another
Climate
 Soil Textures ● Horizon A – top layer rich in organics and
minerals from biological activity (Organic
Material and Leached Zone)
● Horizon B – Sediments with minerals
dissolved from above (Mineral Enriched
Zone)
● Horizon C – Mostly weathered bedrock
(Broken Rock)

- O (humus or organic): Mostly organic matter

such as decomposing leaves. The O horizon is thin
in some soils, thick in others, and not present at all
in others.
- A (topsoil): Mostly minerals from parent material
with organic matter incorporated. A good material
for plants and other organisms to live.
- E (eluviated): Leached of clay, minerals, and
Soil Classifications organic matter, leaving a concentration of sand and
silt particles of quartz or other resistant materials –
missing in some soils but often found in older soils
and forest soils.
- B (subsoil): Rich in minerals that leached (moved
down) from the A or E horizons and accumulated
here.
- C (parent material): The deposit at Earth’s surface
from which the soil developed.
- R (bedrock): A mass of rock such as granite,
basalt, quartzite, limestone or sandstone that forms
the parent material for some soils – if the bedrock
is close enough to the surface to weather. This is
not soil and is located under the C horizon.

Controls of Soil Formation

1. Climate - Soils develop because of the

Soil Horizons weathering of materials on Earth’s surface,
including the mechanical breakup of rocks, and the
chemical weathering of minerals.

2. Parent Materials – This includes all different

types of bedrock and any type of unconsolidated
sediments, such as glacial deposits and stream
deposits. Soils are described as residual soils if
they develop on bedrock, and transported soils if
they develop on transported material such as
glacial sediments
3. Time - Even under ideal conditions, the soil
takes thousands of years to develop

4. Topography - Soil can only develop where

surface materials remain in place and are not
frequently moved away by mass wasting. Soils
cannot develop where the rate of soil formation is
less than the rate of erosion, so steep slopes tend to
have little or no soil
 MASS WASTING

Mass Wasting

- the transfer of rocks and soils downslope due to

gravity is called mass movement
Types of Mass Wasting Events

Factors of Mass Movement

Classification of Mass Wasting Process
➢ Angle of Repose -the maximum slope at
- Type of material involved which rock or other loose material can
➔ Soil (Engineering Soil) - any remain stable. If that angle is exceeded, the
unconsolidated or weakly consolidated material begins to move downslope.
material at the Earth’s surface, regardless of Coarser and more angular materials have
particle size or composition (definition only higher angles of repose than finer and
applies to MW discussion) rounded materials.
- can be DEBRIS, EARTH, MUD ➢ Climate – in higher latitudes, downslope
- Debris: coarse-grained fragments movement may be promoted by
predominate in the soil freeze-thaw cycles. Heavy rainfall in
- Earth: material is predominantly tropical climates tend to saturate the ground
fine-grained (sand, silt, clay) to promote mass movements
- Mud: has high content of water, clay and ➢ Rock type – certain rock types, such as
silt shale, may become very slick when wet so
- Rate of Movement that overlying rock layers may slide along
the shale.
➢ Structures – bedding planes and alignment
of crystals, as well as joints and faults may
present planes along which material may be
weaker
➢ Seismicity – provides additional energy,
especially where material is disposed at a
- Type of Motion critical angle of stability.
➔ Can be FLOW, SLIDE or FALL Controls of Mass Wasting
➔ Flow: descending mass is moving
downslope as viscous fluid ● Contour-farming
➔ Slide: descending mass remains relatively ● Terracing
intact, moving along one or more defined ● Nets
surfaces. ● Planting Different Crops
➔ Fall: material free-falls or bounces down a ● Dikes
cliff ● Installations of Drainage Systems
● Adding vegetation
 ENDOGENIC PROCESS
- Convecting materials in the Earth’s mantle
Internal Structure of the Earth originate deep, near the core-mantle boundary
- Most heat from the deep interior is transferred to
the shallow mantle by buoyant masses of hot,
low-density material called “plumes”.
- Heat of the upper mantle sets up shallow
convection cells that drive plate motions.

Endogenic Process

- Formed, located or occurring beneath the surface of

the earth.
Earth’s Internal Heat Engine - Endogenic Processes are geological processes that
occur beneath the surface of the Earth.
● 3 reasons for internal heat - It is associated with energy originating in the interior
1. from impact during Earth formation of the solid earth.
2. radioactive decay of uranium, - The ground we live on is moving all the time. The
thorium, potassium forces within the earth that cause the ground to move
3. heat released as inner core forms are called ENDOGENIC FORCES.
● Ways to transfer heat:
1. conduction – by motion of atoms How does it work?
(i.e. transfer of heat energy by direct
- When the ground moves, rock layers at the
contact)
surface of the earth are broken, twisted and shaken.
2. convection - mass movement of
- Land is destroyed in many places and created in
material (i.e. movement of heat by
other places.
actual motion of matter)
- When the land is shaped by Endogenic Forces we
● Hot materials are less dense and rise.
call this ENDOGENIC PROCESSES.
● Cooler materials are denser and sink.
Main Endogenic Processes
Formation of Magma
- Magma forms by melting of the earth’s crust or
melting within the mantle
● Decompression
● Melting (Constant Temperature, decrease
Pressure) Flux Melting (Volatiles)
- FOLDING & FAULTING or Tectonic
Movements.
- They take place mainly along the plate
boundaries, which are the zones that are not stable.
- Endogenic processes cause many major landform
features.

Folding

- When two forces push towards each other from

opposite sides, the rock layers will bend into folds.
- The process by which folds are formed are due to
compressional forces known as folding.
- There are large-scale and small-scale folds.
Large-scale folds are found mainly along destructive
plate boundaries.

Faulting
Types Of Faulting
- Faulting is the fracturing and displacement of more
● Normal fault (Convergence)
brittle rock strata along a fault plane either caused by
● Reverse fault (Divergence)
tension or compression.
● Tear fault (Transform)
- A break in rock along which a vertical or horizontal
● Faulting forms two major landforms - block
rock movement has occurred is called a fault.
mountains and rift valleys.
- The process of forming a fault is faulting.
- The line of fault which appears on land surface is
Other Endogenic Process
known as fault line.
- These lines are often lines of weakness which allow ● Volcanism (Volcanic Activity)
molten rock to rise up onto the earth surface when ● Metamorphism
there is active volcanic activity nearby. ● Earthquake (Seismic Activity)
 - Metamorphism is an endogenic process which
Volcanism
occurs when there is pressure and heat applied to
- VOLCANISM or magmatism (also known as geologic structures which leads to the formation of
volcanic activity or igneous activity) Metamorphic Rocks.
- Magma beneath the crust is under very great
pressure. When folding faulting occur, cracks or
fractures which are lines of weakness are created.
- When these lines of weakness develop downward in
the crust and the magma, they will release the
pressure in the magma.
- This allows magma to rise up along the lines of
weakness and intrude into the crust. Some magma
may even reach the earth's surface and some don’t.
- It has two types: intrusive & extrusive

Metamorphism
 Important Details
- Endogenic Processes are Processes that is formed
or occurring beneath the surface of the Earth.
- The Main Endogenic Processes are Folding and
Faulting (or tectonic movements).
- The Subsequent Endogenic Processes are
Volcanism, Metamorphism, and Earthquakes.
- Endogenic processes cause many major landform
features.
- Endogenic processes have been responsible for
shaping the earth’s geologic structures and the
formation of many of the most important mineral
resources.
Earthquakes
ENDOGENIC EXOGENIC
- An Earthquake or (Seismic Activity) is a sudden
shaking or vibration in the earth’s crust. Internal forces External forces
- When plates suddenly move past each other, the
built-up strain is released along the fault, and the rock Also known as Also known as
fractures. constructive forces destructive forces
- An earthquake also can be triggered by molten rock
moving up into the chamber of a volcano before the The ultimate source of Weathering, mass
eruption. energy behind forces wasting, erosion, and
that drive endogenic deposition are the main
movements is earth’s exogenic processes.
internal heat.

Convection currents in The exogenic forces

the mantle drive the derive their energy
lithospheric plates from the atmosphere
(crust and upper determined by the
mantle) and the ultimate energy from
movement of the the sun and also the
lithospheric plates gradient created by
(tectonics) is the cause tectonic factors.
behind endogenic
movements.

Endogenic forces Exogenic forces create

produce after-effects changes visible over a
that are visible only period of thousands or
after it causes sudden millions of years.
damage.

Examples: Earthquakes Examples: Winds,

and volcanic eruptions. rivers, glaciers etc