BRd 45(1 )

CHAPTER 7

FIXING

Para
0701. Introduction and Scope of Chapter
0702. Errors
0703. Authorised Fixing Methods
0704. Fix Intervals

SECTION 1 - VISUAL FIXES

0705. Visual Fixing Devices and Systems

0706. Methods of Obtaining a Position Line
0707. Transferred Position Lines
0708. The Running Fix
0709. Selection and Use of Visual Marks
0710. Adjustment of Fixes for Compass Errors
0711 . Actions on Obtaining a Cocked Hat

SECTION 2 - RADAR

0712. Use of Radar for Navigation

0713. Range Errors and Corrections
0714. Bearing Errors and Corrections
0715. Radar Frequencies
0716. Radar Fixing
0717. Radar Image Overlay and Parallel Indices

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CHAPTER 7

FIXING,

0701. Introduction and Scope of Chapter . , .. .

. ·ng is the term used for the act of determining the ship s pos1t1on at a fixed
F IXI h h"
moment in time. Fixing is always retrospective i.e. it tells you where t e s 1p was at the
moment the fix was taken. Strictly, this is true even for fixing by continuous GPS feed, but
the latency is so limited that GPS can be taken to be a real or near real time position. For
other fixing methods, the latency may be only a few seconds up to a few min~tes. or even
more. The introduction of WECDIS has, in the majority of cases, greatly simplified the
process of fixing for the OOW, as much of the work previous!~ done b~ hand _on the chart is
now done mathematically by the computer. Nevertheless, fixing remains a vital task for the
OOW, and, when the day inevitably fails when GPS is denied, is the only way the ship can
be safely navigated.

0702. Errors
The basic building block of a fix is the position line. A position line is a line,
reference to another object, along which the ship is line. To achieve a fix, two position lines
are required; where they intersect must be the ship's position at the time of fix. However, in
the real world, errors introduced into the fix will mean that the ship's true position will almost
certainly not be where the position lines cross. These errors can come from many sources:
differences between the time the two measurements were taken, errors in the measurement
device, errors in the charted position of the mark used for the fix, plotting errors on the chart
or in WECDIS, and so forth. Thus, for practical purposes, a fix should consist of at least
three position lines, which allows for confidence in the resulting position and for an
assessment of the errors involved in this fix. See BRd 45(9) for a more detailed discussion
of the errors involved in different fix methods, and how these relate to most probable position
(MPP) and position probability area (PPA). Whenever the three position lines do not cross
one another perfectly, the result is known as a cocked hat; the cocked hat may be large or
small, and must be treated differently in each case. The definition of a large cocked hat as
opposed to a small cocked hat is arbitrary and must in each case be decided upon by the
OOWINOICommand at the time. The cocked hat acceptable in an astro fix in the middle of
the Pacific Ocean will be very different to that accepted for a visual fix on the Clyde.

e
Note. When a cocked hat occurs, the convention is normally to select the
'most dangerous' corner of the cocked hat as the ship's position. In fact, it
can be shown that statistically the ship's true position is most likely outside
the cocked hat entirely (see BRd 45(9)). Whenever there is any doubt as to
the safety of the ship, the ship must either be stopped a/together, or turned
away from danqer.

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0703. Authorised Fixing Methods
A number of different methods for obtaining a fix exist. They are listed below in the
standard order of priority. Readers should refer to BRd 45(8) for details of WECDIS setup
and position source hierarchy. Regardless of the order given below, the ultimate choice of
which fixing method to use in any given circumstance is up to the Command, and the
command must always be satisfied that the fixing method in use is safe and operationally
effective.

Table 7-1. Authorised Fixing Methods

FIXING METHOD REMARKS

Global navigation satellite system RN to use SMSM-equipped GPS wherever
possible; differential GPS preferred where in range
and stable
Visual Visual fix by gyro angles of charted or shot-up
obiect
Radar Radar fix by range from charted or shot-uo obiect
Bathvmetric/bottom contour Echo sounder fix based on soundinas
'Esoteric' fix Visual fix using sextant angles or other
unconventional means
PILOTAGE Visual pilotage techniques to be used when in
pilotage waters

0704. Fix Intervals

Careful consideration must be given to the fix interval chosen , which must balance
the competing demands of safety, operational effectiveness, and OOW workload. When
WECDIS is operating in the normal seagoing lineup, fixing will be by continuous GPS feed,
backed up by radar image overlay/operator fixes, in which case it is a question of when to
inject check fixes. When GPS is denied or defective, then an appropriate fix interval should
be chosen. With paper charts, these were semi-standard and usually chosen for ease of
mental mathematics (using the rules that in six minutes a ship cover's a tenth of its speed,
and in three minutes it covers its speed in hundreds of yards). In coastal waters therefore a
fix interval of six minutes would be standard. In constrained waters, three minute fixing
would be required . In pilotage waters, fixing would be at least once per leg, and then at least
every three minutes on long legs.- In the WECDIS era, there is no need to ease the mental
burden on the OOW but the fixes must be sufficiently frequent that the Command can have
confidence in the WECDIS position. In particular, a fix must be taken as soon as possible
following an alteration of course, and whenever there is any doubt as to the position of the
ship.

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SECTION 1 - VISUAL FIXES

0705. Visual Fixing Devices and Systems

A visual fix consists of three or more position lines generated by the visual bearing
of a distant object of a known position i.e a charted object. A number of systems exist for
obtaining a visual bearing (and hence a visual fix). In the RN, by far the most common is the
Admiralty pattern azimuth circle fitted to a compass repeater, although this is being
progressively replaced by alternative pattern devices based on merchant service
instruments. For true (as opposed to relative) bearings, the operation of the azimuth circle is
of course underpinned by a gyro compass or other attitude and heading reference system
(AHRS) of sufficient accuracy.

a. The Admiralty Pattern Azimuth Circle. The standard Admiralty pattern

azimuth circle, pictured below, is easy to use and is proven to be accurate in all
conditions. Bearings can be taken to an accuracy of 1° without difficulty, and most
experienced operators should be able to take bearings to the nearest half degree.
The Admiralty pattern azimuth circle used a curved prism, which means that so long
as the object is seen through the 'V' of the sight then the correct bearing can be
read, even if the azimuth circle is not aligned to the object. A line is engraved on the
face of the prism to assist in the reading of the bearing. Reflections of high altitude
objects on the black mirror are sighted through the 'V' sight; for these bearings, the
bubble is used to keep the azimuth circle horizontal for maximum accuracy. Shades
are provided for taking bearings in bright/high glare situations and for taking the
bearing of the Sun at sunrise/sunset. The alignment of the lubber's line to ship's
head should be checked frequently and adjusted if necessary.

Fig 7-1. The Admiralty Pattern Azimuth Circle

Black Reflecting Mirror

Shade Glasses Lubbers Point / Line

Azi!nuth Circle
Verge Ring

Binnacle (or 'Pelorus' if at

Primary Conning Position)

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Fig 7-2. Taking a Bearing

Note. The azimuth circle does not have to be aligned to the object for an
accurate bearing to be taken.

b. The 'New' Pattern Commercial-Type Azimuth Circle. New-build ships have

begun to be fitted with a newer, commercial-type azimuth circle which utilises an
arrangement in which the mark is viewed through a box-like sighting device, fitted
with an eyepiece. Whilst in theory this should improve accuracy, personnel familiar
with the older-style azimuth circles find the new style of device takes some getting
used to, but in terms of overall performance there is little to choose between the two
systems. There are a number of different models which may be encountered but all
are fundamentally similar in operation and performance.

Fig 7-3. Newer 'Commercial-Type' Azimuth Circle

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c. Periscopes and Other Observation Devices. Ships may be fitted with
deckhead periscopes for observation and taking visual bearings; these may off the
benefits of increased arcs of visibility, unobstructed by elements of the bridge
structure. Submarines use their periscopes/optronics masts for taking visual
bearings (amongst other tasks), and indeed the optical characteristics and precision
of the periscope/optronics mast make it possible to take extremely accurate
bearings of objects.

d. Bearing Transmission Systems. With paper charts, the fix was reliant upon
the bearing(s) being remembered or otherwise recorded by the fix plotter, usually
using paper and pencil. They were then transferred to the chart and plotted with a
pencil and parallel ruler. The introduction of WECDIS and high-precision optical
devices means that it is now possible, with the appropriate systems, to 'cut' bearings
from the pelorus/periscope etc through to WECDIS for them to be automatically
plotted. Such systems may be expected to be fitted to new-build platforms such as
Type 26 from build, and to be retrofitted to other platforms in due course. Such
systems should improve both the speed and accuracy of fixes.

0706. Methods of Obtaining a Position Line

There are a number of methods of obtaining a visual position line which may be
used for a fix. They are listed below. Note that each method only produces a single position
line; multiple position lines are required for a fix.

• Compass bearing
• Relative bearing
• Transit of two (or more) fixed objects
• Horizontal angle (by compass or sextant)
• Radar range
• Range by distance meter (from object of known height}
• Range by rangefinder
• Range by sextant angle (vertical or horizontal)
• Soundings
• Astronomical observation
• Sonar range
• Rising or dipping range (from object of known height)
• Horizon method of rangefinding

a. Compass Bearing. To generate a position line by compass bearing, the

bearing should be taken visually. Radar bearings are inherently less accurate
(significantly so) and so should not normally be used unless in extremis when no
other practical alternative exists. The object used for the bearing should be carefully
considered. When taking a visual bearing of the edge of an object, it is best to use a
vertical edge if at all possible; the height of tide must be taken into account if the
bearing of a sloping edge of land is used, as the charted edge will be the
MHWS/MHHW line (or mean sea level in areas where there are no tides). Edges of
land can be used but require care in WECDIS to ensure that they are plotted
correctly. Whilst normally it will be true bearings which are used, WECDIS is fully
capable of working with magnetic bearings if required .

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b. Relative Bearing. A position line may be calculated from a relative bearing

when added to or subtracted from the true bearing of ship's head; if ship's head is
not correctly recorded at the time of taking the bearing then significant inaccuracies
are likely to occur. This technique will be of limited utility but may be valuable when
the gyro compass is operating correctly but the repeat or azimuth circle is somehow
defective. Fig 7-4 below illustrates this technique. At the time of taking the bearing ,
the object bears GREEN 60; if ship's head is 030° then the true bearing of the object
must be 090°.

Fig 7-4. Generating a Position Line by Relative Bearing

~.
~.
,.,, C!i.'

~so•

True Bearing of Object =30°+&0° =90° =090°

c. Transit of Two Fixed Objects. If two fixed objects are seen to be in line with
one another ('in transit') then, by definition, the observer must be located on an
extension of the line joining them. For fix purposes, because of the lack of ambiguity
in the position line and the fact that it is based on two objects, a transit may be
considered to be two position lines; thus a fix may be achieved with a transit and
one other cross-bearing. In order to be considered 'sensitive', ideally the distance
between the observer and the nearer of the two objects should not be more than
three times the distance between the objects. However, less sensitive transits may
still be used with sufficient caution.

Fig 7-5. Position Line Generated by Two Objects in Transit

, t I ___ f__!_________ f
Ideally, for good 'sensitivity', distance between ship and nearer object
should be no more than 3 times distance between objects.

On an ENC, a charted transit will be depicted by a dashed line, including arrows and
the bearing if a leading line (see NP5012 Section M1.2). On an ARCS chart, the
transit will be similarly marked but the line will solid for a leading line, and there may
be explanatory text ('beacons in line ' or similar). See Chart 5011 Section M for
details. Transits may be of use in fixes, keeping clear of dangers, checking for
compass errors, and when assessing movement when turning at rest or berthing. In
the latter two cases, the objects need not be charted as the NO/OOW may pick
'natural transits' that are readily available such as between a building and a bollard
on the jetty, or a stand of trees, or anything else that is readily identifiable and
provides visual cues as to relative movement. Note as well that charted bridges or
other linear overhead features such as power lines or cables may be used as
transits as once again the ship must be positioned along a certain line.
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d. Horizontal Angle (Obtained by Compass or Sextant). A position line may be

generated if the horizontal angle between two objects, as measured at the ship, is
known. This is because the angles subtended by a chord in the same segment of a
circle are equal; thus, if the angle between two objects is measured, the observer
must lie on the arc of a circle on which both objects also lie. This is illustrated in Fig
7-6 below.

;~,
Fig 7-6. Position Line by Horizontal Angle

I \, ' ', ' , ',, / I '

,
\
\
'' ....
'' ,,.
,,,,.,,,,.
/
/
I
'
\
\ ' ......... .,,.,,, / I I
\ \ ', ', ,,,,..,,. // I
\ ' ', .,,.,,, / I I
\ ' ',..:' / I
\
\ ' .,,.,,. ....... / I I
\ \ ', ,,,,.,,,.,,,,. ', // I
\
, - .... ,
'....
,,,,.""\
.... ..... /
,--,
I I
\so~ . . "' ', // '(~0°/
" .; ', / The observer is on a Position Line
••\ ; ~ , which Is the arc of the circle ABC,
......•·· , ,so•/-., along which the angle between
...•···· / A and C is always so•. HSAs
Dangerous Wreck ··· may_be used as 'Danger Angles' .

In Fig 7-6 above, the angle measured between objects A and C is 80°. The ship
must therefore lie somewhere on the arc ABC, along which the angle between A and
C is always 80. In the special case where A and C are on the diameter of the circle
then the ship may lie anywhere on a circle and not just an arc of a circle. The angle,
as measured by a sextant, may be used as a danger angle to keep the ship clear of
a danger - see Para 1313 for an example of how to achieve this.

e. Range by Distance Meter (Object of Known Height). A distance meter is a

device which operates on the same principles as a vertical sextant angle (VSA), in
that if the height of an object is known then it is straightforward to measure one's
range from the object by measuring the angle to the top of the object. In the case of
a distance meter, the height of the object is set on the instrument and then range
may be read off directly from it. In general these instruments are only accurate at
relatively short ranges; see BRd 45(3) for details of the optical distance meter's in
use in the RN.

f. Range by Rangefinder. Optical rangefinders use basic trigonometric and

optical principles to determine the range of an object. Critically, they do not depend
upon the height of the object being known. Once in widespread naval use, none are
currently in RN service. Laser rangefinders have largely replaced optical
rangefinders in the modern age, but concerns over eye-safety, attenuation when
used in wet weather and from enclosed bridges have prevent handheld systems
from being introduced into RN service. They may be found as part of fire control
systems, in which case they are capable of generating extremely accurate ranges
from conspicuous objects.

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g. Range by VSA/HAS (Base of the Object Visible to the Observer). A position
line may be obtained from the vertical sextant angle (VSA) of an object whose base
is visible to the observer, by multiplying the height of the object by the cotangent
of the observed angle BAG. If the height is not known, then an alternative
calculation is possible using the width of the object (if known).

Distance = Vi$ible height of object X cot(observed angle)

OR

t width of object X 360

DiS ance = 2rr x observed angle (in degrees)

(1) Position Line. The derived position line (fro~ either o~ the me~hods) will
be the circumference of a circle, centred on the obJect (B), with the distance as
radius.

(2) Danger Angle. A VSA may be used as a horizontal or vertical danger

angle in order to clear a danger.

(3) Charted Height/Elevation and Height of Tide Correction. The charted

height or elevation of an object is usually above MHWS or MHHW, so it must be
corrected for the height of tide (HOT) at the time of fix. If this correction is not
made, the calculated distance will be less than the true distance i.e. safer.

(4) Charted Elevation and Height of Structure. The charted elevation of a

lighthouse is taken from MHWS or MHHW to the centre of the lens and not to
the top of the structure. Heights of light structures (base to top) are tabulated in
the Admiralty List of Lights and Fog Signals (ALLFS).

(5) Norie's Nautical Tables. Norie's tables solve the triangle for ranges
between one cable and seven miles and heights between seven metres and
600 metres.

(6) Shoreline Errors. Angle a in Fig 7-7 below is BOE but, prov_ided th_e
shoreline distance DC is greater than elevation H (BE) and elevat10n H 1s
greater than the shoreline-object distance (CE), no appreciable error arises from
using BAG (a') instead of BOE.

Fig 7-7. Vertical Sextant Angle (VSA)- Base of Object Visible to the Observer

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Notes.

1. If the object observed (B) is vertically over the shoreline C and object
distance DE is greater than elevation H (BE), the error in position will be less

0 than the observer's height of eye. Except in the case of very large ships
therefore it is not likely to be significant.
2. If the object is not vertically over the shoreline (as in Fig 7-7 above),
provided the shoreline distance DC is greater than elevation H and elevation
H is greater than the shoreline-object distance (CE) the error in position is
less than three times the observer's height of eye.

0707. The Transferred Position Line

Sometimes, it will be necessary to transfer or 'run on' a position line, by transposing
it to a future position along the ship's track, allowing for tidal stream/current if known. This is
a key component to astro-navigation fixes (both star sights and techniques such as Sun-
Run-Sun - see BRd 45(2)), but it can also be used when there is a paucity of available fixing
marks (a 'running fix') or as an alternative method to keep clear of danger or when making a
wheelover into an ill-defined port or anchorage. Whilst the technique was derived for use
with paper charts, the inherent accuracy of the WECDIS DR/EP, and its extremely accurate
plotting, make this a powerful technique when used with WECDIS. WECDIS (and other
software packages such as NavPac) will automatically run on position lines when required,
and indeed will also 'run back' when required if historic times are entered for position lines.

a. Running On. The basic principle of running on a position line is illustrated

below in Fig 7-8. The ship is on course 090° at 8 knots. At 1600, the lighthouse is
observed to bear 035°. There is no tidal stream or wind. When the first bearing is
entered into WECDIS, it will generate a position line extending from the lighthouse
on a bearing of 215° (the reciprocal of the observed bearing). The ship must be
somewhere on that line (assuming no other errors), but no more than that can be
determined by the bearing alone. Assume position A is the ship's DR/EP for 1600.
To run on the position line for say 30 minutes, the ship's track is projected on for 30
minutes run (i.e. 4 miles) and the position line is plotted again, parallel to the
original, passing through B, the ship's EP for 1630. On a paper chart, transferred
position lines were shown with a double arrowhead, but in WECDIS they are shown
originating from a 'reference point track' which replicates own ship's course and
speed. This is illustrated further below.

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Fig 7-8. Running On a Position Line (No Tidal Stream, Wind or Current)

090°. 4·

1600 1630
(Initial Position Line) (Transferred Position Line - No Tidal Stream)

b. Running on a Position Line with Tidal Stream (or Wind or Current). In

reality, in many cases the ship will be affected by tidal stream (or wind or current). If
so, then provided it can be measured with a reasonable degree of accuracy, then
the run-on position line should take into account the effects of tidal stream i.e. it
must be run on through the EP and not just the DR. WECDIS will do this
automatically if tidal stream data is entered into it. In the above example, if tidal
stream was known to be running 132° at 1.7 knots, then the EP would be adjust by
the tidal stream vector BK. Thus the transferred position line would run through K
rather than B.

Fig 7-9. Running On a Position Line with Tidal Stream

090°. 4·

1630
1600 (Transferred Position Line - With Tidal Stream)
(Initial Position Line)

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0708. The Running Fix

A running fix takes advantage of the transferred position line to generate a fix
utilising only a single mark. The accuracy of a running fix is fundamentally dependent on the
accurate assessment of the ship's course and speed (water track) and the drift/set (effect of
wind, tidal stream and current) experienced over the period. Generally the biggest single
source of error is likely to be the inaccurate assessment of set and drift. A running fix is very
straightforward to achieve in WECDIS; the first bearing is marked as usual. After an
appropriate interval, the mark is re-observed, and the new bearing entered with the correct
time. WECDIS automatically runs on the first position line and replots it; this procedure can
be repeated as many times as required in order to generate a good fix, but in theory a
running fix can be achieved with just two observations. The standard running fix is illustrated
in Fig 7-10 below, but WECDIS is well able to cope with alterations in course and speed
provided that it is either connected to the log and gyro, or alterations are entered manually
(via 'ordered course and speed') at the right time.

Fig 7-10. Standard Running Fix

1630 (Second Position Line - 295°)

1600 1630
(Initial Position Line) (Transferred Position Line - With Tidal Stream)

0709. Selection and Use of Visual Marks

The principle of a visual fix is simple: if, at the same time, bearings are obtained
from two different objects whose position is accurately known, then the ship's position must
lie at the point where the two different position lines intersect. In order to identify any errors,
it is in practice essential that a third bearing is taken at the same time; in theory it will pass
precisely through the same point as the other two. This is then known as a 'three point fix'.
In practice of course, due to minor (or major) errors all the way through the fix chain, from
the gyro, to the pelorus, to the eye of the individual taking the bearing, to the charted position
of the object etc, and crucially due to the fact that it is almost impossible to take the bearings
at exactly the same time, the three lines will seldom cross in precisely the same place, and
the result will be a 'cocked hat' (see Para 0711 for more on the cocked hat). The guidance
and procedures below have been developed over many years as 'best practice' to give the
best possible results in a real ship at sea.

a. Choosing Marks. It stands to reason that an essential pre-requisite for a mark

to be used in a visual fix is that it is both visually identifiable from the ship, and that
its physical location is charted. Where possible, marks should be ahead of the ship,
and visible from the same repeater. A minimum of three marks are required for a fix;
where possible, a fourth should be included as a 'shoot up' for the next fix.

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(1 ). Bearing Separation. The chosen marks should be well separated in

bearing, with a minimum angle of cut of 30°. Fig 7-11 below illustrates the
difference in position caused by an error of 5° with two cuts of go• (AB) and 20°
(CO). Ideally, when three marks are taken, they should be 60° apart with two
objects go• apart.

(2) Effect of Range. The closer the object, the less will be the difference in
position resulting from any error in the bearing.

(3) Same Circle. The marks and ship should not be on the circumference of
the same circle, because any unknown compass error will NOT be revealed
when the bearings are plotted.

(4) Channels. When navigating in channels on older charts, marks should be

selected from one side only in order to avoid any possible discrepancy arising

a
from any different geographical datums in use on opposite sides of the channel.

Note. Many ENC products are still based on old survey data; even the most
'recent' ENC may in fact be a ve,y old chart. The guidance above therefore
applies to ENCs/ARCs, and NOs must continue to inspect the chart including
the source data di~am/CA TZOC information as a matter of routine.

Fig 7-11. Effect of a 5° Error on Different Fixes with Different Angles of Cut

Object

s• bearing error causes much

greater distance error when
the angle of cut is small

-- - ----5° Bearing Errors,, ', , ,,

-- j__!J.!'l!!:ll'lll-j
In Transit

b. Fixing Procedure. The normal procedure for taking a fix is given below. It can
be carried out by a single operator (i.e. the OOW in a ship or the POOW (Nav) in a
submarine), and from start to finish should be achieved in less than one minute. If
there is a spare hand available to enter the data into WECDIS, then the process can
be achieved very quickly indeed .

Select three or four marks from the WECDIS display, ensuring they are
• available as reference points in WECDIS, including any additional marks to
be 'shot-up'.
Check the 'lookout' bearings of each mark from the ship's current position
•
inWECDIS.
Positively identify the marks, using binoculars if necessary. If there is any
• doubt, confirm them by transit or by shooting up from a previous fix.
Bring up the fix dialogue in WECDIS (F5).
•
Mark the first bearing in WECDIS, and then record all bearings. A locally
• produced notebook may be used, or an alternative methods such as OOW
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stateboard . Take marks with slow bearing movement first (i.e.
ahead/astern) and those with rapid movement (abeam) last.
Enter the bearings into WECDIS, ensuring that the correct fix type is
•
selected along with the object reference {A, B, C etc).
View the fix on the WECDIS chart display and review based on the current
•
WECDIS position, soundings etc.
If the fix is reasonable, place the fix, and review the ship's position
•
including distance and time to run to the next wheel-over (if applicable). Is
the ship safe?
If necessary, re-fix and in extremis, stop the ship or alter into safe water.
•

ii
Note. In the fix dialogue box it is possible to alter a reference object's
position. This feature is extremely useful when using (for example) an edge
of land to fix off. It can also be used when a reference object's charted
position is incorrect.

c. Placing the Fix. In WECDIS, when the data for each LOP is entered , it is
plotted by the system. WECDIS checks the LOPs against reference point and LOP
criteria, and if the fix appears reasonable will place a fix marker where ECPINS
considers the ship to have been at the time of the fix (the computed most probable
position). If the fix fails the test, WECDIS will display an estimated position (EP)
icon instead, which is for information only; the ship's position is not adjusted in
WECDIS based on an EP. When the fix is reviewed, the operator has the option of
accepting the WECDIS computed MPP, or manually adjusting the position based on
the plotted LOPs, or rejecting the fix altogether. If the fix is poor, and time and
safety allows, it is usually better to re-fix rather than inject a poor quality fix based on
the operator's best guess of where the ship is based on a large cocked hat. Placing
a fix (whether MPP or manual) updates various values within WECDIS, but if the
primary position source is GPS/dGPS it will not necessarily move the ship's primary
position on the chart.

d. Identifying Marks. The OOW/NO must plan ahead and positively identify any
marks which are to be used for fixing , as marks in pilotage, or for safety (clearing
bearings etc). A clearing bearing is useless if the mark it is based on is not
located or wrongly identified. This should be a continuous process as the ship
moves along the coast, or as day changes into night. Chimneys, flagstaffs and
radio masts are notorious for having been demolished and/or re-built in
slightly different locations without the charting authority having been
informed; such marks should be treated with particular caution until their
position has been confirmed. There are several different methods for identifying
objects.

(1) By Visual Bearing from Primary Vessel Track Position (i.e. DR/EP). If
confidence in the WECDIS held position is good (i.e. stable dGPS with 'RIO
lock') then well-known or conspicuous marks may often be identified by
checking down the bearing from the ship's current position (using an EBL or the
cursor readout in WECDIS). If there is any doubt as to the accuracy of the
current posi~ion in WECDIS, or the mark is inconspicuous, it is better to confirm
the mark using one of the methods below.

7 -1.d.
 BRd 45(1)

(2) B~ Transit~. quick and useful method for positively identifying and
co~firming an Object 1s to select a bearing when it will be in transit with a known
obje~t a nd to ?bserve the bearing of both at that moment. This can often be the
opening bearing when the object comes into transit with an edge of land.
Com_pass err~r must be allowed for, as reliance is being placed on only a single
bearing, and if doubt remains, another transit bearing will provide a second cut·
if necessary, the mark must be proved from a fix. '

(3) By Fix. When taking a fix, an additional bearing of an unknown object

may be taken at the same time.

e. Poor Fixes. If the fix does not fit (i.e. a large cocked hat arises), it must not be
fudged. This is both dishonest and dangerous. In theory, the fix may be re-
worked to eliminate known errors but this is a time-consuming process which is not
easy to carry out in WECDIS; otherwise, a new fix should be attempted. If RIO
shows that the WECDIS primary position source remains valid, then poor fixes
should only be injected into WECDIS with great caution and if there is an
overwhelming need to do so. Otherwise, a new fix should be attempted. If there is
any doubt whatsoever as to the ship's position with respect to nearby danger,
the ship should be turned into safe water or stopped using astern power (as
appropriate), and the ship's position positively confirmed before proceeding.
This may dent the NO or OOW's pride, but better that than a dent (or worse) in the
ship's hull from a subsequent grounding. Do not forget that the Captain must be
called immediately in such situations, even if they are swiftly resolved.

f. Geolocating of Uncharted Objects. It will sometimes be the case that an

object on the shore or a buoy or other marker is visible from the ship but not shown
on the chart. If so, the object may be geolocated using a series of bearings taken at
the time of fixes, and plotted using an appropriate manual correction in WECDIS.
Alternatively, transits may be used in exactly the same way as when identifying a
mark. Once three bearings/transits cross, then provided they do not produce a
cocked hat, the object may be considered geolocated and it may be used for fixing
the ship, provided that any errors involved in the geolocation process are accou~ted
for. Note that RIO will also provide a good indication as to whether or not the object
has been correctly position on the chart. Buoys may be shot-up in this m~nner to
confirm that their charted position is correct, but they should be used with great
caution when fixing.

7-15
BRd 45(1)

Fig 7-12. Establishing the Position of an Uncharted Buoy from Fixes

Q 1000

\
\
\
!/ [!] \
\

........~
\
Note. Ship Fixed from known charted
objects, with 'Shoot-up' bearings taken
at each Fix and plotted from the Fix ........ \
!Q the buoy, to establish its position.
+church

,,, ,,, ,,,

,,,
,,, ,,, leeacon

Fig 7-13. Establishing the Position of an Uncharted Buoy from Transits

Q
! / [!]
Note. Buoy's position established ''
by transits of charted objects.
''
Fixes (except at 1000) omitted
from diagram for clarity. ,,, '' Jetty

-----#-- -+Church
,,, ,,, ' '
,,," '
,,,,,,""~ ~Beacon

0710. Adjustment of Fixes for Compass Error

Whenever a fix does not work, the first check should be that the right reference
objects were selected, and that the bearings were entered correctly. If so, then the cause of
the problem may be a compass error.

a. Compass Error Checks. If it is suspected that the cocked hat was caused by
a compass error, first check that any known corrections have been applied correctly,
and that the errors have been correctly entered into WECDIS .

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( 1) Gyro Errors. Check that gyro error corrections have been applied in the
correct sense i.e. if the gyro reads HIGH, subtract the error from the observed
bearing. If the gyro reads LOW, add the error.

(2) Magnetic Variation and Deviation. If magnetic bearings are being used,
check which mode WECDIS is operating in. In magnetic bearings mode,
WECDIS automatically applies magnetic variation, using either data supplied by
a connected compass or the NGOC World Geomagnetic Model. Check that the
variation has not been applied twice.

b. Checking for Gyro Error and Magnetic Deviation. If not known, or believed o
be incorrect, the gyro error/magnetic deviation may be checked using any of the
following methods.

(1) Transit. The compass bearing of two charted objects may be checked
when they are in transit, and the true or magnetic bearing read off WECDIS.
The difference between the observed and charted bearing will be the gyro error
or magnetic deviation. Note that the sensitivity of the transit will be a factor
here.

(2) Bearing of a Distant Object. This is best conducted when the ship is
stationary, either at anchor or at an alongside berth in a known location. If the
ship is fixed accurately by a method not relying on compass bearings (e.g.
horizontal sextant angles), then the observed bearing of a distant object may
then be compared with the bearing from WECDIS and the error calculated.
Using the radian rule, 0.5° subtends approximately 100 yards at six nautical
miles. Therefore, if the ship's position is known to an accuracy of 100 yards, the
compass error may be established to an accuracy of 0.5° using an object six
nautical miles away.

(3) True Bearing of a Heavenly Body. The true bearing of a heavenly body
may be calculated using NavPac (or any of the other methods in BRd 45(2))
and the compass bearing checked,

(4) Reduction of the Cocked Hat. If it is believed that the cocked hat is due
to gyro error alone, then the cocked hat may be reduced and error established
that way. See Para 0710 sub para c below.

(5) Reciprocal Compass Checks. Recip:ocal com_pass checks may be

carried out with other ships prior to conducting replenishment at sea (RAS)
operations or similar close stationing operations.

• f th c ked Hat With WECDIS, it is very straightforward to use

c. Reduction o e oc · . ) •
• • dt t bl'ish a fixed compass error. Simply add (or subtract 1
an 1terat1ve metho o es a . . ('
. b the re-plotted fix. Provided that a systemic 1.e. non-
to each bearing and o serve . b
' · t on all three bearings, then the compass error may e
random) compass _error_ ex1s s ss of refining its size and direction. The process is
established by an 1terat1ve proce
illustrated in Fig 7-14 below.

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BRd 45(1)
Fig 7-14. Reducing the Cocked Hat by Iteration

.
'"
EXPLANATION
"
",, Initial Fix (Cocked Hat)
",,,, A 342½0
,,,, B 048°
,,
C 094°
0,)"\,, \
3 ,,, ,
,,,, Corrected Fix
A 345½0
'''' B 051°
'' '' C 097°
'' ''
''
' ' Gyro Error 3° Low
'' ''
' .
'' ''
Corrected Fix, \ '.
(Outside the ··, .. \ '. 3• ,
Cocked Hat) ' ··, ' \-¥. . , ., . •'

··, .., .., .., .., .. :</

' ··
094~ ,s,,'( 'f'\_ ------- ------ -- 3•
.;, \ -<::-< -- -- --- - ------~~--- - -----
--_
, . ___c
342~~----.......... Initial Fix -;_;;t;:: ==-

d. Fix Position Relative to the Cocked Hat. There is no reason at all why the
ship's true position has to be inside the cocked hat, as illustrated in Fig 7-14 above.
It may be dangerous to assume that the ship's position will always be inside a
cocked hat.

0711. Action on Obtaining a Cocked Hat

The determination as to whether any given cocked hat is 'large' or 'small' is
subjective, and must be based on the proximity to danger, the ship's speed , and the
prevailing conditions. In any case, the OOW/NO should avail themselves of any extra
sources of information which might help them determine the ship's position, including the
sounding and monitoring of clearing bearings. Noting the danger which may arise from
always assuming that the ship's true position will lie within the cocked hat, the following
actions should be taken. Do not forget that QRRNs and CSOs are explicit that the
Captain MUST be called if there is any doubt as to the navigation of the ship.

a. Small Cocked Hat. If the cocked hat is 'small' and the ship is not judged to be
in danger, the centre of the cocked hat may usually be taken as the ship's position ,
without undue risk.

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b. Large Cocked Hat. If the cocked hat is large and it seems clear that the same
error is NOT applicable to each bearing, then either the fix position should be taken
as the corner of the cocked hat closest to danger (taking the ship's subsequent
movements into account), or the fix should be disregarded and reliance placed on
the DR/EP or other position sensor until another fix is achieved. In either case, it is
imperative that a new fix is taken as soon as possible. If the ship is in the vicinity
of immediate danger, or is potentially in such a position, then it should be
turned into safe water or stopped using astern power (as appropriate) until the
certainty about its position can be resolved.

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SECTION 2- RADAR

0712. Use of Radar for Navigation

Radar is one of the modern navigator's most fundamental tools. This Section
discuss the practical use of radar in navigation; see Chapter 8 Section 2 for details of the
theory of radar operation, and BRd 45(3) for technical details and operating instructions for
radars in use in the RN and RFA. This Section also concentrates on the use of standalone
radar sets, but the reader must remember that the radar image overlay (RIO) feature in
WECDIS is one of its most powerful tools, and this is discussed in Para 0717. In navigation,
as opposed to collision avoidance, it should be remembered that whereas visual systems
(pelorus, periscope etc) give very accurate bearings, radar is used for ranges, and radar
bearings should be used with great caution in fixing etc.

a. Radar Setup. The accuracy of navigation using radar depends fundamentally

on two things: the physical characteristics of the radar set itself, and the correct
operation of the controls, which includes the correct calibration and adjustment of
the display. Use of long range air search radar for navigation will give inferior results
to those obtained when using dedicated navigation radar. When configuring the
radar, particular attention should be paid to the items detailed below.

(1) Centring/Focus. When using the display in the 'centred' mode, the
central spot should be correctly aligned in the display centre. The display
should be correctly focussed.

(2) Distance Units for Navigation. Radar displays being used for navigation
sh0uld be set up to read in nautical miles (1852 metres) and not in tactical miles
(200 yards) or any other variant of distance unit. The current index error of the
radar should be noted on each display.

(3) Vid~o Gain and Suppression Controls. The radar's gain and any
s~ppression c~ntrols \eg swept gain, differentiation and clipping, although
different sets v.:111 use different terminology) should be used to adjust the picture
and remove rain and sea clutter and side/back lobe echoes but care must be
taken. not
f to. suppress
. any sma 11 contacts. Some sets will' have an automatic
turnng unction·, 1f used , 1 ·t must be used with
. caution and the set continually
hecked to ensure it is sho ·
cneed .
to be adjusted th wing a good picture. In any case, the controls will
strength of any echoeas te wedather and sea state changes, and based on the
s re urne from a target.

b. Radar and the lnternation I R I .

(IRPCS). The IRPCS s t· a egu ations for Preventing Collision at Sea
' ome imes known as th COLREG
Road', refer to radar both im licitl an . . e S or the 'Rule of the
1
to say that it was treated wit~ a fJr ded ~explicitly. ~ _the early days of radar, it is fair
of 'radar-assisted collisions' su h g e of suspicion and mistrust, with much talk
th
incident in 1956. Since then ~s e ANDREA DORIA and STOCKHOLM
bridge, and the IRPCS reflect ;~a~r Sas ~ome to be a key element of the modern
45(4) for a fuller discussion of the IR P6se~1fic Rules are discussed below; see BRd
rom the Royal Navy perspective.

(1) . Rule~ - Look-Out. In Rule 5, the ' .

not Just a visual look-out but m . t . . phrase all available means' includes
f • ain aining situ t' I
0 systems such as radar AIS VHF I' . a _iona awareness through the use
' , ' istening (including sonar if fitted).
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(2) Rule 6 - Safe Speed. For vessels with operational radar, Rule 6b lists
additional factors which must be taken into account when determining safe
speed .

(3) Rule .7 - Risk . of Collision. RuIe 7b requires . that proper use be made of
ra d ar equipment
. tf fitted and opera t·tonal, ·including
· long-range scanning and
sy st~ma~,c observation/plotting of contacts (this would include the use of ARPA
tracking
. . tn the
. modern age rathe r th an ch'Inograph plots on a reflector plotter or
s1m1lar
. techniques)
. · Rule
. 7c wa rns against
· · dec1s1ons
making · · based on scanty
or incomple_te tnformat1on, especially scanty radar information· this is particularly
0

the case wi~h ARPA radar~, where the IMO-mandated accu racy requirements
may result tn contacts being plotted with potentially dangerously misleading
information (see BRd 45(3)).

(4) Rule 8 - Action to Avoid Collision. Rule Sb warns that any manoeuvre
should be large enough to be readily apparent to another vessel observing
visually or by radar. A succession of small alterations should be avoided.

(5) Rule 19 - Conduct of Vessels in Restricted Visibility. Rule 19d directs

that when a vessel is detected by radar alone, the detecting vessel must
determine whether or not a close-quarters situation is developing and/or risk of
collision exists. Guidance on subsequent manoeuvring action then follows.

c. Other Vessel's Use of Radar. It must not be assumed that all other vessels
are fitted with operational radar, or that if fitted it is being operated correctly. Too
many maritime incident reports still describe ships proceeding at sea with radars
defective, or switched off, or simply configured utterly incorrectly for safe navigation.

0713. Range Errors and Corrections

a. Radar Index Error. A radar's index error is the difference between the range
as measured by radar and the true range to the target. Radar range is intrinsically a
function of time 0 and is measured from the radar's aerial (which may be displaced
considerably fro m the navigation bridge). All radar sets are different, but in principle
any or all of the following factors may contribute to the index error. See Para 0713
sub para X below for details of how to measure the index error.

(1) Transmitter (Tx) to Aerial (Ae). In older radars in which the radar pulse
is transmitted from the radar office along a waveguide to the aerial, this distance
may be considerable and thus the Tx to Ae is a mat_ erial consideration. In more
modern 'all up-mast' radars the waveguide is eliminated and so the Tx to Ae
distance is negligible.
• t· The time between reception of the synchronisation
(2) Synch ronisa I0n. .
• t· base generator and the start of the timebase scan.
pulse at the d1sp 1ay Ime
. Iver (Rx). This is the time take for a pulse to travel
(3) Aerial (Ae) to Rec~ er Again in up-mast radars this may be negligible.
from the aerial to the receiv · '
• t ke for the target echo pulse to pass through the
(4) Rx Delays. The time a .
receiver and be applied to the radar display.
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(5) Software and Network Displays. In modern software-driven radars, an

element of index error may arise from the way the software and various
hardware/software components operate such as Ethernet LAN, video cards and
so on.

(6) Accounting for Index Error. Radar index error is not constant and every
opportunity should be taken to obtain a check for each range scale; after each
check, the updated index error should be marked on each display. Allowance
may have to be made for any range difference between the aerial and fixing
position (usually the centreline pelorus on the bridge), but if WECDIS is
correctly configured then sensor offset distances are accounted for
automatically. The index error should be applied to all fixes and parallel indices.

b. Other Sources of Range Errors. In addition to the index error, there are
several other sources of range errors, which mainly arise from either the physical
nature of the target or from the radar operator's technique.

(1) Object's Reflecting Properties. Range errors may arise due to the
reflecting properties of different objects and their angle of incidence to the radar
beam. For example, vertical granite cliffs will give a much stronger echo than a
sloping sandy beach.

(2) Intertidal Areas. When comparing the radar picture to the chart,
allowance must be made for the height of tide (HOT) in intertidal areas (areas
which cover and uncover depending on the HOT). As the HOT changes on a
sloping shore, the appearance of the radar picture may be very different from
that indicated on the WECDIS display. This should also be taken into account
when assessing RIO in such areas.

(3) Operator Technique - Choice of Range Scales and Pulse Length.

Provided that all the required objects can be displayed, the shortest possible
range scale should be used for ranging (i.e. the 3 nautical mile range scale is
preferable to the 6 nautical mile range scale). If the display allows it, off-
centring the display may enable all necessary ranges to be taken at a better
range scale than would have been possible if the display remained centred .
The operator should always use the shortest practicable pulse length, and
should always range on the near side of the echo.

ii
Note. Whilst the principle is that the operator should always use the shortest
practicable pulse length, the operator MUST understand how the pulse
length selection control works on the particular set in use. This is because
the control may be closely related to the range scale in use, and may have
implications for Ops Room use of the radar and the combat svstem.

c. Establishing the Index Error from WECDIS. If the ship is alongside in a

harbour and radar conspicuous objects are available (and not masked by other
ships or structures etc) then ranges of objects by WECDIS may be compared with
the radar ranges to determine the index error.

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d. The Two-Mark Method. The two-mark method may be used if two radar-
conspicuous objects are available, the range between them is known accurately
from WECDIS, and the ship is proceeding directly between the marks. This occurs
in a number of standard pilotages eg when proceeding 'between the forts' when
departing Portsmouth. The method is illustrated in Fig 7-15 below.

Fig 7-15. Establishing the Radar Index Error by the Two-Mark Method

Track of Ship

___ A _ Rang!& taken when the__ JB __ _

radar aerial Is on this line

a--------- b----

As the ship crosses between points A and B, simultaneous radar ranges are taken
of both points. Both radar ranges included the index error (by definition). AB is the
charted distance between the two points (read off from WECDIS), a is the radar
range from own ship to A, b the radar range from own ship to B. Thus:

~it =·iz + lkitex en:tJT--Hb,+ t1ldei ~b.'r,

~~~'.iiiti~l,b [Link] =NJ "7'(~,+ h)
' ~ ,- (4 +1!)
~,e~ "Pr=;' i
e. The Three-Mark Method. If three well-charted, radar-conspicuous objects are
situated around the ship, they may be used to determine the index error.
Simultaneous ranges of all three objects are taken, and if the range arcs are plotted
in WECDIS and produce a 'radar cocked hat', then the index error is the radius of
the circle drawn tangential to the three range arcs. This is illustrated in Fig 7-16
below. This procedure is perfectly possible in WECDIS but will be slightly tricky to
perform.

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Fig 7-16. Establishing Radar Index Error by the Three-Mark Method

Ao
C

·---- Radius of Circle= Index Error

f. The HSA Method. If the shoreline and configuration of marks allow, then this
method may be utilised underway. It involves running on a transit with a third fixing
mark available on the beam (see Fig 7-17 below). A table of true ranges of the
radar mark against the HSAs should be compiled in advance, and then radar ranges
read off as the HSAs are measured . The differences between true and radar ranges
should then be averaged to obtain the mean, which is then the index error. This
method requires a competent sextant operator, and care must always be taken
when driving directly towards land.

Fig 7-17. Establishing Radar Index Error by the HSA Method

Mark in Transit

Radar Conspic Mark

_.Fixing
~<;:-l
...-;_,,,"' Mark

---
4 Mile Circle ._ ....

~~~:,::-~~>/
____
.:,
--- ....
5 Mlle Circle .....

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g. The Two-~hip Method. The two-ship method makes use of the 'double echo'
which radars will usually produce when two ships are proceeding in line abreast at
close range, as illustrated in Fig 7-18 below. Due to the way the radar operates, the
range between own ship and the consort echo includes the index error, but the
range between the consort and the false echo will not. This, in Fig 7-18, A includ~s
index error but B does not, and the difference between this and the radar range A 1s
the index error.

Fig 7-18. Establishing Radar Index Error by the Two-Ship Method

Centre of
True
Display False
Echo

i
Echo
A
B

II
C ,

B (True Range) = C-A Therefore, Index Error = B-A = C-2A

h. The Three-Ship Method. Three ships proceed in line abreast, and

simultaneously measure the range of each from one another. Ship A provides the
true range BC, and ship C provides true range AB; thus, all three ships may
determine their respective index errors. This method is reliant on external
measurements that are not under direct control of own ship and thus must be
treated with some caution.

Fig 7-19. Establishing Radar Index Error by the Three-Ship Method

;
A B C

1
Ship A measures distance AB and AC (both include Ship A's Index Error). True Range BC = AC - AB.
Ship C measures distance BC and AC (both include Ship C's Index Error). True Range AB = AC • BC.

i. Comparison with Weapon Radar/Other Rangefinder. Weapon fire control

rad_ars typically have very precise ranging characteristics and are very accurately
calibrated. This the range by weapon radar of a common object held by both
systems may be established as a reference with which a navigation radar may be
compared to obtain its index error. Similarly, use may be made of the ranging
capabilities of GPEOD/EOD provided that safety requirements can be met for use of
the laser. When comparing navigation radar ranges with fire control ranges, care
must be taken that both sensors are referenced to the same datum, noting that
weapons and weapon sensors may not be reference to the bridge pelorus.

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j. Correcting for Radar Index Error. Once the ind~x error is found for a
particular set, it may be possible for the maintainer to adJust the set t~ reduce or
eliminate it. Otherwise, the radar index error value should be updated m WECDIS
and the tote on the display updated for manual correction by the operator for ranges
not injected into WECDIS.

0714. Bearing Errors and Corrections

a. Sources of Radar Bearing Errors. It is a fundamental feature of all radar sets

that bearing errors will almost always be present to some extent, and their
magnitude is hard to determine. Radar bearings should ALWAYS be treated with
significant caution. By the radian rule, a bearing error of 1° is equivalent to 35
yards at one nautical mile, or about one cable at six nautical miles. Sources of
bearing error are described below. Some modern radars, with computerised
displays and up-mast transceivers reduce some of these errors but they will not be
eliminated altogether.

(1) Half Beam Width Error. The horizontal beam width introduces errors and
causes a distorted picture to be displayed.

(2) Parallax (Older Radars). When curved cathode ray tube (CRT) displays
are viewed from different angles, parallax errors are introduced. Furthermore,
any separation of the plotting surface from the display surface will also generate
parallax errors (although this was significantly mitigated by the fitting of reflector
plotters). Modern displays use flat panel (or nearly flat) screens and normally
use electronic plotting for contacts and Pis, meaning that parallax errors are
negligible for modern radars.

(3) Centring. Incorrect centring of the radar display will cause errors.

(4) Inaccurate Bearing Observations. Using a longer range scale than

necessary, and thus observing bearings too close to the centre of the display
instead of near its circumference reduces the bearing accuracy of the
observations (another problem which may be mitigated in modern sets by
reading the bearing off from the cursor text box or system-specific equivalent).

(5) Equipment Limitations. Specific limitations in the set's equipment may

be another source of bearing errors. For example, there may be difficulty in
lining up the ship's head marker to an accuracy of less than 0.5° may cause
bearing errors in older radars. Any error in the gyro compass or its transmission
system will certainly cause bearing errors in any radar. Likewise, difficulty in
lining up the radar aerial on the masthead to an accuracy of less than 1° may
cause bearing errors, and backlash in the aerial training motor (for rotating
radars) may_ have a similar effect. In end-fed slotted waveguide aerials, the
radar beam Is offset from the aerial's line of sight between 0.5° and 2.5°, known
as the squint error. Squint error is at a minimum when the radar is first installed
but the oscillator frequency tends to drift with age, causing the squint error to
vary. When the magnetron is changed, the frequency will be different and this
may also produce a significant squint error.

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b. Bearing Alignment Accuracy Check. At regular intervals, when using radar

for navigation, the alignment of the radar picture and display should be checked.
Some steps may not be necessary with modern software-driven radars.

(1) Centring. Check that the radar display is centred and adjust as
necessary.

(2) Ship's Head Marker. Check that the ship's head marker is aligned with
gyro compass heading. Adjust if required - note that this will normally require
maintainer action.

(3) Compare Bearing Alignment - Method One. If possible, compare the

radar and visual bearings of a well-defined radar-conspicuous object with good
bearing discrimination characteristics, such as a small ship or isolated
lighthouse, at medium range.

(4) Compare Bearing Alignment- Method Two. If no suitable visual object

is available, compare the line of bearing between two suitable charted radar-
conspicuous objects on the radar display and in WECDIS. Objects should be
chosen to minimise half beam width error.

Fig 7-20. Checking Radar Alignment - Method Two

RADAR
CHART Transit Alignment = 035°
LHE Headland A' In transit LHE Island 'B' Alignment = 040" Error = 5° Low

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0715. Radar Frequencies . . .

The navigation radars fownd on a typical bridge will generally operate in ~ne of two
main frequency bands or wavelengths: 3cm (9 HGz, know_ n as X-band or 1-b~Ad 1n the RN)
and 10cm (3 GHz, known as S-band in the me~chant ~arine and E/F-band in t~e RN). In
general, the 3cm radar provides better resolution, whilst the 10cm radar provides better
performance in poor conditions and longer range.

a. Wavelength, Pulse Length and Beam Width. By definition, 10cm radars have
a longer wavelemgth than 3cm radars (i.e. 3.33 times greater), and thus operate at a
lower frequency. In general, 10cm radars will have a longer pulse length and
greater beam width than 3cm radars. Thus the minimum range, range and bearing
discrimination and half beam width error distortion of a 10cm radar will usually be
larger than that of a 3cm radar. By contrast, all other things being equal the 3cm
radar will usually provide a 'crisper', clearer picture of land and small contacts.

b. Sea Clutter. Due to its longer wavelength, the effect of clutter will be much less
on 10cm radars than on 3cm radars. Thus, in heavy weather, a 10cm radar will
probably give a better picture than a 3cm radar; if switched to a short pulse length
and wide bandwidth the best minimum range and range discrimination will be
obtained. Long-range detection on 10cm radar is usually better than on 3cm radars,
particularly when long pulse lengths are selected.

c. Aerial Heights. In RN warships and many other vessels, the aerial belonging
to the 10cm radar is usually positioned higher than the 3cm radar aerial (although
this is not necessarily the case). In such cases, the clutter experienced in heavy
weather by the (higher) 10cm radar, although not as intense as that on the 3cm
radar, will extend to a greater distance - compare clutter heights along axis OBA
with that along axis O1B1A1 in Fig 7-21 below. This can mean that small targets at
long range may be lost on the 10cm radar (eg at point A1) although remaining visible
on the 3cm radar (point A). However, as the range to the contact reduces and the
e~ho stren~th_ intensifies, it may appear through the clutter on the 10cm radar yet
disappear inside the much heavier clutter on the 3cm radar (such as points B and
81 ).. The implication of this is that in ships with two navigation radars, both must be
continually and carefully monitored for contacts, and their respective displays
carefully compared .

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Fig 7-21. Effect of Sea Clutter on a Small Contact on 3cm and 10cm Radars

,Sea Clutter / Small Target

Echo Return

r
at 8 /81

I3 cm Radar] Small Target

atA/A1

0 8
--+ Range

Sea Clutter/
Echo Return

r I10 cm RadarI
01 81 : A1 --+ Range
At AA1. Target Visible on 3 cm radar, but
invisible on 10 cm radar due to Sea Clutter.
At 881. Target visible on 10 cm radar, but
invisible on 3 cm radar due to Sea Clutter.

0716. Radar Fixing

The principles underpinning a radar fix are fundamentally the same as those for a
visual fix, with the sole difference being that in a radar fix ranges are used rather than
bearings (unless in extremis). In other words, at least three ranges are required, and the
marks used to range on should produce arcs of a circle with a sufficient angle of cut to
produce a good fix.

a. Three Point Radar Fix. A radar-only fix may be achieved if three ranges are
taken from radar-conspicuous points. The arcs should cross at an angle of at least
30° to ensure a good fix, and points directly opposite should be avoided. Using at
least three ranges will ensure that objects are not misidentified, ranges are not read
off incorrectly and that any unresolved index error is identified. A three point fix is
illustrated in Fig 7-22 below.

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Fig 7-22. Three Point Radar Fix

Ship's Head Chart Extract

Marker

:b,
0
0

Radar

b. Combined Visual and Radar Fix. If the local geography does not support a
'pure' visual or radar fix, then it is perfectly acceptable to combine visual bearings
and radar ranges in a single fix. Indeed , arguably it is preferable to always tie in a
three point visual or radar fix with a radar range or visual bearing as appropriate in
order to act as a gross-error check. Fig 7-23 illustrates a fix using two radar ranges
and a visual bearing, which is perfectly valid for navigation . It is always preferable to
use the visual bearing of an object as measured from the pelorus or periscope rather
than its radar bearing for the reasons discussed above .

Fig 7-23. Combined Visual and Radar Fix

Chart Extract Ship's Head

Marker
Beacon

Head of bay obscured

by headland in front'

Nearest Point
of Land (NPL) ~ -

Radar Range
(Beacon)
Radar

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c. Identification of Objects by Shoot-Up Procedure. In Fig 7-22 above, the

position of buoy D may be confirmed by taking a radar range and bearing of it at the
same time as the fix and plotting it on WECDIS. If the object is charted, then the
RIO should confirm that the object is in the correct location.

d. Fixing by Radar Range and Radar Bearing - IN EXTREMIS ONLY. In

extremis, when there is nothing else available, then a fix may be achieved by taking
the radar range and bearing of a prominent mark. In Fig 7-24 below, a ship is
proceeding in heavy fog , with a low sandy coastline which does not paint well on
radar and cannot be used safely. In this case, a 'fix' may be obtained 'in extremis'
by taking the radar range and bearing of the headline A, noting that the radar
bearing is likely to be in error due to the half beam width error inherent in all radars.
In this case, it is wise to make use of any other information including the
sounding, and other features in WECDIS such as the pool of errors function,
in order to keep the ship safe. In any case, as soon as it is possible to fix the ship
properly then the opportunity must be taken.

Fig 7-24. Fixing by Radar Range and Bearing - IN EXTREMIS ONLY

, ....
FOG .,.,,,,,'
., ,""Chart Extract
:..1 fJ"'~I 1._ ,../
~,S"\
0
C,

o ~,§ I
'</ I
\ l\ Sand
1V ounas

\C!
\ (J1 Low, flat, sandy
1
\coast (unreliable
FOG ' radarecho)
\ 0

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e. Use of Parallel Indices and Clearing Ranges. Radar parallel indices (which
are not the same as WECDIS Pis) and clearing ranges may be used to keep clear
of danger. Whilst a Pl is drawn parallel to ship's track, and is used to make a rapid
determination as to where the ship is relative to track, a clearing range is used to
keep the ship clear of danger, and need not be parallel to ship's track. Although
modern radars will tend only to be able to display the IMO-mandated minimum of
four lines (Pis, clearing ranges, dead ranges etc) which is insufficient for legacy
(radar) blind pilotage techniques, they are still a powerful tool for the OOW,
especially if GPS is denied or degraded. In Fig 7-25 below, a clearing range can be
plotted to keep the ship clear of the outlying dangers; when plotted on the radar, as
long as the land is kept at greater range than the clearing range, the ship must be
clear of the dangers. If the land touches the clearing range, then the ship is on the
clearing range and, as with a clearing bearing, must be altered away to safe water.
This technique requires the Pis and clearing ranges to be drawn on the
RADAR and NOT in WECDIS.

Fig 7-25. Using Clearing Ranges to Keep Clear of Danger

Radar
I,.:_-;"-:..-;.,
... .,
/cross Index,
;......_ Range
I I ,, 'R..._
.• ' \
I I+++/
I , •• .>
~-"
I ,; ,

I
I
r,,_,
-.: tt/ \+i
..,
I/ +i

'!f,$/ _.. ,,.• ,

,?JI r-. • -1
For ship to remain safe, the land must
lie outside the Clearing Range Pl ('R'),
JF
,....')~~
which need NOT be parallel to the track. Chart Extract
cf/
0717. Radar Image Overlay (RIO)
If the radar is operational and has been correctly connected to WECDIS, and
WECDSI is correctly configured in accordance with BRd 45(8), then WECDIS is capable of
generating a radar image overlay (RIO). This displays the (raw) radar video over the chart
image in the WECDIS chart window, and allows for rapid cross-checking of the WECDIS
primary position source. If the charted coastline and features match the RIO ('RIO lock'),
then the WECDIS position must be correct, but if they are out of alignment then the ship's
position in WECDIS may need adjusting. RIO lock is not a substitute for a formal fixing
regime, especially when in conditions of GPS denial, but formal RIO checks will allow the
OOW to extend the fix interval and to have a high degree of confidence that the ship's
position in WECDIS is correct without needing to inject a fix.

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