BRd 45(1)

CHAPTER 12

COASTAL NAVIGATION

CONTENTS

Para
1201 Introduction and Scope of Chapter
1202 Linkages to Ocean Navigation and Pilotage

SECTION 1 - PLANNING COASTAL NAVIGATION

1203 Checklists and NavPlan Preparation (Appraisal)

1204 Criteria for Route Selection (Planning)
1205 Clearance from the Coast and Offshore Navigational Dangers (Planning)
1206 Underkeel Clearances
1207 Creating the Coastal Passage Plan

SECTION 2 - ADDITIONAL PLANNING FACTORS

1208 Interaction Effects

1209 Concentrations of Fishing Vessels and Other Traffic
1210 Traffic Separation Schemes (TSS) and Other Routeing Measures
1211 Planning Coastal Navigation in Coral Regions

SECTION 3 - EXECUTION OF COASTAL NAVIGATION

1212 Required State of Navigation Systems and Equipment

1213 Fixing Priorities
1214 Keeping Clear of Dangers
1215 Execution of Passages in All Conditions of Visibility
1216 Additional Considerations in Fog
1217 Use of Waypoints/Track Control Systems
1218 Executing Passages in Coral Regions
1219 Records and Post-Voyage Assessment

SECTION 4 - TRAFFIC REPORTING AND MONITORING SYSTEMS

1220 Coastal Traffic Reporting and Monitoring Systems

1221 Port Traffic Reporting and Monitoring Systems

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CHAPTER12

COASTAL NAVIGATION

1201. Introduction and Scope of Chapter

This Chapter discusses coastal navigation, which is navigation within sight of land
but not in such proximity to dangers that pilotage techniques are required . Coastal
navigation can be some of the most complex and challenging for the mariner, as whilst the
ship will by definition not be so close to danger as during pilotage, the ship will usually be in
a lower state of readiness, and yet the coastal environment is potentially extremely busy with
other shipping, fishing vessels, yachts and hazards. In a warship, this complexity is often
further increased by the requirements to conduct warfare serials such as anti-submarine
exercises or flying operations, at night, in restricted visibility. Coastal navigation therefore
requires considerable care and attention both during the planning and execution of the
passage.

1202. Linkages to Ocean Navigation and Pilotage

Coastal navigation does not take place in isolation, and therefore coastal navigation
is intrinsically linked to both pilotage and ocean navigation techniques. This Chapter should
thus be read alongside both Chapter 11 and Chapter 13. A comprehensive passage plan
will include the seamless transition from pilotage to coastal navigation to ocean navigation
and back again as required.

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SECTION 1 - PLANNING COASTAL NAVIGATION

1203. Checklists and NavPlan Preparations (Appraisal)

a. Ship's Programme. For the purposes of this Chapter it is assumed that all the
necessary initial planning and research into the ship's programme and
exercise/operational requirements have been completed . See Para 1103 for details
of the requirements if not.

b. Appraisal. Once the requirements of the ship's programme have been

understood, appraisal of the following factors should be carried out as soon possible
thereafter. Details must be annotated in the NO's Workbook. This list is similar but
not the same as those for ocean navigation.

Table 12-1. Coastal Navigation Planning Factors

FACTOR/CONSIDERATION Iii '

Heiohts of tide and underkeel clearances alona the route
Limitino danaer lines alona the entire route
ETDs/ETAs and refined soeeds of advance (SOA)
Predicted tidal stream/currents with their likelv strenath and direction
Statistical meteoroloav <likely sea state, wind, foa, ice etc)
TSS, shiooing lanes, traffic densitv, likely concentrations of fishino vessels
Exercise oooortunities/exercise areas/submarine transit lanes/air lanes
Limitations of own shio/shios in comoanY (includina load line chanaes)
Rendezvous/reolenishment characteristics (includina half-onset deaths)
Maritime iurisdiction, innocent passaae and diplomatic clearance
lntelliaence reauirements/olannina
Restrictions on hiah-oowered radar/sonar/comms in certain areas
Mined areas and munitions picked uo at sea
T and P notices and radio NAVWARNs
Time zones and time zone chanaes
Available charts /ENC/RNC etc)
Oooortunities for landina/receivina mail
Availabilitv of non-GNSS NAVAIDs
Aooropriate RN sionals and reoorts
Public relations oooortunities
Cross-check all available sources of navioational and other information

c. Detailed Planning. Once the CO has approved the outline passage (including
the decision to go inshore if an offshore route is also available), the passage can
then be plotted in WECDIS. This work should include the following elements.
WECDIS should be configured for planning in accordance with BRd 45(8).

(1) Routes. Plot the routes including alternatives/diversions if required.

WECDIS calculates courses, distances to run etc automatically if correctly
configured.

(2) Limiting Danger Line. The limiting danger line (LDL) should be
calculated and plotted for the entire route, ensuring all dangers are enclosed . If
the automatic LDL plotting feature is used, it must be checked at 1: 1 scale.

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(3) Ephemerals. The NO should work-out ephemerals, including

sunrise/sunset times and locations along the route. If TotalTide is installed on
the WECDIS terminal and WECDIS is correctly configured then tidal
calculations are carried out automatically, but the NO should make a note of all
expected HOTs and changes in tidal stream; any significant changes should be
annotated in WECDIS with a mariner's note or other suitable correction.

(4) Areas and Other Ships. Exercise areas, RV positions, RAS boxes etc
should all be plotted, either from AMLs if available or as manual corrections.
RN/NATO Command Area chop lines should be drawn if relevant.

(5) Shipping and Routeing Measures. The locations of any concentrations

of fishing vessels should be plotted, as should any other expected merchant
shipping routes.

d. Detailed Command Briefing. Exactly as for ocean navigation, the NO should

deliver a detail briefing to Command before executing the transit, using WECDIS
and the supporting documentation. The NO should be able to answer any and all
questions the CO may have.

(1) Route Scans. The WECDIS route must be scanned by the system and
then checked manually at 1:1 scale by the NO before briefing the Command .
The route scan report should be printed and glued into the NO's workbook, with
any conflicts checked as safe. The route must then further be checked by the
CO by running the route scan function and then checking at 1:1 scale. A
ROUTE MUST NOT BE USED FOR NAVIGATION UNTIL IT HAS BEEN
CHECKED PERSONALLY BY THE CAPTAIN.

(2) Timing of Brief. The timing of the brief will naturally depend on many
factors, but it should always be in sufficient time that the Command can alter the
plan if required, leaving time to redraw it and recheck the route in WECDIS. For
the Officer in Tactical Command (OTC) of a group, the brief should be even
earlier, so that the approved route may be issued to ships in company for them
to conduct their own planning.

1204. Criteria for Route Selection (Planning)

The criteria and factors to consider when determining which route to select are very
similar for those in ocean navigation. The additional factors listed below should be taken
into account for coastal navigation in addition to those listed for ocean navigation.

a. Planning for Fog in Coastal Navigation.

(1) Speed. Consider the effect on the SOA of possible fog, especially it is
forecast or statistically likely. This is particularly the case if the transit is
navigationally difficult or likely to involve congested waters.

(2) Operational NAVAIDs. In a modern warship/RFA with fully functioning

NAVAIDs (dGPS, radar, echo sounder, WECDIS etc) then in fog it should make
relatively little difference whether the ship stays inshore or well offshore, other
than the possibly density of shipping. However, consider the advice in Chapter
12 that, all other things being equal, if the ship is due to stand offshore for an
ocean passage, and question why any coastal navigation is needed at all.
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(3) Fog Signals. As a result of both IALA policy and the proliferation of
modern NAVAIDs (see Chapter 8), fog signals are much less likely to be
encountered today. Rather, they are only to be used to warn of specific
hazards and to protect AToNs. Do NOT rely on fog signals to keep the ship
safe in fog .

.A
WARNING

DO NOT PLAN TO RELY UPON FOG SIGNALS FOR POSITION-FIXING

OR KEEPING THE SHIP SAFE.

b. Planning for Heavy Weather in Coastal Navigation. See BRd 45(6) for the
shiphandling and material preparation aspects of heavy weather.

(1) Speed. The effect on the SOA of possibly heavy weather should be
considered at the planning stage, especially for exposed waters .

(2) Shelter and Sea-Room. The direction from which heavy weather is likely,
and any opportunities for shelter or sea-room to leeward should it be necessary
to heave-to should be considered at the planning stage (especially if heaving-to
with a quartering sea). This is particularly the case for a sailing vessel; it is far
better to have identified suitable areas ahead of time rather than having to study
WECDIS in the middle of a storm. In heavy weather, a passage to leeward of
islands or dangers (such as the Western Isles in the UK, the Norwegian Inner
Leads, Patagonian Canals etc) is normally preferable. Consider also the effect
on the ship of any potential defects or breakdowns; is the passage still safe if
(for example) an engine is lost?

c. Traffic Routeing Systems and Reporting Requirements. Coastal navigation

routes may run through IMO adopted or national routeing systems such as TSS.
Any and all appropriate routeing and reporting regulations must be complied with.

d. Fishing Vessels. The mariner should expect to encounter fishing vessels or

fishing fleets in coastal waters. Concentrations of fishing vessels should be avoided
if at all possible.

e. Narrow, Ill-Lit or Difficult Channels. If possible, adjust the ETD/ETA or SOA

(or all three) to avoid passing through narrow, ill-lit or otherwise difficult channels at
night or during periods of adverse conditions (tidal streams etc). When planning
such transits, consider also the impact on the ship's routine (eg timings of special
sea dutymen and mealtimes) and fatigue levels of key personnel (OOW, NO, CO
etc). Overnight SOA adjustments will often ensure that the vessel arrives at the start
of a particular passage at dawn. The passage graph is the perfect tool for planning
all these aspects of the passage.

f. Visual Fixing by Night. Even in the absence of lights, islands or headlands

may still be used for fixing at night. They often stand out well with night vision aids
or ma_y be clearly visible on dark clear nights from background illumination ~
0
~oonl1gh!. _In W~CDIS, o~ce the fix bearing has been injected then from the fix
dialogue 1t 1s possible to adJust the fix reference point for an edge of land to
that the bearing is taken from the correct point. ensure

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g. Focal Points for Shipping. Density of shipping, traffic bottlenecks and

common waypoints (particularly for ships in track control) should be taken into
account at the planning stage. Many problems can be anticipated; for example,
ferry routes and planned ferry sailing times can often be calculated in advance from
freely available information. If the coast or other navigational hazards are on the
ship's starboard side, the track should allow sufficient sea-room for the ship to be
able to alter to starboard in accordance with the IRPCS without standing into
danger. In heavy traffic, the ship may be forced repeatedly to starboard, and in such
cases a bold alteration away from danger may be needed when the traffic density
allows.

h. Territorial Seas and Internal Waters. In coastal navigation, vessels are likely
to encroach upon territorial sea boundaries, and may even encounter national
internal waters, particularly when entering foreign ports. Territorial waters claimed
by countries are in UKHO's Annual Summary of Notices to Mariners, and shown in
the TW AML available from UKHO (ships should contact UKHO to ensure they have
the latest edition for the area of operations). All warships retain the right of 'innocent
passage' through territorial seas, but they are limited in their activities whilst doing
so; unless DIPCLEAR has been obtained, in general RN warships and aircraft
should avoid other nations' territorial seas if exercising or flying. For further details,
consult BRd 3012 or NCHQ.

i. Mine Danger Areas. Enormous numbers of mines were laid during both World
Wars, the Korean War, and more modern conflicts such as in the Gulf. Details of
former (and presently) mined areas may be found in the relevant sailing directions,
but see also NP 100 and the Annual Summary of Notices to Mariners.

(1) Surface Navigation. At the time of writing, the vast majority of formerly
mined areas have now been cleared and those that remain are generally
considered safe for surface navigation (notwithstanding that unexploded
ordnance is still found from time to time). Exceptionally, if areas are not
considered safe for surface navigation, they are shown as mine danger areas
on the chart (ENCIRNC).

Note. A minefield should be classified as a 'restricted area' on an ENC, and

0
thus generate an AGC and route scan alarm. This will not be the case on an
ARCS (raster) chart, in which case additional corrections will need to be
constructed by the NO in order to generate AGC alarms. Regardless, the
ship should keep well clear of any charted minefields etc.

(2) Anchoring, Trawling and Seabed Activity. Notwithstanding the safety of

surface navigation, there remains a real danger of encountering unexploded
ordnance if anchoring, trawling, or carrying out seabed operations of any kind in
former mined areas such as the Northern Gulf. See local sailing directions and
NP 100 for further details.

(3) New Minefields. In a time of conflict or tension between nations it is to be

expected that new minefields will be laid. Such actions will for obvious reasons
be unlikely to be publicised. Thus there can be no guarantee that unexpected
minefields will not be encountered at any time; see NP 100 for the actions to
take on sighting a mine.

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j . Making Landfall on a Featureless Coast. In the event that GPS is denied or

degraded, when planning to make a landfall on a featureless coast (such as the East
coast of India), then plan the landfall to be 10-15 miles to one side of the required
destination. That way, when encountering the coast, it will then be clear which way
to turn to close the destination, and once running along the coast, objects can be
sighted, identified and used for a check fix. In such a situation, the echo sounder
becomes the NO's most useful tool, and it will often be the first indication that the
ship is approaching the coast. Carefully planned ALERT and CHICKEN soundings
will be extremely beneficial in these conditions.

k. Cross-Checking Information. As with all navigation, the prudent navigator will

always cross-check all information with whatever other information is to hand.
Never rely on a single piece or source of information.

1205. Clearance from the Coast and Offshore Navigational Dangers (Planning)

a. Planning Coastal Navigation Routes. When planning coastal navigation

routes, the following general rules should be followed.

(1) Inshore versus Offshore. All things being equal, normally dGPS/GPS
will be the primary positions source, supplemented by RIO and/or visual fixing.
If so, then when planning an inshore transit it is necessary to plan to be
sufficiently close inshore that shore marks can be readily identified and used for
fixing (visually or by radar). If offshore, the track should be sufficiently far
offshore to minimise the risk of grounding due to error or machinery breakdown,
and to allow safe navigation in the event of fog (i.e. to be certain that the vessel
will not run into navigational danger during restricted visibility).

(2) Track Direction. As a general principle, a course parallel to dangers

should be chosen rather than one converging with them

(3) Safe Depths. Always plan to remain in a safe depth, and where possible
use plan to use depth contours as position lines and as safety tripwires (ALERT
and CHICKEN soundings).

b. Distances from Danger for Planning Purposes. When planning at what

distance to pass a navigational danger, the following guidelines are normally
adequate, but each case must be assessed on its own merits. Ensure that WECDIS
is correctly configured (safety depth etc) in accordance with the instructions in BRd
45(8). Where the standoff distances below cannot be achieved, consider a different
route or use pilotage techniques (and all that entails) for those portions of the
passage.

(1) Steep-to Coast. When the coast is 'steep-to', and soundings fall away
sharply, plan to pass at a distance of at least 1½ to 2 nautical miles. At this
distance, objects will be easily recognisable in normal (circa 10 nautical miles)
visibility.

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(2) Shelving Coast. When the coast is gently shelving, pass outside the
depth contour which gives an adequate underkeel clearance. Subject to the
weather, quality of survey, coastline type, fixing opportunities, dangers, tidal
streams, and any other circumstances or requirements for an enhanced safety
margin over and above standard underkeel clearances, the guidelines in Table
13-2 below will work for most purposes.

Table 12-2. Standoff Distances from Shelving Coast

DRAUGHT DISTANCE
Less than 3 metres Pass outside the 5 metre contour
3 to 6 metres Pass outside the 10 metre contour
6 to 10 metres Pass outside the 20 metre contour
More than 10 metres Pass in a depth of water appropriate to their
draught which gives a safe underkeel
clearance

(3) Unmarked Dangers near the Coast. Where dGPS/GPS is available

and/or fixing marks are adequate, aim to keep clear from unmarked dangers
near the coast by at least 1 nautical mile, provided there is sufficient sea room.
If GPS or fixing marks are not available, increase that distance. In any case,
unmarked dangers must be surrounded by an LDL and full visual/radar safety
(clearing bearings etc).

(4) Floating Marks. Floating marks, such as buoys, light-floats etc, should be
passed by at least five cables (half a nautical mile} if there is sea-room. See
BRd 134 for an example of what can happen if attempting to pass too close to a
buoy.

(5) Unmarked Dangers Offshore. When out of sight of land, and no

dGPS/GPS is available, if it is probably sensible to aim to pass at least 5 - 10
nautical miles from any unmarked dangers in daylight, and even further at
night. This distance can be reduced if GPS is available, or if the ship has an
INS of proven performance onboard.

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1206. Underkeel Clearances
The minimum safe underkeel clearance required at the deepest part of a vessel (or
at a variable depth sonar or other towed body) for any given time and location and set of
conditions is a Command decision and must be made by the Commanding Officer
advised by the NO. NCHQ does not 'authorise' COs to proceed at a given underkeel
clearance, but can provide advice and guidance, and once apprised of the proposed plan,
NCHQ will provide a recommendation (to proceed or not to proceed). See BRd 45(4)
Chapter 1 for a full discussion of this subject, especially Para 0105 and Para 0108 sub para
d. For the avoidance of doubt, the MINIMUM safe underkeel clearance which should
normally be accepted is 2 METRES; COs wishing to plan transits with non-standard
clearances should contact NCHQ (Fleet Navigator) in accordance with BRd 45(4) Para
0105. Having contacted NCHQ and received the NCHQ recommendation, the CO of the
ship must then determine how to proceed, taking into account all the circumstances of the
case, including those listed below, NCHQ's recommendation, and their own professional
judgement.

a. Factors Affecting Minimum Safe Underkeel Clearance. The following factors

should be considered when determining the minimum safe underkeel clearance.

(1) Reliability of the Chart. With an ENC, the CATZOC value will give a
clear indication as to the reliability of the area of the ENC in question, but in
general it is necessary to consider the scale of the chart, and the date and type
of survey. Moreover, consider the possibility of changes to the charted depths
since the last survey, especially where the seabed is unstable or prone to
phenomena such as sandwaves (eg the Southern North Sea, Thames Estuary,
the GUld, Malacca Straits, Torres Strait, Japanese waters etc).

(2) Reduced Depths. It is necessary to consider what reduced depths or

other obstructions may be encountered; for example, pipelines may stand up to
two metres above the seabed .

(3) Underway or Alongside. Different underkeel clearances may be

necessary when alongside, at anchor and underway, and in principle it is
possible to accept reduced underkeel clearances when alongside the berth, but
this should not be done without prior consultation with NCHQ. Reduced
clearances during the approach carry a greater degree of risk, but may be
acceptable (again having first consulted NCHQ) provided suitable mitigation
measures can be put in place.

(4) Uncertainties of Draught. In vessels of changing draught (such as LPD,

LSDA, submarines, RFAs), consider at what state of draught the ship will be in.
All vessels should consider their trim, and any changes caused by the
underwater configuration of the hull (for example, where a forward-looking echo
sounder must be deployed or where a manoeuvring pod must be lowered). It
may be unwise, for example, to accept a reduced underkeel clearance if that is
only possible with the sonar in a fully stowed position. Of equally critical
importance are the effects of speed and in particular squat; a passage that
might be safe at 8 knots might be unsafe at 16 knots.

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(5) Heights of Tide (HOT). It is of fundamental importance to consider the

predicted height of tide at the time, a well as any meteorological effects which
may have a bearing on the actual HOT experienced. Suitable margins of error
for early/late arrival, and limiting times (i.e. 'not before XXXX' and 'not after
XXXX') should be considered. Do not forget that the ship must be able to make
the exit as well as the entry.

(6) Heavy Weather and Swell. The effects of any heavy weather, and in
particular swell, should be considered, along with the effects of the ship's
intended course in relation to the running seas.

b. Underkeel Clearances in Benign Conditions. In benign conditions, with a

reliable modern chart, and when squat and other uncertainties are NOT considered
significant (having been formally assessed), then the following guidance may be
used.

(1) Secured Alongside or at Anchor. When the above conditions apply

alongside in harbour or at anchor, a minimum of 1 metre underkeel clearance at
the lowest tide is normally adequate.

(2) Underway. When the above conditions apply and the ship is underway,
the minimum acceptable underkeel clearance is normally 2 metres.

c. Adverse or Abnormal Conditions. In many circumstances the above 'benign'

conditions will not apply, in which case the Command may wish to apply and
increased underkeel clearance of 3 metres or even more. Furthermore, in some
ports local rules may require increased clearances in certain conditions or for certain
vessels. Such rules should be complied with.

1207. Creating the Coastal Passage Plan

Once all the necessary research and preparations have been completed, the coastal
navigation passage plan may be created, which should include creation of a WECDIS
voyage plan (see BRd 45(8)).

a. ETA/ETD/SOA Calculations. When calculating ETAs/ETDs/SOAs, there are

several points which should be taken into consideration.

(1) Use of Time Zones. In most coastal passages, time zones are unlikely to
change. However, if a time zone change is required, when calculating SOA and
ETA, always convert the ETDs and ETAs to ZULU time (GMT/UT). This makes
the calculations easier to carry out, and reflects the fact that WECDIS should
usually be operated in ZULU in any case (see BRd 45(8)). Once the
calculations have been carried out, they can be converted back to local time to
ensure they are correct.

(2) Bubble Times. It is a straightforward matter to display the ship's PIM in

WECDIS, but it may be helpful still to put mariner's notes or an appropriate
correction onto WECDIS to point out intended times of passing waypoints,
actions to take etc. Using the passage graph, they should be cross-checked to
make sure that the ship is not passing difficult points in darkness, for example,
and that evolutions do not clash.

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(3) Arrival Gates or Dummy ETA. It is usually prudent to use an arrival gate
or dummy ETA, say an hour's steaming from the true ETA. Driving the ship to
meet the dummy ETA should mean that the true ETA is thus easily achievable,
at a sensible SOA. Only using the true ETA runs the risk of either being late
(never acceptable), or having a very low SOA for the final run-in, which is un-
seamanlike and potentially dangerous.

Example. HMS NONSUCH is required to depart from TORBAY at 0800 on 13 April,

carrying out three hours' worth of delaying (zero-PIM) exercises, and pass Bishop Rock
outbound (a distance to run of 133 nautical miles), without exceeding 15 knots (maximum
speed in the most efficient engine state). The predicted tidal streams will cancel themselves
out over the period but the forecast wind (SW at approximately 18 knots) is estimated to
delay the ship by ¼ knot. The NO intends to allow ½ knot speed margin for unexpected
delays. Alf times are in ZULU. What time can the ship plan to pass Bishop Rock and what
is the SOA?

. . 133 nautical miles .

Time forpassage = . : · + 3 hours = 12¼ hours
· 15- (¼+½}knots ·

... ETA =_!_3_ 12 ¼ hours =

0700' . 1915
$OA =10,[Link]/ots (133 nailfical miles in 12.25 hours with 3 hours zero- PIM

b. The NO's Workbook. In RN/RFA vessels, the NO is required to keep a hard-

bound (i.e. not loose-leaf) 'NO's Workbook' in which all data and calculations for
future passages and pilotage are to be recorded. They should be indexed or tabbed
so that data can be easily found. Where necessary, printouts from computer
systems (WECDIS, TotalTide, NavPac etc) should be glued in. NO's Workbooks
are official documents and must be available for inspection in the event of a
navigational incident; they should be reviewed by the CO on a monthly basis.
NO's workbooks may also be used during a passage for recording navigational
observations and calculations during the course of a passage such as astro sights,
weather, currents, ground speeds, observations about shipping conditions etc; for
convenience, a second 'passage' workbook may be used for these. If more than
one NO's workbook is kept, they should be clearly labelled 'planning' or 'execution'
(or similar), together with the time periods for which they apply.

c. The WECDIS Voyage Plan. The NO should construct a voyage plan within
WECDS, using the naming conventions provided in BRd 45(8). The voyage plan will
consist of all the elements required for the safe and effective execution of the
passage, including routes, LDLs, clearing bearings and so on. See BRd 45(8) for
full details of the configuration and operation of WECDIS to support coastal
navigation. Fig 12-1 shows the major elements of a WECDIS voyage plan; to be
used_ for na~igation, it should also include the LDL and visual safety (clearing
bearings) which are omitted here for clarity.

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Fig 12-1. WECDIS Screenshot Showing Major Elements of Voyage Plan

™
lnlCK LaD1:1
(Planned SDeec

Waypolnt Label 1
(PIM QT.G, HOT an~ I
Predicted Set _& Drift)1 I
,ID I
- -....c:ll~' - - - I
Jrac~ Label j I Track Label
(Planned Course) L~ourse to Steer) [J••m

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SECTION 2 -ADDITIONAL PLANNING FACTORS

1208. Interaction Effects

The general term 'interaction' includes any or all of shallow water effects, squat,
canal effect and 'ship proximity interaction'. These forces, covered in detail in BRd 45(6)
which must be read and understood by all involved in handling ships at sea, are
fundamental physical forces which arise out of the complex interaction between the ship, the
seabed, and other ships. Interaction forces can be both insidious and enormously powerful,
and they can change quickly and without apparent warning; interaction forces are more than
capable of overwhelming the capacity of the engines and rudders to counteract them . They
thus deserve the greatest respect and must be taken into account at the planning stage, but
it must be remembered that, whilst the general principles are well understood, fluid dynamics
are so complicated that making precise predictions is unwise. The following is a brief
summary of the major points discussed in BRd 45(6).

a. Pressure and Suction. In summary, the Bernoulli effect causes a ship moving
through the water to generate zones of high pressure and low pressure (suction)
around it. In general, three distinct regions will be observed : a pressure zone
around and ahead of the bow, a suction zone amidships, and another pressure zone
around and abaft the stern. The aft pressure zone is normally less powerful than the
bow pressure zone, and all pressure and suction zones extend laterally and
vertically away from the ship. The effect of these zones can be likened to the effects
experienced standing on a railway platform as a train passes through at high speed.
Moreover, as it is the flow of water past the hull which creates these effects, the
same phenomena is experienced if the ship is stationary in moving water (such as a
river).

b. Magnitude of Interaction Forces. Bernoulli found that the change in pressure

varied with the square of the velocity of the flow. Thus, forces will build quickly as
speeds increase, but so does a reduction in speed have significant effects as well:
halving speed reduces the interaction force by a factor of four. Interaction effects
will be intensified in areas such as rivers, canals and narrow channels where the
flow of water is already intensified.

c. Forms of Interaction. Interaction can be thought of as taking the following

specific forms; note that a ship may experience more than one at the same time
(and the various forms of interaction will affect one another as well).

(1) Shallow Water Effect (SWE). In shallow water, the effect of interaction is
to reduce the ship's speed over the ground, reduce steering control , increase
the size and shape of the wake patter, alter (worsen) the
acceleration/deceleration characteristics, and decrease the underkeel clearance
(see squat). The first indications of SWE are likely to be a noticeably enhanced
wake taking on a very wide 'V' shape, which can endanger small craft nearby
and potentially damage nearby coastlines. The ship may also start to vibrate,
and speed over the ground may drop noticeably (performance will not match
expected 'turns per knot'). Shallow water effects are intensified in laterally
confined waters compared with open sea.

A •• - •• - • ,_,_. ft •• 12•13
BRd 45(1)

(2) Squat. Squat is a si;iecific element of SWE, and is arguably one of the
most critical. Assuming a level seabed, squat can be defined as:

Squat is the decrease in underkeel clearance which occurs when a ship is

making way or alongside/at anchor in a flow of moving water.

Strictly speaking, what happens is that the local water level is lowered around
the ship due to the low pressure zone which is formed between the hull and the
seabed, but it is noticeable onboard as the reduction in underkeel clearance.
Squat is proportional to the speed of the ship, and can be significant.

(3) Canal Effect. In a narrow channel, canal or river, horizontal interaction

forces, known as canal effect, cause lateral forces which can easily throw a ship
off course if they become significantly unbalanced. This is particularly likely to
occur if the ship gets too close to one bank or the other, or the bank profile
changes on one side (an inlet for example). A sheer off course can also occur if
the ship passes near a submer1;1ed shoal on one side with deep water on the
other. If the water is also shallow (as will often be the case in narrow channels,
canals and rivers), these effects will be magnified and the other aspects of SWE
experienced in enhanced form

(4) Interaction between Ships. Ships passing in close proximity to one

another can also result in something similar canal effect occurring. This may
happen when passing or overtaking at close quarters (such as in a canal, river
or narrow ehannel), or when undertaking an activity such as replenishment at
sea. Large forces are generated on the side of the ship, which may affect
steering, speed and squat, and these effects will be magnified in shallow water.
These forces have been responsible for a number of incidents; see BRd 134 for
more details. When planning RAS operations, it is essential to consider the
combined displacement of the replenishment group, its speed and the available
depth of water.

d. Shallow Water Effect (SWE) Onset Depths (Single Ship). The onset depth,
or the depth of water at which SWE starts to become meaningful, depends on the
ship's speed and displacement. The formula below indicates the onset depth at
which SWE is likely to start occurring for a single ship in open water; the result of
this calculation is known as 100% onset depth. Depths shallower than the 100%
onset depth are known by their fraction of the onset depth; for example 'half onset
depth' or '50% onset depth'. See BRd 45(6) for full details on the onset depth and
RAS planning, but it is extremely dangerous to attempt a RAS in water
shallower than half onset depth and this MUST NOT be attempted.

100% onset depth (metres)= velocity (knots) x (tonnes)

WARNING

A CONDUCTING A RAS IN WATER SHALLOWER THAN 50% ONSET

DEPTH IS DANGEROUS AND MUST NOT BE ATTEMPTED. CONTROL
ALONGSIDE IS LIKELY TO BE LOSI ENTIRELY BY 40% ONSET DEPTH.

12-14
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 BRd 45(1)

e. Consequences of SWE. Once the onset depth is reached, SWE will cause a
loss of speed which usually starts to become very noticeable by about half onset
depth. It increased as the depth reduces, and starts to become significant at 25-
30% onset depth. SWE also impairs steering control as the effectiveness of the
rudders is reduced, and it will take longer to accelerate\decelerate (both in time and
distance). This is the case even if astern power is required; this effect has caused a
number of berthing incidents.

f. Squat. Squat is caused by the increased velocity of the water flow between the
hull of the ship and the seabed , which leads to a localised reduction in the pressure
field (sometimes called suction). This leads to a reduction in the underkeel
clearance. It is essential that squat is calculated and applied to the LDL
calculation, as otherwise squat may account for a significant amount of the
designed safety margin (usually two metres).

(1) Block Coefficient. The shape of a ship's hull governs its resistance to
movement through the water; this may be represented numerically by the block
coefficient (Cb). This value is of critical importance when calculating the squat
likely to be experienced. A rectangular block of steel would have a Cb of 1.0,
and an infinitely thin streamlined rod would have a Cb of 0.0; real warship Cb
values vary but generally range from about 04 to 0.7. Block coefficients are
easily calculated for an individual ship, and should be recorded in the navigation
data book.

Cb = volume of displacement
· length X beam X draught

. _ displacement weight (:tonnes)

Volume of dtsp/ace.,:nep t - wat~[ ge_
nsitj

The density of water is usually taken as 1.025 for Cb calculations, but this may
vary particularly if moving from seawater to freshwater or vice versa.

(2) Squat by the Bow or Stern. Although squat results in a 'mean bodily
sinkage', and indeed is sometimes known as bodily sinkage, it is unusual for a
ship to squat uniformly. In ships with a zero trim when static and a block
coefficient less than about 0.70 (which includes most warship hulls), squat is
usually greater at the stern than the bow. In ships with a zero trim and a block
coefficient greater than 0.70, the bow usually squats more than the stern. If the
ship is not in a level trim when static, when the ship is moving then squat will be
greater towards the deeper end of the ship.

(3) Effect of Speed on Squat. In a flow of water, the decrease in pressure of

the flow varies with the square of its velocity. By definition then squat is also
proportional to the square of the ship's velocity (speed). Thus a ship passing
fast over a shallow patch may be in danger of grounding due to squat.
However, as squat is proportional to the square of the ship's speed, a small
reduction of speed has a significant effect in reducing squat, thus rapidly
reducing the danger of grounding in shallow water.

12-15
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BRd 45(1)

(4) Squat in Very Shallow Open Water (Depth 1.1 to 1.4 times Draught).
The 'open water squat equation' below gives estimates for squat in very
shallow open water, where the water depth (H) divided by maximum draught (T)
is between 1.1 to 1.4 (i.e. for a 7m draught ship, water depths of between 7.7
and 9.8m). This equation is not yet fully proven and calculations from it
should be treated with caution.

( Velocity [ knots 1)2

Very Shallow Open Water Squat (metres) = Cb x - - -- -
100

&
CAUT"ION

The formula above is not fully proven. Calculations and data taken
from this formula should be treated with particular care.

(5) Squat in Shallow Open Water (Depth 2 to 3 times Draught). Reliable

equations are not available for depths greater than 1.4 times draught (probably
due to the complexity of the fluid dynamics involved), but available evidence
suggests that squat may reduce sharply. At depths of twice the draught, squat
experienced is thought to fall to 50-75% of that calculated above, but this data
must be treated with caution (see CAUTION above). At three times draught,
squat is believed to fall to about 25-50% of that calculated above. However,
even uncorrected squats for most warships are relatively small at most speeds
compared to those greater depths of water.

(6) Squat in Confined Channels - Blockage Factor. If the ship is in a

confined channel or canal, squat will be greater because the sides of the
channel restrict the water flow further, increasing its velocity more than in the
equivalent depth of open water. The confined channel's 'blockage factor', which
may be applied to the formula for squat, can be estimated, and the details of
how to do this are contained in BRd 45(6). These equations remain unproven
however and are of doubtful practical value in most conditions due to the
difficulty of estimating all the necessary values. They are therefore not repeated
here.

12-16
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 BRd 45(1)

g. Canal Effect. The hydrodynamic forces acting on a ship are intensified in a

canal because the water is both shallow and confined, with the ship continuously
close to the solid banks and bottom. In addition to the squat occurring in confined
waters, the loss of speed is more substantial, a powerful wake wave pattern is
generated ahead and astern , and the lateral forces arising from the ship's movement
in relation to the banks (known as bank effect) can have a profound effect on
steering. The sum of all these forces is known as canal effect. See BRd 45(6) for a
full description of the canal effect.

(1) Bank Effect. When a vessel is not navigating on the centreline of a canal,
the flow of water between the vessel's hull and the nearest bank becomes
relatively more confined, and thus there is a local increase in velocity and a
locally reduced pressure field (i.e. suction) between the ship and the near bank.
In principle, this would tend to 'suck' the ship towards the near bank, but in
practice, the forces are unequally distributed and the resultant force will tend to
act aft of amidships, creating a turning moment which usually (although not
always) is strong enough to overcome the bodily movement. Thus, when the
bank effect is felt, rather than move laterally towards the near bank, the ship will
in fact sheer away from it, sometimes violently. A ship sheering away from the
solid bank or wall is often described as being 'pushed off by the bow pressure
wave' which, whilst it helps to visualise what is happening, is not fundamentally
the cause of this phenomenon.

(2) Smelling the Ground. A very similar situation to bank effect occurs when
the ship passes a submerged bank or shoal. Passing too close or too fast to a
submerged shallow patch can cause the ship to 'smell the ground', when the
sudden change in the water flow generates an unequal pressure field causing
the ship to sheer unexpectedly, and often violently, away from the underwater
slope that it is passing. This can happen extremely quickly, and the forces are
often such that there is no hope of counteracting them with the rudders. Fig 12-
2 below is a graphic illustration of the 'smelling the ground' phenomenon; it was
taken by the ship's aircraft moments after the outbound ferry (red hull and white
superstructure) smelt the ground on the shoal marked by Outer Spit Buoy. It
can be seen from the ferry's wake that she has sheered off her course by 90°,
such that she was on a collision course with the warship. Fortunately collision
as avoided (by about 10 metres) by the swift application of 'full ahead' power in
the warship (hence the cloud of dense black smoke), and full rudder and full
astern power in the ferry. The ferry was proceeding at 18 knots before the
incident.

12-17
Auau!':t ?n1 R \1.,..~•-- •
BRd 45(1)

Fig 12-2. Smelling the Ground ...

. -
i:'iii
lo!~ · .. .
:--.
•.. .-..
'
, .
. ·-'-· - ...:~~~-:·-~;.
'"'.·.•· f'. •

t
.
tt'.6i)'.,_ ·- ~ ;;!lliii::11;::::i!r----= .

- ~- ,I. . ~·... ~.'.

·- : . :.i "" . .. -· .
~-- ..C ' . ..
b,;;;..
~- · -,.·~
-· · •
~-- :::: •" - _. ------,.. . . . -
_r . . •~ . .(•
·· -l

~:Ji''f.;..:Y
-~-. --:-, , ,,.~9.~rrf~:~~ ·' ' ;:} ,,.J
- ' --
.
?ti - -
- - · ., .u
- , ,.,. ...,,.,.,,tt
-- - . o.r
_ _,. _
=·• : .. :·- .
,.,..--- -
, c,,...;.c '
-
\ -· - ~
r

(3) Wave Generation in Canals. Whenever any ship is underway, some of

the propulsion energy is lost in generating a wave pattern astern and ahead of
the ship, although at sea the ahead wave pattern is generally not noticeable. In
a canal however, both wave patterns are enhanced. If the ship is proceeding
too fast, then a high energy 'wave of translation' is generated ahead and astern
of the ship, which moves at a speed depending on the square root of the depth
and may travel for many miles ahead of the ship. Substantially enhanced stern
wave patterns (wake) will also be generated, both waves having the potential to
cause damage to the waterway itself and disruption to other uses. In addition,
when slowing down, the stern wave may overtake the ship which can cause
shiphandling difficulties at a time when precise control is often required. Speed
limits in canals, rivers and confined waterways are to be strictly complied
with by RN warships and auxiliaries; this includes areas such as the
Solent where substantial wakes can be generated and have caused
serious damage ashore.

(4) Canal Speed. The shallow water in a river or canal reduces the efficiency
of the propellers and rudder; propeller RPM can reduce by as much as 15-20%,
often leading to more power being ordered in an erroneous attempt to correct
the problem. For a given canal, a ship has a specific critical speed, known as
canal speed, which cannot be exceeded safely as handling and steering
become erratic. Speed limits in canals and rivers take canal speed into account
and must be complied with.

12-18
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 BRd 45(1)

h. Interaction. Whenever two ships pass or operate close to each other,

interaction will occur as a result of the change in water flows and thus change in the
pressure and suction between them. This will be exaggerated in shallow water, and
by disparity in in ship sizes where the effect on a small ship will be greater than the
effect on a large ship.

(1) RAS Operations - Onset Depth. The onset depth for RAS operations
must always be calculated, using the combined displacement of the
replenishment group rather than just that of own ship. 50% and 100% onset
depth contours are easily plotted in WECDIS and this should be done as part of
routine RAS planning. Significant interaction will be experienced at depths
shallower than 70% onset depth; with extreme care abeam RAS can be
conducted at depths between 70% and 50% onset depths. In water shallower
than 50% onset depth an abeam RAS cannot be safely attempted, and in
water shallower than 40% onset depth control alongside will be lost altogether;
in waters of those depths, astern RAS will be the only option.

WARNING

A CONDUCTING A RAS IN WATER SHALLOWER THAN 50% ONSET

DEPTH IS DANGEROUS AND MUST NOT BE ATTEMPTED. CONTROL
ALONGSIDE IS LIKELY TO BE LOST ENTIRELY BY 40% ONSET DEPTH .

(2) Overtaking in Shallow Open Water. In shallow water, special care must
be taken when overtaking, as interaction can have an effect over substantial
distances and has the potential to pull ships together.

(3) Overtaking and Passing in Shallow Confined Water. In shallow

confined water such as a canal, the interaction effects due to overtaking will be
hugely enhanced and the utmost caution must be exercised . Safe overtaking
may not be possible in these circumstances.

Note. For many years, interaction was only poorly understood, if at all, but it
is all but certain that interaction caused the collision between RMS OLYMPIC

0
and HMS HAWKE in the Solent in 1911. Contemporary descriptions indicate
that HAWKE's behaviour was almost certainly due to the enormous
interaction effects caused by two large ships trying to pass at speed in
relatively confined waters; calculating the onset depth using the ships'
combined displacement shows that the event took place in water much
shallower than 50% onset depth.

1209. Concentrations of Fishing Vessels and Other Traffic

Use all available information to plot like or possible concentrations of fishing vessels
and other traffic. Consider whether it may be necessary to plan to pass such concentrations
of vessels in daylight, or whether other steps such as enhanced personnel or material states
may be required.

12-19
BRd 45(1)

1210. Traffic Separation Schemes (TSS) and Other Routeing Measures

Traffic separation schemes (TSS) and other routeing measures are covered in detail
in BRd 45(9), but a brief summary is given here. Some TSS and routeing measures can
have legal force and must be complied with by RN warships; there is no excuse for
choosing to use (for example) the inshore traffic zone other than as permitted by the IRPCS.

a. Routeing Systems in Territorial and International Waters. The IMO is the

only body which is able to establish traffic routes in international waters (as by
definition national bodies do not have jurisdiction). Under SOLAS, national bodies
are responsible for developing routes in their territorial seas, and for making
proposals to the IMO where territorial seas impinge upon international waters. Thus,
routeing systems may either be national systems confined purely to territorial seas,
or they may be 'internationally adopted' systems authorised by the IMO. Rule 10 of
the IRPCS applies only to TSS adopted by the IMO. Adopted TSS are detailed in
the Annual Summary of Notices to Mariners.

b. Charting and Terminology. The IMO publishes a governmental level 'Ship's

Routeing' book, which standardise the symbols and terminology used to chart TSS
and describe them. The symbols and systems contained in the book are used by all
national hydrographic offices for TSS, and are part of the !HO-mandated
presentation library for ENCs.

c. Elements of a TSS. So far as the practical mariner is concerned, the primary

regulation governing use of a TSS is Rule 10 of the IRPCS, which should be read
alongside this paragraph. The IRPCS are the authoritative document.

(1) Structure of a TSS. A TSS consists of two traffic lanes, running in

opposite directions which are divided by a separation zone or a separation line.
The outer edges of the traffic lanes are shown on the chart by pecked magenta
lines, and the separation zone by a shaded magenta area; a separation line is
shown by a solid magenta line. There should be little difference between the
depiction of a TSS on a raster chart compared with an ENC.

(2) Inshore Traffic Zones (ITZ). A TSS may have an associated but
separate inshore traffic zone (ITZ) located between the coastline and the traffic
lane closest to that shore. Rule 1O lays down precise conditions for their usage,
which must be complied with by RN warships.

(3) Separation Lines and Separation Zones. Rule 1O normally requires

vessels_ on passage through an IMO adopted TSS to keep clear of the
separation zone or separation line. Vessels crossing the TSS are to do so on a
h~adi_ng (i.e. not course made good) as nearly as practicable at 90° to the
direction of traffic flow in the traffic lane(s).

(4) Direction of Flo~. Rule 10 requires vessels on passage through an IMO

adopted TSS to ke~p _in the appropriate traffic lane for the direction of travel.
The flow of traffic w1th1n the TSS will be arranged to extend the convention of
Rule 9 of the IRPCS to keep to the starboard side of the channel. The direction
of flow in each lane is shown by magenta arrows with a sold outline· pecked
magenta arrows should the recommended direction of traffic flow at Junctions
between TSS.

12-20
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 BRd 45(1)

(5) Junctions. In larger, more complicated schemes (such as in the North

Sea), there are junctions where more than one TSS meet. A vessel should
proceed from one traffic lane to another by following the general direction of the
pecked flow arrows, taking into account any specific local regulations.

(6) Manoeuvring in TSS. Rule 10 regulates manoeuvring in TSS, but

arguably the most important aspect is that vessels navigating in a TSS have
no special privilege, other than the requirement in Rule 10(i) and 100) that
they must not be impeded by vessels engaged in fishing, sailing vessels, and
vessels less than 20m in length.

(7) Sources of Information. Strictly speaking, Rule 10 only applies to IMO-

adopted TSS. However, most national TSS follow Rule 10. General and
specific information concerning a TSS may be found on the chart, on special
Mariner's Routeing Guides produced by UKHO, the Annual Summary of Notices
to Mariners, sailing directions, and NP 100.

Fig 12-3. Example of TSS and Other Routeing Schemes

(Raster Chart)

' 'Area to Be Avoided' around

'Two-way Route' : a navigation aid, marked
with 'One-way' sections 1 by 'T' sh_!lped

---::,- --'- , j ;VJ

]

I • : T TT T
~ .::'.-----,
(?)
',
',C: _:;
_ _ - T- ~
=::1
1
~,,..

/=' . ~· . .,,._,..,
¢ - -"
Precautionary
Area symbol,

,., ~C~
( L._....,.--...-
-- ¢ --- f ithl' Its rkd
- oacc<:,
- - - - - , , ' - •-, (see
_ Not , ""~ f w 1m ma e
00
,---- - -- -::::-". 1 , .7
-- -

r
f
T
l :TTT TT TT TT T
- - - - '

Area to be
Deep Water (DW)
~~oute, as part of a
'One-way' Traffic Lane
f Al'Cideo • '~ I
'Area to pe (see Nole) I
Avolde~• ,, , '
,'

-
:
of stranding . ___ , '
<:=-==::, ¢=

i± DW2~5 -- -- :
~ - - ~---
===!>
Recommended directions of
traffic flow, for ships not
needing DW Route
- -- --- -
'Two-way Deep Water (DW)
Route', with minimum depths

12-21
August 2018 Version 1